Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on the Geotechnics of Hard Soils / Soft Rocks, Vol 1, Naples, Italy, October

1998.

Effects of Slaking on the Strength of Clay Shales:

A Critical State Approach
M.E. Botts
Earth System Science Laboratory,
University of Alabama in Huntsville, USA

ABSTRACT: Current methods used in geotechnical engineering practice are inadequate for assessing the
stability of clay shales. The major challenges with clay shales are attributed to two properties: they are
intermediate in behavior between rock and soil, and they tend to transgress from rock-like to soil-like
materials within relatively short time frames. This paper investigates three aspects of slaking within clay
shales: the effects of softening within fissures, the experimental measurement of the effects of slaking under
confining pressures, and the application of the critical state model to slaking within clay shales. Laboratory
experiments involving triaxial compression tests were performed on Pierre shale samples that had undergone
various degrees of slaking under confinement of 69 kPa (10 psi). These tests show that up to 80% reductions
in strength can result from a single wetting-drying cycle. Analysis of these results within the critical state
model, suggests that water content alone might provide assessment of the drastic reductions in strength of
clay shales undergoing slaking.
Effects of Slaking on the Strength of Clay Shales:
A Critical State Approach
M.E. Botts
Earth System Science Laboratory,
University of Alabama in Huntsville, USA

ABSTRACT: Current methods used in geotechnical engineering practice are inadequate for assessing the
stability of clay shales. The major challenges with clay shales are attributed to two properties: they are
intermediate in behavior between rock and soil, and they tend to transgress from rock-like to soil-like
materials within relatively short time frames. This paper investigates three aspects of slaking within clay
shales: the effects of softening within fissures, the experimental measurement of the effects of slaking under
confining pressures, and the application of the critical state model to slaking within clay shales. Laboratory
experiments involving triaxial compression tests were performed on Pierre shale samples that had undergone
various degrees of slaking under confinement of 69 kPa (10 psi). These tests show that up to 80% reductions
in strength can result from a single wetting-drying cycle. Analysis of these results within the critical state
model, suggests that water content alone might provide assessment of the drastic reductions in strength of
clay shales undergoing slaking.

1. INTRODUCTION Changes in the strength of clay shales can be very

The presence of clay shale deposits has contributed
to numerous foundation and slope stability problems
worldwide. In geotechnical community, clay shales
are typically characterized as a stiff, fissured clay or
shale that is susceptible to significant deterioration
as a result of interaction with water. They are
usually highly overconsolidated clays with high
plasticity, a high content of montmorillonite clay,
and a tendency to undergo extreme slaking with
wetting and drying cycles. A history and discussion
of challenges associated with clay shales in the
middle United States, Italy, Central America, and
England has been presented in Botts (1986). Past
engineering failures have demonstrated that
experimental and theoretical methods typically used
in geotechnical engineering practice are not
adequate for determining the stability of these
unique materials. Present engineering design in clay
shales relies primarily on experience obtained from
past failures, and often results in the liberal use of
highly conservative and costly factors of safety.
The major difficulties in assessing and predicting
the engineering behavior of clay shales can be
attributed to two unique properties of these
materials: (a) clay shales are intermediate in
behavior between rock and soil, and (b) clay shales
tend to transgress from rock-like to soil-like
materials within a relatively short time period.
drastic, commonly exhibiting 40% to 80%
reductions in shear strength over periods ranging
from 2 to 70 years. Internal friction angles of 20o to
30o in some unaltered clay shales have been reduced
to extremely low values of less than 6-8o after
softening. As an example of the extreme variation
in clay shale strength, consider that the unconfined
compressive strength of the Pierre shale has been
reported as ranging from zero to 17,000 kPa!
The factors that control the magnitude and time
frame of these changes have not been well
understood. Evidence suggests that softening along
fissures may play a very important role in the rapid
loss of strength in clay shale deposits. However, the
geotechnical and geological literature is surprisingly
devoid of systematic studies concerned with
theoretical or experimental aspects of fissure
deterioration in clay shales.
In addition, it is widely recognized that clay
shales that have been totally or partially dried,
exhibit a strong tendency to slake (i.e. disperse)
during rewetting. This susceptibility of clay shales to
slaking is certainly a major factor, if not the major
factor, involved in the softening of clay shale
deposits in the field. Several techniques have been
developed to assess the slake resistance of
geological materials under unconfined conditions.
However, slaking in the field typically occurs in the
presence of confining stresses. Yet, surprisingly few
reported studies have investigated the slaking 3.2 Model for Fissure Softening
resistance of geological materials under conditions
A simple model for progressive deterioration of clay
of confinement. Furthermore, systematic
shales and its effect on defining the failure plane is
investigations into the effects of slaking on the
illustrated by the schematic in Figure 1. In the
strength and stress-strain behavior of any geological
schematic, there are four cross sections of a
materials are sparse.
theoretical clay shale mass, each representing a
The research presented in this paper was
different stage of deterioration. Stage 1 represents a
undertaken in order to provide initial theoretical and
fissured clay shale in which no alteration has
experimental assessments of the effects of fissure
occurred. At stage 2, alteration (indicated by the
deterioration on the strength and stress-strain
stipple pattern) has been initiated along the fissures,
behavior of clay shales. In particular, the drastic
and progresses in stages 3 and 4, until the mass is
changes that can occur in response to wetting and
entirely deteriorated.
drying cycles (i.e. slaking) are examined in detail. A
At stage 1, the strength and stress-strain response
primary contribution of this research is the
is controlled primarily by the frequency, strength,
incorporation of the slaking process into the critical
and orientation of the fissures, and thus behaves
state soil mechanics model. Most of the results were
similar to a jointed rock. At stage 4, however, the
originally published in the Ph.D. dissertation by
material is in theory behaving much like a
Botts (1986).
homogeneous, naturally-remolded clay. During the
2.
intermediate stage 2, the clay shale can be
considered as a rock-like material with the strength
3. ROLE OF FISSURES IN CLAY SHALES
controlled by the orientation and shear resistance of
soft, filled joints. Similarly, at stage 3, the mass
3.1 Importance of Fissures might be best considered as a soft matrix
There are three important effects of fissures in surrounding large "grains" of stiff, intact material,
controlling the behavior of clay shale deposits. First, much like a "boulder clay". The major difficulty in
they provide inherent planes of weakness along modeling the behavior of clay shales is that the
which shear can occur. It is for this reason that clay failure of a clay shale slope or foundation can occur
shales must also be considered from a rock at any stage of the deterioration as depicted, and
mechanics point of view. Second, the fissures requires only that the shear strength is reduced to a
greatly increase the permeability of clay shale level such that it can no longer resist the shear
deposits. Without the conduits provided by fissures, stresses acting on the potential slip surface.
most clay shales would be virtually impervious.
Third, fissures significantly increase the surface area
exposed to weathering agents.
Thus, in addition to significantly weakening a
clay shale mass, fissures greatly enhance the process
of deterioration in clay shale by first allowing a
greater influx of water and other weathering agents
into the interior of the mass, and by then exposing
more surface area of the rock mass on which these
agents can act. No matter which softening
mechanism is acting on a clay shale deposit, the rate
and extent of softening is highly dependent on the
presence of fissures.
In addition, whether softening occurs in response
to the equilibration of negative pore pressures, or by
chemical alteration or slaking, softening surely
weakens fissure wall material first before
progressing further into the clay shale mass. For this
reason, the author proposes a simple fissure
deterioration model and discusses the implications
of this model with regard to the possible changes in Figure 1. Schematic of a model for progressive deterioration
engineering behavior that can occur in response to of a fissured clay shale. Softened areas indicated by stipple
progressive softening of clay shales. pattern. Potential failure planes indicated by solid and
dashed lines.
3.3 Implications of Fissure Model on Shear Strength
Figure 1 also illustrates how fissure deterioration
might alter the failure plane, and thus the
engineering behavior, within clay shale. The
unaltered clay shale should be considered as a highly
jointed mass and not as a homogeneous soil in the
classical sense. If the strength of the fissures is much
less than that of the intact material, and if the applied
stresses are low, then the failure plane may be
controlled entirely by the location of the fissures.
The solid line indicates this condition in stage 1 of
Figure 1. Like jointed rocks, the strength and stress-
strain response is controlled by the shear resistance
along the individual fissures and on the geometric
relationship between these fissures and the acting
stress field. In contrast, if the resistance of the intact
material is not much higher than that of the fissures,
and particularly if high stresses are applied, then
failure may occur along the plane of maximum shear
stress, indicated by the dashed line, and would
therefore pass entirely through intact material. Field
evidence indicates that this is rarely the case in
unaltered clay shales.
Shear along the failure plane of the unaltered clay
shale mass, as in stage 1, is analogous to shear along
a single "joint" given by the dark jagged line. This
"joint" is characterized as having a high first-order
roughness with saw-tooth asperities, while the
higher-order roughness is controlled by the
Figure 2. Schematic illustrating changes in the stress-strain
behavior of clay shale undergoing progressive softening as
illustrated in Figure 1.
roughness along the true fissures. The stress-strain
response at low stresses would be similar to that
illustrated in Figure 2a, which indicates low
compressibility, high dilation perpendicular to the
failure plane, high peak strength, and a significant
post-peak drop in strength. As in Figure 3a, the
typical strength envelope is given by the Fairhurst
equation for rock joints (Fairhurst, 1964):
(φ1)a = φ + i (1)
(φ2)a ≅ φ (2)
where φ is the coefficient of friction between the
fissure walls and i the additional apparent coefficient
of friction resulting from interlocking of asperities.
The strength parameters are characterized at low
confining stresses by a high apparent cohesion,
resulting from interlocking of the large "saw-teeth"
and by a high friction angle along asperities. At
much higher stresses, failure occurs through
asperities, so that the strength parameters are
essentially equal to the cohesion and friction angle
values for intact material.
For the partially softened clay shale represented
by stage 2 in Figure 1, deterioration has been
confined to the walls adjacent to the fissures. The
"analogous joint" along which failure is preferred is
again given by the thick, dark line, and might be
characterized as an undulating filled joint. As
Figure 3. Schematic illustrating changes in the strength
envelop resulting from progressive softening of clay shale as
illustrated in Figure 1.
illustrated by Figure 2b, the typical stress-strain
behavior at low stresses might initially exhibit low
stiffness and high compressibility, as the layer of
soft material within the joints is compressed.
However, with further shear displacement, the intact
walls of the fissures again make contact, resulting in
increased stiffness. The peak resistance would be
lower than that for the unaltered clay shale due to a
decrease in the first-order roughness of the failure
plane, as well as a significant decrease in the
strength along the true fissures. As discussed
previously, the decrease in fissure strength, in
response to softening, is a result of smoothing of the
joint walls, separation of the joint walls by softened
fill material, and softening of the asperities along the
fissure. Therefore, the strength envelope,
represented in Figure 3b, indicates a lower cohesion
and a lower friction angle at low confining stresses,
as a result of the smoothing of both first and second-
order roughness. In addition, the apparent cohesion
at higher stresses may also be reduced if softening
has enhanced the breaking of the larger asperities
within the analogous joint.
Once fissure softening has progressed to the
Stage 3, the plane of failure may be almost entirely
within softened material, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Although there may be some interference from intact
cores within the failure plane, shear displacement
even at high stresses, will probably occur by rotation
or translation of these cores, rather than failing
through them. As can be deduced by comparing the
curves in Figures 2c and 2d with those of Figure 3c
and 3d, the engineering behavior at this stage is very
similar to that for the fully deteriorated clay shale. In
such cases, the strength and stress-strain response is
controlled entirely by the softened material.
As indicated by the plots in figure 3, the values of
cohesion, C, and the coefficients of friction, φ1 and
φ2, all tend to decrease with increased softening. The
theoretical relationships for these values for various
stages of softening are indicated below (where the
alphabetical subscripts indicate the stage of
softening):
C1a > C1b > C1c ≅ C1d = 0 (3)
C2a > C2b > C2c > C2d = 0 (4)
φ1a > φ1b ≅ φ1c ≅ φ1d (5)
φ2a > φ2b ≅ φ2c = φ2d (6)
In summary, analysis of the strength of a clay
shale undergoing progressive softening along
fissures is complex, and generally requires some
understanding of principles from both soil and rock
mechanics. However, as will be discussed below, the
concept of critical state soil mechanics may provide
an important tool with which the analysis of
softening clay shales might be greatly simplified.
4. SLAKING IN CLAY SHALES
4.1 Softening in clay shales
Two primary mechanisms have been proposed as
playing important roles in the softening of clay
shales. These include the equilibration of negative
pore pressures (Skempton, 1977) and the
deterioration of fissures by means of slaking. These
two mechanisms are not entirely independent of one
another, and it is probable that both act to some
degree in all clay shale deposits. In addition, these
mechanisms surely act in conjunction with the
progressive failure mechanism in such a way that
they are enhanced by, as well enhance, progressive
failure. It may therefore be difficult to uncouple the
effects of one mechanism from the other.
The primary emphasis of the present investigation
is on the processes of slaking and swelling, during
which bonds are destroyed and the moisture content
increased without altering the mineralogy of the clay
shale. Clay shales are characteristically highly
susceptible to slaking and it is highly probable that
the process of slaking plays an important role in the
softening of clay shales. Numerous researchers have
shown that the strength of clays and clay shales is
closely related to the water content, and that fissure
walls in failed clay shales often exhibit higher water
contents than the adjacent clay material. In the
absence of mineralogical changes, water content can
be increased by (a) dilation during shear, (b) simple
swelling related to elastic rebound following
unloading, and (c) swelling and slaking related to the
breaking of interparticle bonds in response to
wetting, or wetting and drying cycles in the absence
of external load changes.
4.2 The slaking process
The term "slaking" usually implies the phenomena
of material disruption or dispersion observed when
dried or undisturbed specimens of clay or shale are
immersed in water. Most slaking is assumed to result
from the disruption of diagenetic bonds and the
release of stored strain energy (Bjerrum, 1967).
Some clays and shales at natural water content
slake when immersed in water. Others when
immersed, will remain stable with regard to slaking
even after stresses are released. However, if these
materials are first dried and then rewetted, " drying -
induced" slaking can occur. Nakano (1970)
presented evidence that some materials will not
slake as long as the water content remains above a
certain threshold. The current tests for slaking
susceptibility all involve measuring the effects of
wetting and drying cycles under unconfined
conditions. It is clear that these methods do not
provide adequate information regarding the effects
of this slaking on the strength and stress-strain
behavior of clay shale in the field. The author has
found virtually no literature involving research on
the effects of slaking under conditions of
confinement. Similarly, the literature is void of
consideration that the effects of slaking might be
effectively accounted for within the critical state soil
mechanics model.
5.2 Critical State Method concepts
An excellent introductory reference on principles of
Critical State Soil Mechanics is provided by
Atkinson and Bransby (1978). In stress analysis, it is
convenient to use stress parameters which are
independent of the choice of reference axes. One set
of these, so-called, stress invariants are the
octahedral normal effective stress, σ'oct, and the
octahedral shear effective stress, τ'oct, which can be
defined in terms of effective principal stresses as:

σ'oct = (σ'1 + σ'2 + σ'3)/3 (7)

5. CRITICAL STATE METHOD
τ'oct = [(σ'1 -σ'2)2 + (σ'2 -σ'3)2 + (σ'3 -σ'1)2]1/2 (8)
3
5.1 Stress path history and the importance of the
Critical State Model For the special case of standard triaxial shear states,
The unique characteristics of clay shales can be new invariants, P' and Q', are defined as:
attributed to a combination of several processes
occurring during deposition and during subsequent P' = (σ'1 + 2σ'3) / 3 (9)
unloading. Several of the factors responsible for the
present behavior of clay shales, such as lithology, Q' = √2 (σ'3 -σ'1) / 3 (10)
compaction, and bonding, were developed prior to
the unloading of the original material. The history The stress invariants are defined such that, for an
of a typical clay shale can include several loading isotropic, homogeneous, and elastic material, P'
(consolidation) and unloading (swelling) periods defines the hydrostatic components responsible for
resulting from deposition, erosion, uplift, and isotropic volumetric changes, and Q' incorporates all
glaciation (Botts, 1986; Brooker, 1968; Cancelli, of the shear stresses that can cause distortion.
1981; Fenelli et al, 1982; Fleming et al, 1970;
Skempton, 1964). In addition, it has been shown in
laboratory tests for short time periods (Leonards and
Rahmiah, 1960), and suggested for geological time-
scales (Bjerrum, 1967) that clays can undergo
significant hardening, or “aging” with sustained
loads over time. Combine this history for clay
shales with their ability to swell and slake rapidly
over periods of 2 to 70 years, and one can appreciate
the potentially complex history of loading and
moisture variation.
Much research in the past four decades has been
oriented toward defining the limiting stress states
within which a soil can exist, independent of stress
path history. Sufficient evidence exists to support
the concept that the critical state of a homogeneous,
non- fissured, saturated soil can be defined by two
stress invariants and the water content (or specific
volume). This concept, generally referred to as
critical state soil mechanics, provides a concise
framework within which the seemingly complex
behavior of soil can be understood. Botts (1986)
proposed that the effects of slaking might similarly
be considered within the framework of the critical Figure 4. Ultimate failure points for drained and undrained
state model. If so, this could greatly simplify the tests on normally consolidated Weald Clay defining the
otherwise complex analysis of a clay or clay shale Critical State Line (Atkinson and Bransby, 1978; after
which is undergoing softening in response to Parry, 1960).
slaking.
 For a typical normally consolidated clay, the
relationship between P', Q', and specific volume, v,
at failure can be defined by a unique line (Figure 4).
This line is referred to as the "critical state line
(CSL)" and is independent of the loading path. The
projection of the CSL in P':Q' space, is defined by a
straight line through the origin with slope designated
as Μ. In P':v space, the CSL line is curved and
similar in shape to the normal consolidation line.
The stress path for heavily overconsolidated clays
is characterized by an increase of P' and Q' until
peak strength is mobilized at stresses beyond those
at the critical state line, followed by a reduction of P'
and Q' toward the critical state line. Thus, for Figure 6. Mapping of the ultimate failure state of a heavily
overconsolidated clays, the critical state line overconsolidated clay within a normalized stress state. In
represents the "ultimate" strength. this normalized domain, the Hvorslev surface maps as a
The peak strength of overconsolidated clays is straight line.
dependent on the specific volume in addition to P'
and Q'. Within P':Q':v space, the peak failure state
for overconsolidated clays defines a surface, called
the Hvorslev surface (Figure 5). To account for the
dependence on specific volume, P' and Q' can be
normalized using the value of Pe', which is the stress
on the normal consolidation line at that particular
specific volume (Figure 6). After reaching this
Hvorslev surface, the stresses for heavily
overconsolidated clays tend to travel toward the
critical state line along the Hvorslev surface by
increasing P'. This is illustrated in Figure 7 for
undrained loading conditions. In contrast, lightly Figure 7. Schematic showing expected paths for undrained
overconsolidated and normally consolidated clays tests of clays at various overconsolidation ratios, Rp (Atkinson
exhibit an increase in the stresses until they intersect and Bransby, 1978).
the Roscoe surface, along which they approach the
critical state line by decreasing P'.
The Roscoe, Hvorslev, and tensile failure surfaces define the boundaries that confine the
possible stress states for a given soil. Similarly, the
critical state line defines the state of stress at which
further changes of P', Q', or v cannot occur.
Furthermore, these state boundaries have been
shown to be independent of the stress path to failure,
as well as independent of the history of loading,
unloading, consolidation, and rebound. This
investigation also considers whether these
boundaries are also independent of slaking history.

5.3 Role of slaking within the Critical State Model

Figure 5. The relationship of Roscoe, Hvorslev, and
Tension failure surfaces within P': Q':v space.
The role of slaking within the critical state model is
hypothesized as simply another path for altering the
water content of the clay shale while the failure
envelope remains constant. The importance of this
possibility cannot be overstressed. If the process of
slaking can be constrained by the critical state
model, then the engineering behavior of a clay shale
that has undergone, or will undergo, a complex
history of wetting and drying, is dependent only on
the final specific volume and stress state.

Figure 8. Illustration of a potential stress-compaction
history of a clay shale undergoing consolidation, aging,
rebound, slaking, and then reloading.
In discussions regarding the critical state concept,
it is common to consider the act of swelling in
response to decreases in the stress state. However,
the potentially important role of slaking in
increasing the water content of clay shale,
independent of stress changes, has not been fully
appreciated. As illustrated in Figure 8,
overconsolidated clay or clay shale that has
undergone a history of consolidation, aging, and
swelling due to unloading, may undergo further
swelling in response to slaking near the surface.
Whereas the aging process can cause normally
consolidated clay to behave as if it were
overconsolidated, the process of slaking might,
likewise, cause clay shale to reverse these effects by
reducing the degree of overconsolidation. Therefore,
in much the same way that a sustained load can act
as an "aging" mechanism, slaking serves as a
mechanism by which overconsolidated clay might
regain some of its youth, or be "rejuvenated". Thus,
through the slaking mechanism, it appears possible
for an overconsolidated clay to reverse some, or all,
of the effects of aging and consolidation.
5.4 Testing the critical state model with regard to
slaking
The critical state concept states that the strength of
an ideal, isotropic, overconsolidated clay is
dependent only on two stress invariants, P' and Q',
and the specific volume, v. Furthermore, the stress
path of lightly overconsolidated clay is constrained
by the Roscoe surface, while that of heavily
consolidated clay is similarly constrained by the
Hvorslev surface. Thus, a major test of the
applicability of the critical state model is whether
the Hvorslev surface can be defined for a clay shale
that has undergone softening through the process of
slaking. The following section defines test
procedures and results which provide preliminary
indications that the critical state method may in fact
account for softening of clay shales undergoing
slaking.
6. TEST PROCEDURES AND RESULTS
6.1 Testing Apparatus
An experimental program was developed by the
author with the primary objectives of (1) providing
initial investigation into the effects of drying-
induced slaking on the strength and stress-strain
response of a highly fissured clay shale and
(2) assessing the feasibility of incorporating the
slaking process into the critical state concept. These
experiments primarily involved triaxial compression
tests on samples of Pierre shale which had
undergone various degrees of slaking while under a
low confining pressures. Particular care was taken to
record changes in the water content occurring within
the samples before, during, and after the tests.
Details of the apparatus, and the sampling and
testing procedures have been described in Botts
(1986).
A schematic of the triaxial cell is shown in
Figure 9. The triaxial cell consists of a Plexiglas
outer cylinder and close-fitting top and bottom.
Figure 9. Schematic of the triaxial test cell and measuring
apparatus.
These are held tightly in place by vertical bolts
which resist the hydrostatic pressures created by
pressurized water inside the cell. Within the triaxial
cell, the sample is supported by upper and lower
stainless steel pistons, which are also used to apply
axial loads on the sample.
The clay shale sample is enclosed in two very
thin flexible membranes. Between the two
membranes is a layer of silicone grease to prevent
permeation of water through the membranes during
long tests. Sample drainage and wetting takes place
through the porous, ceramic stones at the top and
bottom of the sample. Water flow within the sample
was enhanced by four 3/4" strips of filter paper
(VWR grade 615) running vertically between the
sample and membrane. The Plexiglas loading caps at
the top and bottom of the sample, hold the porous
stones and allow drainage to tubes at the side of the
heads. The greased membranes are held tightly to
the sides of the Plexiglas loading heads by rubber
sealing rings, preventing flow of water out of the
membranes. The steel loading heads, which fit into
the Plexiglas heads, are designed to evenly spread
the vertical load applied by the upper and lower
stainless steel pistons. A steel ball between the upper
piston and metal head minimizes eccentric loads on
the sample.
Any changes in the volume of water in the cell
were measured from the pipette, which also acted as
an air-water interface. At constant cell pressure, this
change in cell pressure results primarily from
changes in sample volume, and from changes in the
displacement of water by the piston as it moves in or
out of the cell. A constant "back pressure" was
similarly applied to the water within the sample,
such that the volume of water flowing in or out of
the sample was recorded from a second pipette. This
dual pipette system also provided a means of "cross
checking" the changes in sample volume.
6.2 Sample Preparation
The Pierre shale is one of three notorious clay shales
located throughout the upper Missouri and South
Saskatchewan River basins in the Central USA and
Canada. It has been responsible for a large number
of landslides and other engineering problems at
Oahe Dam and along highways. In the U.S., the
Pierre shale and its stratigraphically equivalent
deposits alone underlie an area of approximately
600,000 square miles and outcrop in an area of
230,000 square miles (Tourtelot, 1962). These
deposits extent into large areas of Canada as well.
The Pierre shale is a Cretaceous deposit
characterized by overconsolidation, by the presence
of slickensides and fissures, by high swelling and
high plasticity resulting from the presence of
montmorillonite, by extremely high slaking
Figure 10. Photograph and sketches of dried cores of Pierre
shale showing different orientations of fissure pattern. All
test but two were performed using cores drilled
perpendicular to the major plane of fissuration.
potential, and by very low cohesion and friction
angles as exhibited under long-term conditions in the
field.
The Pierre shale is well-suited for the desired test
program for several reasons: (a) in its undisturbed
state, the material has a high peak strength, and
exhibits a high ratio of peak to residual strengths,
(b) the difference in strength between the unaltered
and softened states is very drastic, (c) the material is
highly susceptible to slaking, rapidly slaking from a
rock consistency to mud after only one cycle of
drying and wetting, (d) the shale exhibits high
swelling pressures in response to rewetting after
drying, and (e) the shale readily forms horizontal
and vertical fissures during drying.
Several blocks of Pierre shale were dislodged by
backhoe from an open pit quarry of the Ideal Cement
Company located about 15 miles south of Boulder,
Colorado along state highway 93, in sec 5, T 1S,
R 70W. The excavated blocks ranged in size from
one to a few feet per side. In order to prevent
deterioration due to drying, these blocks were
immediately placed in several ten-gallon drums
filled with water. The drums were then placed in a
wet room at the University of Colorado where they
remained for some ten years before being cored for
the present test program. The blocks of Pierre shale
do not appear to have suffered any significant
alteration as a result of stress unloading or soaking
in water. However, if any of the blocks or fragments
of the Pierre shale are allowed to even partially dry,
and are then rewetted, the shale will rapidly break
down into small chunks and then to soft mud in a
matter of 15 to 20 minutes.
In order to perform the desired triaxial tests, it
was necessary to obtain NX sized cores (2-1/8 in or
56 mm) from the large blocks. Successful core
samples were obtained in the laboratory using
moderate amounts of water, and a constant,
moderate downward force supplied by weights
attached to the coring drill.
 In order to eliminate any anistropic effects during
the primary test program, all of these samples were
cored perpendicular to the dominant plane of
fissuration. This plane corresponds to either the
original bedding plane, the plane perpendicular to
vertical unloading, or probably both. The dominant
plane of fissuration is not obvious in wet,
undisturbed samples, but can be readily
distinguished by the pattern of fissuration resulting
from drying. As illustrated by the photos in Figure
10, dried Pierre shale samples exhibit one well-
defined, primary direction of uninterrupted fissures
accompanied by one or more sets of secondary
fissures. Although the orientation of the secondary
set is varied within the same sample, it is always
roughly perpendicular to the primary set. The
samples used for the test program were all cored
perpendicular to the primary plane of fissuration,
with the exception of two samples which were cored
about 70o from horizontal in order to assess the
effects of sample orientation.
6.3 Test Methodology
The testing procedure involved four stages:
(a) drying of the samples under zero confinement,
over time periods ranging from zero to 28 days,
in order to induce fissuration and to initiate the
drying-wetting cycle,
(b) wetting of the sample under constant confining
pressure of 10 psi (69 kPa), to induce slaking
and softening,
(c) strain-controlled deviatoric loading of the
sample under confining pressures of 10 (69 kPa),
30 (207 kPa), and 50 psi (345 kPa), in order to
determine the strength and stress-strain response,
and
(d) post-testing treatment, consisting of either the
determination of the variation of water content
within the specimen, or the impregnation of the
specimen with Carbowax, in order to preserve it
for fabric studies.
The proposed test program required a statistically
significant number of fissures within the samples in
order to enhance wetting and of course to examine
the effects of fissure deterioration within the clay
shale. Since the Pierre shale does not naturally
exhibit an abundance of open fissures at the scale of
the samples, it was necessary to induce these fissures
by some reproducible method. It was found that air
drying of the samples resulted in a reasonable
arrangement of fissures, as shown in Figure 10. The
samples in this test program might therefore be
considered as miniature models of a jointed clay
shale mass, on which is imposed an accelerated
version of the slaking process.
The process of slaking was carried out under
conditions of constant hydrostatic stress. During
Drying-Wetting Confining Pressure (psi) during triaxial shear test
History 10 30 50
0 days : 1 day 10 / 0 - 1 30 / 0-1 50 / 0 - 1
1/2 hr : 1 day 10 / H - 1 A&B 30 / H - 1 50 / H - 1
4 days : 1 day 10 / 4 - 1 30 / 4 - 1 A&B 50 / 4 - 1
4 days : 3 days 30 / 4 - 3
4 days : 23 days 30 / 4 - 23
10 days : 3 days 30 / 10 - 3
28 days : 3 days 30 / 28 - 3
High Angle
Orientation
1/2 hr : 1 day HA30 / H - 1
4 days : 1 day HA30 / 4 - 1
Table 1. Matrix of test samples based on varying drying and
wetting times, and on confining pressures during triaxial
shear.
these periods, the upper piston was loaded with
weights in order to compensate the upward force
generated by the hydrostatic pressure of the cell
water. Therefore, the sample was able to deform
both radially and vertically in response to wetting,
while the stresses remained constant. After slaking,
the clay shale was then loaded vertically to failure
using a displacement-controlled Wykeham-Farrance
loading frame. Using displacement-controlled rather
than stress-controlled loading allowed the
assessment of post peak stress-strain behavior.
Throughout all stages, changes in the sample
volume, sample weight, or both, were measured so
that the water content, void ratio, and level of
saturation could be determined for the specimen at
any time. A matrix of the tests performed is
provided in Table 1. The labeling scheme utilized
for this study is CP/TD-TW, where CP is the
confining pressure in psi, TD is the approximate
time of drying in days, and TW is the approximate
time of rewetting in days. A value of TD = 'H'
indicate a drying time of half and hour. A detailed
description of test procedures can be found in Botts
(1986).
6.4 Test Results
This test program provided several types of results,
including volumetric changes during drying and
rewetting, volumetric and stress-strain response
during shear, and both peak and ultimate strength
values. These data were used to investigate: (a)
anisotropic shrinkage and swelling in response to
drying and wetting, (b) rate of drying, (c) changes in
Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio in response to
slaking and swelling, (d) reduction of strength in
response to slaking and swelling, (e) normalization
of stress-invariants, P and Q, to establish the
existence of a Hvorslev surface and thus assess the
role of slaking in the critical state model, and (f) as-
sessment of strength anisotropy resulting from
Figure 11. Shrinkage and swelling curves resulting from
drying and rewetting plotted as a function of drying time.
fissure orientation. All of these results are discussed
in detail within Botts (1986). With minor
exceptions, the results presented in this paper will
focus on those related to the effects of slaking on
shear strength.
Figure 11 shows the effects of a single drying and
wetting cycle on the water content of the Pierre
shale. Drying occurred at room temperature under
zero confinement, while wetting occurred within the
triaxial test apparatus under a confining pressure of
69 kPa (10 psi). Notice that between 4 to 28 days of
drying, even small increases in the amount of drying
can still have significant affect on the amount of
swelling during rewetting. This increased swelling
which resulted from slaking processes, significantly
decreased the strength of the Pierre shale.
The stress-strain response for unaltered Pierre
shale is typical of heavily-consolidated clays and
shales. It is characterized by a steep increase of
axial stress up to a load sufficient for abrupt failure
followed by rapid decrease of strength to a much
lower "ultimate" strength (at 20% of the peak
strength). The stress-strain curves before peak
failure also exhibited multiple segments typical of
jointed rock-like materials. In addition, the stress-
strain and volumetric response of samples which had
undergone no drying, were essentially identical to
those that had undergone 30 minutes of drying and
exhibited significant fissuration. This implies that
the fissuration that becomes visible after fifteen
Figure 12. Comparative stress-strain plots showing drastic
softening of Pierre shale after slaking.
minutes of drying may actually already be present
but tightly closed in unaltered Pierre shale sample.
Figure 12 includes composite plots of axial
stress, axial strain, and volumetric strain for several
representative samples tested at 207 kPa (30 psi)
confining pressure. Drying times for these samples
varied from 0 to 28 days. These results show that the
shear strength of Pierre shale samples is significantly
reduced with longer drying times. Comparison of
sample 30/4-1A and 30/4-23 indicate that shear
strength is reduced with continued rewetting time,
drying time is by far the most important factor. As
observed in sample 30/28-3, the peak strength of the
Pierre shale has been reduced to a value very near
the ultimate strength of unaltered samples. This is a
remarkable 80% reduction of strength of the Pierre
shale samples with only a single cycle of drying and
wetting.
Young's Modulus, defined here as the ratio of the
change axial stress to the change in axial strain, was
found to be constant for samples with similar drying
times, but greatly reduced with increased drying
time. Young's Modulus varied from about 193,000
kPa for unaltered Pierre shale to 34,000 kPa for
samples which had undergone 28 days of drying (i.e.
an 84% increase in sample compressibility with

Figure 13. Final and ultimate values for P', Q', and v for all
sample of Pierre shale, unaltered and softened.
slaking). In contrast, as seen in Figure 12, the ratio
of axial strain to volumetric strain remained fairly
constant for all samples, regardless of the degree of
softening.
In Figure 13, the final and ultimate strength
values for P', Q', and v are plotted for all test
samples. In this plot, peak strengths are indicated by
unfilled patterns, and ultimate strengths by filled
patterns. Results for unaltered samples are indicated
by triangles, partially softened samples by circles,
and highly softened samples by squares. In this plot
even the unaltered samples show a large degree of
scatter making determination of useful strength
parameters very difficult. An exception to this
scatter are the well-behaved results from the
partially softened samples which had undergone 4
days of drying.
Still, the scatter presented in Figure 13 is typical
of shear strength values obtained from Pierre shale
in the field where samples may have undergone
various degrees of softening due to slaking. It is
important to be able to relate such scattered shear
strength values measured in the field to some
parameters which would be easily measured and
which would be useful for modeling the shear
strength behavior of the clay shale under current and
future states. If the critical state model proves
applicable for accounting for the observed softening
due to slaking, then the measurement of water
content with depth and location may be sufficient for
modeling current clay shale strength. Furthermore,
monitoring of water content changes, or prediction
of drying and wetting cycles may allow
predetermination of future failure conditions. The
critical state model implies that the scatter of the
peak strengths seen in Figure 13, are strictly the
result of differences in water content.
6.5 Interpretation of results within the Critical State
Model
As discussed previously, the parameter, Pe', can be
used to normalize P' an Q', in order to remove any
effects resulting from differences in specific volume.
The value for Pe' can be obtained from the equation
for the normal consolidation, as Pe' = exp[(N-v)]/λ,
where v is the current specific volume, λ the slope of
the normal consolidation line in v:ln P space, and N
is typically defined as the specific volume of the soil
at P' equal to 1 kN/m2 on the normal consolidation
curve. According to the critical state model, peak
failure of heavily overconsolidated clays will occur
when the P':Q' stress path reaches the Hvorslev
surface. In normalized space, the Hvorslev surface
can be defined by a straight line with the equation,
Q'/ Pe' = g + h*(P/ Pe'). (12)
Since data regarding the normal consolidation
parameters were not available to the author, it was
necessary to devise alternative means to derive
normalization parameters. It has been noted
previously that the critical state line in v:ln P' space
is parallel to the normal consolidation line. In
addition, after peak failure of overconsolidated
clays, stresses tend to progress toward the critical
state line along the Hvorslev surface.
Rather than deriving the exact values for the
Hvorslev surface, the author was more interested in
assessing the applicability of the critical state model
to the slaking of clay shales. Therefore, the author
made the rather speculative assumption, that the
ultimate strength measured for unaltered Pierre shale
would define a line that paralleled the critical state
line in v:ln P' space and would provide the much
needed value of λ needed for normalization. The
values at ultimate strength defined a line in v:ln P
space with a slope, Λ, of 0.020 and an intercept, V0,
of 1.455, with a linear correlation coefficient of
0.925.

Figure 14. Normalized peak strength on log-log scale for all
samples of Pierre shale, unaltered and softened.
These values were substituted for λ and N in
Equation 12 to obtain the normalized plot for all
samples cored perpendicular to the major fissure
plane (Figure 14). The strong linear correlation of
the normalized peak strength values confirms that
the strength envelop of softened Pierre shale can be
uniquely defined within P':Q':v space, and that
slaking can be accounted for within the critical state
model.
7. CONCLUSIONS
This study provides initial assessment of the effects
of slaking on the strength of clay shale. The role of
slaking is seen in this context as simply another path
for altering the water content of the clay shale, while
the strength envelope remains constant or changes
predictably. The importance of this possibility
cannot be overstressed. Since the strength of a clay
shale appears to be dependent only on the specific
volume and not on the history, the critical state
model could therefore greatly simplify the
monitoring and prediction of changes in the strength
of clay shales.
The test on Pierre shale samples cored at oblique
angles to fissures yielded shear strengths which were
much lower than those samples cored perpendicular
to the fissures. This was expected since the fissures
within the oblique samples were nearly parallel with
the potential failure plane of maximum shear. Thus,
it is somewhat questionable to consider that clay
shales can be treated as homogeneous, anisotropic
materials in which the shear strength is dependent
only on P', Q', and v. Certainly, the orientation of
fissures relative to the stress state must also be
accounted for. Similarly, any definition of a failure
surface based on the critical state model must
consider that the specific volume measured for an
entire sample is the average specific volume within
softened fissures and unaltered segments.
Still, considering the inevitable inhomogeneity of
the test samples with regard to water content, it is
very encouraging that, for these test on Pierre shale,
the peak shear strength following slaking was indeed
dependent on strictly the stress state and the specific
volume for a given sample orientation.
REFERENCES
Atkinson, J.H. & P.L. Bransby 1978. The Mechanics
of Soils: An Introduction to Critical State Soil
Mechanics, London: McGraw-Hill.
Bjerrum, L. 1967. Progressive failure in slopes of
overconsolidated clay and clay shales, J.Soil
Mech.Found.Div, 2:1-54.
Botts, M. 1986. The Effects of Slaking on the
Engineering Behavior of Clay Shales, PhD
Thesis, Univ. of Colorado [digital versions
available at http://vast.uah.edu/publications.
Brooker, E.W. 1967. Strain energy and behavior of
overconsolidated soils, Can.Geotech.J., 4(3):
326-333.
Cancelli, A. 1981. Evolution of slopes in
overconsolidated clays, Proc. 10th Intl.Conf. Soil
Mech.Found.Eng., Stockholm, 3:377-380.
Fairhurst, C. 1964. On the validity of the Brazilian
test for brittle materials, Intl.J.Rock Mech.Min.
Sci. 1, 535-546.
Fenelli, G.B., M. Paparo Filomarino, L. Picarelli, &
F. Rippa 1982. Proprieta fisiche e meccaniche di
argille varicolori dell' Irpinia, Rivista Ital. Di
Geot., Anno XVI (3): 110-124.
Fleming, R.W., G.S. Spencer, & D.C. Banks 1970.
Empirical study of behavior of clay shale slopes,
U.S. Army Eng. Nuclear Cratering Group Tech.
Report No. 12, v. 1& 2.
Leonards, G.A. & B.K. Ramiah 1960. Time effects
in the consolidation of clays, ASTM
Spec.Tech.Pub 254: 116-130.
Skempton, A.W. 1964. Long term stability of clay
slopes, Geotechnique, 14:77.
Skempton, A.W. 1977. Slope stability of cuttings in
brown London clay, Proc. 5th Intl.Conf.Soil
Mech.Found.Eng, Tokyo, 3:261-270.
Tourtelot, H.A. 1962. Preliminary investigation of
the geological setting and chemical composition
of the Pierre shale, Great plains Region, USGS
Prof. Paper 390: pp.72.