Industrial

applications of
power electronics
Submitted to: Dr. S. K. Raghuwanshi

Submitted by: SUMIT SINGH 2010JE1145 B.TECH ECE VI SEM 2012-13

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The achievement, the reward, the pleasure, the satisfaction, the appreciation and the construction of my project cannot be thought of without the few who apart from their regular schedule shared their valuable time for me. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. S. K. Raghuwanshi (Assistant Professor, ISM Dhanbad) for giving me the Project in the first instance. I would also like to thank The Librarian, Central Library of ISM with whose support I could easily get the books and materials required to complete this project. I would also like to thank all my friends, my colleagues and all those persons who provided me feedback and help regarding this project. Last but certainly not the least; I thank my parents for giving me unflinching support throughout my project. Their blessings and love ablaze me to reach my goal. They stood rock solid through ups and downs all through the project period.

Sumit Singh 3rd Year Undergraduate Student Department of Electronics Engineering Indian School of Mines (ISM), Dhanbad

Contents :

1. Switching Mode Power Supplies (SMPSs)

2. Static Switches

3. High Voltage DC Transmission (HVDC)

4. Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPSs)

5. Static VAr compensator

6.Bibliography

SMPS: switched-mode power supply

A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source, like mains power, to a load, such as a personal computer, while converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching-mode supply continually switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. Ideally, a switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched-mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight.

Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required. They are, however, more complicated; their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor.

Theory of operation

A linear regulator provides the desired output voltage by dissipating excess power in ohmic losses (e.g., in a resistor or in the collectoremitter region of a pass transistor in its active mode). A linear regulator regulates either output voltage or current by dissipating the excess electric power in the form of heat, and hence its maximum power efficiency is voltage-out/voltage-in since the volt difference is wasted. In contrast, a switched-mode power supply regulates either output voltage or current by switching ideal storage elements, like inductors and capacitors, into and out of different electrical configurations. Ideal switching elements (e.g., transistors operated outside of their active mode) have no resistance when "closed" and carry no current when "open", and so the converters can theoretically operate with 100% efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is wasted as dissipated heat).

The basic schematic of a boost converter. For example, if a DC source, an inductor, a switch, and the corresponding electrical ground are placed in series and the switch is driven by a square wave, the peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform measured across the switch can exceed the input voltage from the DC source. This is because the inductor responds to changes in current by inducing its own voltage to counter the change in current, and this voltage adds to the source voltage while the switch is open. If a diode-and-capacitor combination is placed in parallel to the switch, the peak voltage can be stored in the capacitor, and the capacitor can be used as a DC source with an output voltage greater than the DC voltage driving the circuit. This boost converter acts like a step-up transformer for DC signals. A buckboost converter works in a similar manner, but yields an output voltage which is opposite in polarity to the input voltage. Other buck circuits exist to boost the average output current with a reduction of voltage. In an SMPS, the output current flow depends on the input power signal, the storage elements and circuit topologies used, and also on the pattern used (e.g., pulse-width modulation with an adjustable duty cycle) to drive the switching elements. The spectral density of these switching waveforms has energy concentrated at relatively high frequencies. As such, switching transients, like ripple, introduced onto the output waveforms can be filtered with small LC filters.

Static switches:
A transfer switch is an electrical switch that switches a load between two sources. Some transfer switches are manual, in that an operator effects the transfer by throwing a switch, while others are automatic and switch when they sense one of the sources has lost or gained power. An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is often installed where a backup generator is located, so that the generator may provide temporary electrical power if the utility source fails.

Operation of a transfer switch

As well as transferring the load to the backup generator, an ATS may also command the backup generator to start, based on the voltage monitored on the primary supply. The transfer switch isolates the backup generator from the electric utility when the generator is on and is providing temporary power. The control capability of a transfer switch may be manual only, or a combination of automatic and manual. The switch transition mode (see below) of a transfer switch may be Open Transition (OT) (the usual type), or Closed Transition (CT). For example, in a home equipped with a backup generator and an ATS, when an electric utility outage occurs, the ATS will tell the backup generator to start. Once the ATS sees that the generator is ready to provide electric power, the ATS breaks the home's connection to the electric utility and connects the generator to the home's main electrical panel. The generator supplies power to the home's electric load, but is not connected to the electric utility lines. It is necessary to isolate the generator from the distribution system to protect the generator from overload in powering loads beyond the house and for safety, as utility workers expect the lines to be dead. When utility power returns for a minimum time, the transfer switch will transfer the house back to utility power and command the generator to turn off, after another specified amount of "cool down" time with no load on the generator. A transfer switch can be set up to provide power only to critical circuits or to entire electrical (sub)panels. Some transfer switches allow for load shedding or prioritization of optional circuits, such as heating and cooling equipment. More complex emergency switchgear used in large backup generator installations permits soft loading, allowing load to be smoothly transferred from the utility to the synchronized generators, and back; such installations are useful for reducing peak load demand from a utility.

Types
Open transition An open transition transfer switch is also called a break before make transfer switch. A break before make transfer switch breaks contact with one source of power before it makes

contact with another. It prevents backfeeding from an emergency generator back into the utility line, for example.One example is an open transition automatic transfer switch (ATS). During the split second of the power transfer the flow of electricity is interrupted. Another example is a manual three position circuit breaker, with utility power on one side, the generator on the other, and "off" in the middle, which requires the user to switch through the full disconnect "off" position before making the next connection. Closed transition A closed transition transfer switch is also called a make before break transfer switch. A typical emergency system uses open transition, so there is an inherent momentary interruption of power to the load when it is transferred from one available source to another (keeping in mind that the transfer may be occurring for reasons other than a total loss of power). In most cases this outage is inconsequential, particularly if it is less than 1/6 of a second. There are some loads, however, that are affected by even the slightest loss of power. There are also operational conditions where it may be desirable to transfer loads with zero interruption of power when conditions permit. For these applications, closed transition transfer switches can be provided. The switch will operate in a make-before-break mode provided both sources are acceptable and synchronized. Typical parameters determining synchronization are: voltage difference less than 5%, frequency difference less than 0.2 Hz, and maximum phase angle between the sources of 5 electrical degrees. This means the engine driving the generator supplying one of the sources generally must be controlled by an isochronous governor. It is generally required that the closed transition, or overlap time, be less than 100 milliseconds. If either source is not present or not acceptable (such as when normal power fails) the switch must operate in a break-before-make mode (standard open transition operation) to ensure no backfeeding occurs. Closed transition transfer makes code-mandated monthly testing less objectionable because it eliminates the interruption to critical loads which occurs during traditional open transition transfer. With closed transition transfer, the on-site engine generator set is momentarily connected in parallel with the utility source. This requires getting approval from the local utility company.

Typical load switching applications for which closed transition transfer is desirable include data processing and electronic loads, certain motor and transformer loads, load curtailment systems, or anywhere load interruptions of even the shortest duration are objectionable. A closed transition transfer switch (CTTS) is not a substitute for a UPS (uninterruptible power supply); a UPS has a built-in stored energy that provides power for a prescribed period of time in the event of a power failure. A CTTS by itself simply assures there will be no momentary loss of power when the load is transferred from one live power source to another Soft loading A soft-loading transfer switch actively changes the amount of load accepted by the generator. Static transfer switch A static transfer switch uses power semiconductors such as Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) to transfer a load between two sources. Because there are no mechanical moving parts, the transfer can be completed rapidly, perhaps within a quarter-cycle of the power frequency. Static transfer switches can be used where a reliable and independent second source of power is available and it is necessary to protect the load from even a few power frequency cycles interruption time, or from any surges or sags in the prime power source. Home use

Homes with standby generators may use a transfer switch for a few circuits or the whole home. Different models are available, with both manual and automatic transfer. Often small transfer switch systems use circuit breakers with an external operating linkage as the switching mechanism. The linkage operates two circuit breakers in tandem, closing one while opening the other. Manufacturers of transfer switches can provide installation guides to select the size of switch and provide recommended installation procedures. Electrical codes require transfer switches, Like all other electrical apparatus, to carry safety approvals. However, and there have been problems with counterfeit circuit breakers, particularly those sold via the Internet

High Voltage DC Transmission (HVDC):

A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system uses direct current for the bulk transmission of electrical power, in contrast with the more common alternating current systems. For long-distance transmission, HVDC systems may be less expensive and suffer lower electrical losses. For underwater power cables, HVDC avoids the heavy currents required to charge and discharge the cable capacitance each cycle. For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC conversion equipment compared to an AC system may still be warranted, due to other benefits of direct current links. HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution systems, and can increase system stability by preventing cascading failures due to phase instability from propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to another. HVDC also allows transfer of power between grid systems running at different frequencies, such as 50 Hz vs. 60 Hz. Such interconnections improve the stability of each grid, since they increase the opportunity for any grid experiencing unusual loads to stay in service by drawing extra power from otherwise completely incompatible grids. The modern form of HVDC transmission uses technology developed extensively in the 1930s in Sweden (ASEA) and in Germany. Early commercial installations included one in the Soviet Union in 1951 between Moscow and Kashira, and a 100 kV, 20 MW system between Gotland and mainland Sweden in 1954. The longest HVDC link in the world is currently the XiangjiabaShanghai 2,071 km (1,287 mi), 800 kV, 6400 MW link connecting the Xiangjiaba Dam to Shanghai, in the People's Republic of China.Early in 2013, the longest HVDC link will be the Rio Madeira link in Brazil, which consists of two bipoles of 600 kV, 3150 MW each, connecting Porto Velho in the state of Rondnia to the So Paulo area, where the length of the DC line is over 2,500 km (1,600 mi).

High voltage transmission : High voltage is used for electric power transmission to reduce the energy lost in the resistance of the wires. For a given quantity of power transmitted and conductor size, doubling the voltage will deliver the same power at only half the current. Since the power lost as heat in the wires is proportional to the square of the current, but does not depend on the voltage, doubling the voltage reduces the line-loss loss per unit of electrical power

delivered by a factor of 4. While power lost in transmission can also be reduced by increasing the conductor size, larger conductors are heavier and more expensive. High voltages cannot easily be used for lighting and motors, and so transmission-level voltages must be reduced to values compatible with end-use equipment. Transformers are used to change the voltage level in alternating current (AC) transmission circuits. AC became dominant after the War of Currents competition between the direct current (DC) system of Thomas Edison and the AC system of George Westinghouse because transformers made voltage changes practical and generators using AC were more efficient than those using DC. Practical conversion between AC and high power high voltage DC became possible with the development of power electronics devices such as mercury arc valves and, starting in the 1970s, semiconductor devices such as thyristors and later variants such as integrated gatecommutated thyristors (IGCTs), MOS-controlled thyristors (MCTs) and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT)

Advantages of HVDC over AC transmission

The most common reason for choosing HVDC over AC transmission is that HVDC is more economic than AC for transmitting large amounts of power point-to-point over long distances. A long distance, high power HVDC transmission scheme generally has lower capital costs and lower losses than an AC transmission link. Even though HVDC conversion equipment at the terminal stations is costly, overall savings in capital cost may arise because of significantly reduced transmission line costs over long distance routes. HVDC needs fewer conductors than an AC line, as there is no need to support three phases. Also, thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does not suffer from the skin effect. These factors can lead to large reductions in transmission line cost for a long distance HVDC scheme. Depending on voltage level and construction details, HVDC transmission losses are quoted as about 3.5% per 1,000 km, which is less than typical losses in an AC transmission system. HVDC transmission may also be selected because of other technical benefits that it provides for the power system. HVDC schemes can transfer power between separate AC networks. HVDC powerflow between separate AC systems can be automatically controlled to provide

support for either network during transient conditions, but without the risk that a major power system collapse in one network will lead to a collapse in the second. The combined economic and technical benefits of HVDC transmission can make it a suitable choice for connecting energy sources that are located remote from the main load centres. Specific applications where HVDC transmission technology provides benefits include: Undersea cables transmission schemes (e.g., 250 km Baltic Cable between Sweden and Germany, the 580 km NorNed cable between Norway and the Netherlands,and 290 km Basslink between the Australian mainland and Tasmania). Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without intermediate 'taps', for example, in remote areas, usually to connect a remote generating plant to the main grid, for example the Nelson River DC Transmission System. Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations where additional wires are difficult or expensive to install. Power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronised AC networks, with an extreme example being the ability to transfer power between different countries that use AC at differing frequencies. Since such transfer can occur in either direction, it increases the stability of both networks by allowing them to draw on each other in emergencies and failures. Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing prospective short circuit current.

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPSs):

An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically mains power, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary

or emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from input power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in batteries or a flywheel. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes) but sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down the protected equipment. A UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss. UPS units range in size from units designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200 VA rating) to large units powering entire data centers or buildings. The world's largest UPS, the 46megawatt, Battery Electric Storage System (BESS), in Fairbanks, AK, powers the entire city and nearby rural communities during outages. Offline / standby type :

Offline / standby UPS. Typical protection time: 020 minutes. Capacity expansion: Usually not available The offline / standby UPS (SPS) offers only the most basic features, providing surge protection and battery backup. The protected equipment is normally connected directly to incoming utility power. When the incoming voltage falls below a predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is powered from an internal storage battery. The SPS then mechanically switches the connected equipment on to its DCAC inverter output. The switchover time can be as long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the standby UPS to detect the lost utility voltage. The UPS will be

designed to power certain equipment, such as a personal computer, without any objectionable dip or brownout to that device

Static VAr compensator:

A static VAR compensator (or SVC) is an electrical device for providing fast-acting reactive power on high-voltage electricity transmission networks.[1][2] SVCs are part of the Flexible AC transmission system [3][4] device family, regulating voltage and stabilising the system. Unlike a synchronous condenser which is a rotating electrical machine, a static VAR compensator has no significant moving parts (other than internal switchgear). Prior to the invention of the SVC, power factor compensation was the preserve of large rotating machines such as synchronous condensers or switched capacitor banks.[5] The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system closer to unity power factor. SVCs are used in two main situations: Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage ("Transmission SVC") Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("Industrial SVC") In transmission applications, the SVC is used to regulate the grid voltage. If the power system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will use thyristor controlled reactors to consume VARs from the system, lowering the system voltage. Under inductive (lagging) conditions, the capacitor banks are automatically switched in, thus providing a higher system voltage. By connecting the thyristor-controlled reactor, which is continuously variable, along with a capacitor bank step, the net result is continuously-variable leading or lagging power. In industrial applications, SVCs are typically placed near high and rapidly varying loads, such as arc furnaces, where they can smooth flicker voltages

One-line diagram of a typical SVC configuration; here employing a thyristor controlled reactor, a thyristor switched capacitor, a harmonic filter, a mechanically switched capacitor and a mechanically switched reactor.

Bibliography:
1. A Textbook of Power Electronics by P S Bhimbra 2. Power Electronics by Muhhamed Rashid 3. Class notes Raghuwanshi by Dr. S.K.

4. Wikipedia