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UNIT – I
1.0 INTRODUCTION
• The parts classification and coding is required in a design retrieval system, and in
computer aided process planning the process routing is developed by recognizing
the specific attributes of the part and relating these attributes to the corresponding
manufacturing operations.
i. Visual inspection
ii. Production flow analysis
iii. Parts classification and coding system
• Parts classification and coding is concerned with identifying the similarities and
using these similarities to evolve a classification code.
• Similarities are of two types: design attributes (such as geometric shape and size),
and manufacturing attributes (the sequence of processing steps required to make
the part).
• In companies which employ several design engineers and manufacturing a diverse
range of products, such classifications and coding has a number of other uses.
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• One of the major benefits is avoiding the duplication of similar components. This
can result in considerable savings in terms of design cost, processing cost and
tooling cost.
• One prime necessity to realize this is to have a good design retrieval system.
• The parts classification and coding is required in a design retrieval system, and in
computer aided process planning the process routing is developed by recognizing
the specific attributes of the part and relating these attributes to the corresponding
manufacturing operations.
• A part family is a collection of parts which are similar either because of geometry
and size or because similar processing steps are required in their manufacture.
• The parts within a family are different, but their similarities are close enough to
merit their identification as members of the part family.
Parts classification and coding systems can be grouped into three general types:
• Systems in the first category are useful for design retrieval and to promote design
standardization.
• Systems in the second category are used for computer-aided process planning, tool
design, and other production related functions.
• The third category represents an attempt to combine the functions and advantages
of the other two systems into a single classification scheme.
• The types of design and manufacturing attributes typically included in
classification schemes are listed below:
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• Operation sequence
• Production time
• Batch quantity
• Production rate
• Fixtures needed
If we take a look at a machine tool manufacturing industry, large part families can be
grouped as:
• A part coding scheme consists of symbols that identify the part's design and/or
manufacturing attributes.
• The symbols in the code can be all numeric, all alphabetic, or a combination of
both types. There are three basic code Structures used in group technology
applications:
i. Hierarchical structure
ii. Chain type Structure
iii. Hybrid Structure which is a combination of the above two
i. The geometry of components (i.e., rotational, prismatic, deep drawn, sheet metal etc.)
ii. The code structure
iii. The digital representation (i.e., binary, octal, hexadecimal etc.)
iv. Material of manufacture - ferrous, non ferrous, plastics, composites
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• For process planning, it is desirable to have codes that can distinguish unique
production families.
• Some of the coding systems that have been successfully implemented in process
planning are given below:
i. OPITZ system
ii. The CODE system
iii. The KK-3 system
iv. The MICLASS system
v. DCLASS system
vi. COFORM (coding for machining)
• When implementing a parts classification and coding system, most companies can
purchase a commercially available package or develop a system for their own
specific use. Commercial systems have the advantage of less lead time in
implementation.
• Brief treatments of some commercial systems are given in subsequent section.
• The basic code consists of nine digits, which can be extended by adding four more
digits.
• The first nine digits are intended to convey both design and manufacturing data.
The general interpretation of the nine digits is indicated in Fig 1.1.
• The first five digits, 12345, are called the "form code" and describe the primary
design attributes of the part.
• The next four digits, 6789, constitute the supplementary code". It indicates some
of the attributes that would be of use to manufacturing (work material, raw work
piece shape, and accuracy).
• The extra four digits, "ABCD", are referred to as the "secondary code" and are
intended to identify the production operation type and sequence.
• The secondary code can be designed by the firm to serve its own particular needs.
In the form code, the first digit identifies whether the part is a rotational or a non-
rotational part. It also describes the general shape and proportions of the part.
• Fig 1.1 shows the specification scheme. For the rotational work pieces, the coding
of the first five digits is given in Fig 1.2.
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Fig 1.1 Specification Scheme
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• To add the supplementary code, we would have to properly code the sixth through
ninth digits with data on dimensions, material, starting workpiece shape, and
accuracy.
• One of the unique features of MICLASS system is that parts can be coded using a
computer interactively.
• To classify a given part design, the user responds to a series of questions asked by
the computer.
• The number of questions depends on the complexity of the part.
• For a simple part, as few as seven questions are needed to classify the part.
• For an average part, the number of questions ranges between 10 and 20.
• On the basis of responses to its questions, the computer assigns a code number to
the part.
• The code system is a parts classification and coding system developed and
marketed by Manufacturing Data System, Inc (MDSI), of Ann Arbor, Michigan.
• Its most universal application is in design engineering for retrieval of part design
data, but it also has applications in manufacturing process planning, purchasing,
tool design, and inventory control.
• The code number has eight digits. For each digit there are 16 possible values (zero
through 9 and A through F) which are used to describe the parts design and
manufacturing characteristics.
• The initial digit position indicates the basic geometry of the part and is called the
major division of the code system.
• This digit would be used to specify whether the shape was cylinder, flat, block, or
other. The interpretation of the remaining digits forms a chain-type structure.
• Hence the CODE system possesses a hybrid structure.
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1.7 BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY
• Implementation of group technology results in more focused factories.
• The likely impact of group technology can be seen in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Impact of Group Technology
When group technology is applied, a manufacturing company will typically realize the
following benefits:
• Product engineering
• Reduce part proliferation
• Help design standardization
• Provide manufacturing feed back
• The shape and size of part a process can produce
• The dimensions and geometric tolerances that obtained
• The surface finish attainable
• The material removal rate
• The relative cost
• Technological parameters
• Process engineering does not necessarily imply that all process selection is based
on the information above.
• However, the more the information considered in selecting a process, the more
complete the result will be.
• A computer aided process planning system functions based on this process
capability information.
• Earlier it was mentioned that planning systems could be classified into variant and
generative types.
• A variant planning system is a retrieval system and is analogous to planning based
on experience.
• In the variant planning system, standard plans are stored based on component
shape. These plans are then retrieved based on the similarity of a coded part.
• A generative system, however, makes processing, tooling and other decision via
software logic.
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material (blank) from its initial form (raw material) to a final form defined by an
engineering drawing. Process planning is a common task in small batch, discrete
parts metal working industries.
• The process planning activity can be divided into the following steps:
• Grouping of operations
• Selection of work piece holding devices and datum surfaces (set ups)
• Selection of inspection instruments
• Determination of production tolerances
• Determination of the proper cutting conditions.
• Determination of the cutting times and non-machining times (setting time,
inspection time) for each operation
• Editing the process sheets.
• All the information determined by the process planning function is recorded on a
sheet called process plan.
• The process plan is frequently called an operation sheet, route sheet or operation
planning sheet.
• This provides the instructions for the production of the part.
• It contains the operation sequence, processes, process parameters and machine
tools used.
• Fig 9.1 shows a typical process planning sheet.
• In conventional production system, a process plan is created by a process planner.
• It requires a significant amount of time and expertise to determine an optimal
routing for each new part design.
• However, individual engineers each have their own opinions about what
constitutes the best routing.
• Accordingly there are differences among the operation sequences developed by
various planners. Efficient process planning requires experienced process
planners.
• Because of the problems encountered with manual process planning, attempts
have been made in recent years to capture the logic, judgment and experience
required for this important function and incorporates them into computer
programmers.
• Based on the features of a given part, the program automatically generates the
sequence of manufacturing operations.
• The automated process planning provides the opportunity to generate production
routings which are rational, consistent and perhaps even optimal. It has the
following advantages:
1. Reduces the skill required of a planner.
2. Reduces the process planning time.
3. Reduces the process planning and manufacturing cost.
4. Creates more consistent plans.
5. Produces more accurate plans.
6. Increases productivity.
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Fig 1.4 Typical process planning sheet.
• The current approaches for computer aided process planning can be classified into
two groups:
I. Variant approach.
II. Generative approach.
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Fig 1.5 The structure of a Computer Aided Process Planning System
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• In reality product development activities form a spiral (Fig-1.7).
• The feedback from the marketing and services leads to improvements in design
and/or evolution of new designs.
• This is how most of the present products have been evolved over the period. One
can evidently realize it by comparing a 1928 model car with the current jelly been
shaped cars. Similarly one can observe the vast improvements that have taken
place in the design of entertainment electronic goods, computers, aircrafts and
even domestic appliances like refrigerators.
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1.3.3 SEQUENTIAL ENGINEERING VERSUS CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
• In the traditional manufacturing, the design moves sequentially through the
organization.
• The R & D group completes the design task and passes the data to planning, who
in turn passes the information to manufacturing and so on.
• If any downstream department wants to introduce any change, the process has to
backtrack and this often involves additional expenditure as well as inevitable
delay in realizing the product.
• Sequential Engineering is often called "across the wall" method.
• Fig 1.8 illustrates the insulated way each department may function in sequential
approach. Each segment of the product development team. (Design, Planning,
Manufacturing etc) completes its task in isolation over the documents to the next
segment.
• There is no interaction among the groups.
• If a serious mistake in the product is detected during testing, the revision process
has to start design, resulting in wastage and loss of time.
• Concurrent Engineering (CE) "gives marketing and other groups the opportunity
to review the design during the modeling, prototyping and soft tooling phases of
development. CAD systems especially 3D modelers can play an important role in
early product development phases.
• In fact, they can become the core of the CE. They offer a visual check when
design changes cost the least.
• Intensive teamwork between product development, production planning and
manufacturing is essential for satisfactory implementation of concurrent
engineering.
• The teamwork also brings additional advantages; the co-operation between
various specialists and systematic application of special methods such as DFMA
(Design for Manufacture and Assembly) and FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect
Analysis) ensures quick optimization of design and early detection of possible
faults in product and production planning.
• This additionally leads to reduction in lead time which reduces cost of production
and guarantees better quality.
• The cost of changing the basic design of a product progressively increases as it
proceeds through design and manufacturing.
• This can be elaborated with a simple example.
• If a change in the conceptual 3D CAD model costs Rs.50, 000 the same change
during the planning stage would cost Rs.l, 50,000. By the time it goes to
prototyping and testing, the change may cost Rs.2, 50, 000. The cost goes up to
Rs.25, 00,000 if the product "is in the manufacturing stage and Rs.50, 00,000 after
the company releases the product to sales and marketing.
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• Fig 1.9 illustrates this. While these numbers differ greatly from company to
company and product to product, they give a feel of the importance of feedback
early in the design cycle.
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manufacturing. Representatives drawn from marketing, planning, design,
purchase, vendors, manufacturing, quality control and other department
participate in product development right from the beginning.
• Concurrent Engineering is thus a cross-functional approach to product design.
• Total quality management which is being practiced by many companies is closely
related to concurrent engineering.
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1.3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCURRENT ENGINEERING
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• CE can succeed if it comes from the bottom up in the organization.
• If those at the bottom share the concerns and agree that a problem exists, they are
more likely to work together to solve it. In addition several problems are to be
considered before introducing CE. The people who were to get the designs are
now helping to design the product.
• CE removes the major hurdle one faces in sequential engineering in which team
members are often more committed to being dead right about their ideas than to
the overall project's success.
• CE eliminates the conflicts one often witnesses between design and engineering,
design and production, production and inspection, design and marketing etc.,
Procedures are a feature of sequential development process.
• A CE team must break almost every existing procedure to complete its tasks. CE
concept is based on simultaneous interaction of all the groups involved in product
development. Despite the challenges a company may meet, CE can work if given
a chance. It should be realized that it may take about two years or two product
cycles before CE begins to payoff.
• There are several examples of successful implementation of CE. Hewlett Packard
is one such example. Its joint venture in Japan, Yokogawa Hewlett-Packard,
reported amazing improvements after implementing CE.
• Over a five year period, R & D's cycle time decreased by 35%, manufacturing
costs declined 42%, inventory dropped 64% and field failure rates fell by 60%.
• Meanwhile its market share tripled and profits doubled.
1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
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• Rapid prototyping is a new class of manufacturing process, which generates
physical prototypes by adding material layer by layer rather than removing the
material.
• It involves the technologies for converting design from a. CAD model of object
without human assistance.
• Planning and manufacturing. Rapid prototyping is therefore also called as solid-
free form fabrication, 3D printing, and computer automated fabrication or layered
manufacturing.
Rapid prototyping
1. Decreases development time
2. Decreases costly mistakes
3. Extends product life time by adding necessary features and eliminating redundant
features early in the design development of a product.
4. Tests the suitability of a functioning part during each
5. Eliminates the Jigs, fixtures and tools.
The steps followed in rapid prototyping process are explained in the given figure
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TYPES OF RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESS
WET PROCESS
. Inkjet (Polyset)
. Stereo Lithography Apparatus (SLA)
DRY PROCESS:
. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
. Laminated object Manufacturing (LOM)
. Fused Deposition Manufacturing (FDM)
. Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
• Working Principle
• . Uses light to selectively solidify photo curable resigns.
• . Parts are built up on an elevator platform a vat of liquid by the laser thickness.
• . A Laser beam is guided across the surface, drawing a cross sectional pattern in
the XY plane.
• Then the platform is lowered such that liquid entirely flows over the top surface.
• . Then the elevator is raised and a wiper and it travels over the surface to quickly
level the excess viscous material.
• . The next layer is drawn by the laser beam and adhered to the previous layer.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF STEREO LITHOGRAPHY
• The first rapid prototyping technique and still the most widely used.
• In expensive compared to other techniques.
• Uses a light-sensitive liquid polymer.
• Requires post-curing since laser is not of high enough power to completely cure.
• Long-term curing can lead to warping.
• Parts are quite brittle and have a tacky surface.
• No milling step so accuracy in z can suffer.
• Support structures are typically required. Process is simple: There is no milling or
masking steps required.
• Uncured material can be toxic.
• Ventilation is a must.
Working Principle
• The SLS method uses a finely ground plastics powder which spread on the
working platform. The laser energy is directed onto the powder a scanning system
where it causes the powder to sinter and become solid.
• Then the working platform is lowered, a new covering layer is spread and the
process is again repeated.
• A variety of fusion mechanisms including melting, surface bonding, sintering
aids, and polymer coatings join the powders.
• The unused material remains in place as support structure. After each layer is and
the next layer of the powder is deposited.
• When the shape is completely built-up, the part is separated from the loose
supporting powder.
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• Several types of materials are in use including plastics, waxes and lower melting
temperature falloys, as well as polymers coated metals and ceramics deposited, an
elevator platform lowers the part by the thickness of the layer
• Working Principle
• Builds the shapes with layers of papers or plastics.
• Laminations coated with a them1allyactivated adhesive
• Each layer is glued to previous layer with a heated roller.
• A laser cuts the out line of the part cross section for each layer
• The laser also scribes the remaining material in each layer into a crosshatch
pattern of small squares.
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HIGHLIGHTS OF LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING
• Layers of glue-backed paper from the model.
• Low cost: raw material is readily available.
• Large parts: Because there is no chemical reaction involved, parts can be made
quite large.
• Accuracy in z is less than that for SLA and SLS. No milling step.
• Outside of model, cross-hatching removes material.
• Models should be sealed in order to prohibit moisture
• Before sealing, models have wood-like texture.
• Not as prevalent as SLA and SLS.
• An extremely diverse array of materials are in use today in the various RP process
descried above such as plastics, resign, ceramics, paper, metals and the like.
• Of these the plastics are used in several commercial RP systems for their ease of
use and the high accuracy of the output.
• Increasingly there is an interest in RP systems that can produce products for
prototyping and functional testing.
• However, very few RP systems exist for generation of metallic parts that may be
used as functional prototypes.
APPLICATION OF RAPIDPOTOTYING
"Translating Virtual Reality into Physical Reality"
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1.5. Design for Manufacture and Assembly
70% of total cost is decided by the design decision i.e. cost of material, cost of process,
cost of assembly etc. remaining 20% of total cost is decided by production decision i.e.
cost of process planning or machine tool selection etc. hence the designer should have the
knowledge of manufacturing. Because of the foresaid reasons, the design for manufacture
gains importance.
The design for manufacture (DFM) provides guidelines for the designer about the good
manufacturing practices. The guidelines of the DFM are grouped into four groups.
(1) Guide lines for general approach to DFM
(2) Guide lines for selection of the manufacturing processes.
(3) Guide lines for particular processes.
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(4) Guide lines for assembly.
1.5.1. Guidelines for general approach to DFM:
Some of the important guidelines are
(1) Design parts can be used in multiple products. This can reduce the production cost as
the volume of parts to be manufacture gets increased.
(2) In a product there should be a minimum number of separable parts. This will decrease
the inventory cost, and also assist maintenance and assembly.
(3) Try to use standard parts as far as possible.
(4) Use parts of known capacity from known supplier, so that others expertise can also be
utilized.
(5) use established & proven technology as far as possible.
(6) Avoid using high cost techniques unless it is technically required.
(7) Choose simple and regular shapes for the parts to be designed.
(8) Choose simple part assemblies.
(9) Select wide tolerance for size and surface finish of the product without affecting its
performance. This will reduce the manufacturing
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cost.
1. The shape of the product should be simple and it should be such that it assist the metal
flow in the die cavity. In other words, shape of the product should not hinder/restraint the
metal flow in the die cavity as explained in fig 1.20(a) & (b).
2. The finish product can be easily removed from the die cavity. this has to be achieved
by means of taper on the outer surface of the job, but not by under cut provision on the
job.
3. Avoid narrow deep ribs on the job. in these places, try to have broad less deep ribs as
showing1.21
2. Molding process:
In molding process, the liquid metal flows in the mould cavity to confirm the shape of the
product. Some of guidelines to be followed are
(1) The casting should be easily removed from the mould.
(2) Use simple shape with minimum number of pattern pieces and cores.
(3) Cost of tooling should be minimum.
(4) Maintain the wall thickness of the casting as small as possible.
(5) Vary the wall thickness gradually when it is required.
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(6) Avoid sloping surface on which further machining has to be done. instead have right
angle surface so that machining can be done easily.
(7) Provide accurate location for core and easy removal of flash.
3. Metal removal process:
(1) The shape of the component should be such that material can be removed easily and
cheaply.
(2) Select proper machine tools to have acceptable tolerance and surface finish.
(3) Try to give wide tolerance and surface finish variation as far as possible. allow runout
for tool
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(10). if single surface is to be machined, minimize the surface area to be machined.
machined surface
(11). try to have rectilinear shaped job.
1. Design for ease of insertion: - it is practically proved that inserting a part from top in
downward direction is easy, fast, efficient and less expensive than inserting a part from
bottom or from side directions.
2. Design for ease of fastening and joining: before selecting a fastening/joining process
(screws, adhesive bounding etc.) do systematic listing, classification and assessment of
available joining method and select a suitable joining/fastening process for assembly.
once a method is selected, use same method for other joining/fastening operations as far
as possible.
3. Design for ease of handling: - parts handling may consume nearly 80% of assembly
time. for ease of handling, the material and surface of the job should be adequate for
handling.
4. Modular construction: - it means that main assembly should be divided in to a number
of modular/sub assemblies. This makes the assembly process easier; since sub assembly
works are carried separately and hence time for assembling reduces.
5. Sandwich construction: - both in main assembly and sub assemblies, components are to
be assembled one by one. The positioning of a component is made easy by previously
assembled parts. Advantage is that, a pick and place robots can be used in the assembly
process.
6. To make the assembly process easier, avoid assigning close tolerance and high surface
finish for the components.
7. Use standardized components and sub assemblies, so that varieties can be reduced and
hence the cost of product can be reduced with increased volume of production and also it
makes the assembly process simpler.
8. Select a base component for assembly such that it should have adequate solid base.
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