Mohammad Saeed Seif, Assistant Professor, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Mohammad Taghi Tavakoli, Research Assistance,

Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran,

NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR REDUCING FUEL CONSUMPTION IN MARINE VEHICLES

Summary This paper reviews different methods used for reducing the fuel consumption of marine vehicles in recent years. Methods for optimizing hull forms, use of microbubbles and new coating, weight saving and improvement of propulsion system efficiency are discussed. Moreover, different components of resistance and methods of drag reduction are investigated and new hull forms are presented.

Key words: Fuel Consumption, Advanced Marine Vehicles, Drag reduction

NOVE TEHNOLOGIJE SMANJENJA POTRONJE GORIVA MORSKIH PLOVILA

Saetak Ovaj rad obrauje razliite metode koje se posljednjih godina koriste za morska plovila. Obraene su metode optimizacije formi brodova, upotreba mikromjehuria i novih premaza, utede teina i poboljanje korisnosti propulzijskih sustava. tovie, istraene su razliite komponente otpora i metode smanjenja otpora, te su predstavljene nove forme brodova.

Kljune rijei: potronja goriva, napredna morska plovila, redukcija otpora

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1. Introduction The fuel costs are the second largest item (after salaries) on a big vessels budget. The fuel consumption for a large ferry ranges between 1000 and 5000 liters per hour. This means that the ship consumes more oil per hour than a one-family house does for one whole years heating. The annual fuel budget for a ferry running 20 hours per day is in the order of millions of dollars. Even small reductions of a few percent in the fuel consumption mean considerable annual savings. Following are some of the most important factors that affect the fuel consumption of a ship: Ship-specific parameters such as form of the hull, weight, type of main engines, propellers. Number of engaged main engines. The ship speed. Water currents (direction and speed). Water depth under the keel. The ships draft (depends on the cargo). Wind and waves (direction and strength) [1]. There are several techniques to achieve fuel consumption reduction on marine vehicles (Fig. 1). In general, most methods are focused on reducing drag and some others try to increase efficiency of the propulsion system and operation The speed and power of a ship in a seaway depends on the ship's resistance, the action of propeller, engine, and the behavior of the ship in waves. These are discussed in the following sections.
Method of Fuel Consumption Reduction Improvement of propulsion

Weight Saving

Drag Reduction

Operation

Hull forms optimization

Polymer and Coating

Air lubrication

Modern Hull

Power Plants

New Propellers

Fuel improvement

New materials

Optimum Design

Ship Routing

Maintenances

Fig. 1 Methods of fuel consumption reduction Slika 1. Metode smanjenja potronje goriva

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2. Resistance definition As the resistance of a full scale ship cannot be measured directly, our knowledge about the ships resistance has to be gathered from model tests. The measured calm water resistance is usually decomposed into various components, although all these components usually interact and most of them cannot be measured individually. The concept of resistance decomposition helps in designing the hull form as the designer can focus on how to influence individual resistance components. Fig. 2 gives an overview of resistance decomposition.

1.1.
Added resistance in wave

Total resistance
Aerodynamic resistance

Calm water resistance

Residual resistance

Skin friction resistance (Equivalent flat plate)

Form effect on skin friction

Pressure resistance

Friction resistance

Wave resistance

Viscous pressure resistance

Wave making resistance

Wave breaking resistance Fig. 2 Components of ship resistance Slika 2. Komponente otpora broda

Viscous

The total calm water resistance of a new ship hull can be decomposed into different components. The main items are explained below: Friction resistance Due to viscosity, directly at the ship hull water particles cling to the surface and move with ship speed. The integral of the shear stresses over the wetted surface of ship yield the friction resistance. Viscous pressure resistance The form of the ship induces a local flow field with velocities that are sometimes higher and sometimes lower than the average velocity. The average of the resulting shear stresses is then higher. Also energy losses in the boundary layer, vortices and flow separation prevent an

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increase to stagnation pressure in the after body as predicted in an ideal fluid theory. Full ship forms have a higher viscous pressure resistance than slender ship forms. Wave resistance The ship creates a typical wave system, which contributes to the total resistance. The wave resistance cannot be properly estimated by simple design formulae. It is usually determined in model tests. Although efforts to compute the wave resistance by theoretical methods back to more than 100 years, the problem is still not completely solved satisfactorily [2]. Aerodynamic resistance The aerodynamic resistance of a high performance vessel becomes a significant component of the total resistance at high speeds. Full-scale trials of modern sport fishing boats with and without full towers indicate an aerodynamic component on the order of 9 percent at speeds of 32 to 35 knots. The hull and deckhouse can also produce significant aerodynamic drag at high speed, while the external shape of the superstructure may be streamlined to reduce drag. Added resistance in waves Added resistance in waves is for sea conditions stated for the vessels operational requirements. Model testing is helpful in determining this resistance component and there are also some numerical methods for evaluation of this component [3]. 3. Drag reduction 3.1. Hull form optimization The Navy and maritime communities depend on our accumulated hydrodynamic expertise for enhancing vehicle performance, reducing operating costs, and meeting the changing Navy mission, which often demands dramatic hull form and propulsor variation. The objective of such research was to investigate Optimization techniques for drag reduction in view of the enhancement of ship design procedures, specially applied to hydrodynamics. It was thus necessary to find approaches that ensure the global validity of optimal design approaches, and that allow more dedicated and refined hydrodynamic design optimization. The alternative approach consisted of making a complete optimal design available. One major innovative feature is the ability to deal with several, possibly conflicting objectives, and come to a set of best solution from which the designer can extract the trade-off that best suits his needs. Finally, some work was initiated on the methodologies towards the involvement of optimal design technologies in a concurrent design approach, including several teams with partly overlapping sets of design variable and conflicting objectives [4]. These methods are mostly based on CFD modeling and final results are tested in Towing Tank for better evaluation. 3.2. Polymer and coating The addition of a small amount of polymer to a turbulent Newtonian fluid flow can result in a drag reduction, which appears in a number of flow fields, and has received considerable attention since the initial publications of Toms [5] and Mysels [6]. During the past three decades, vast numbers of papers have appeared on polymeric drag reduction, which can be roughly divided into three categories [7]. The first category includes

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studies on drag reduction from a molecular perspective. The behavior of polymer molecules in various model flows (e.g. simple shear, pure strain, etc.) was examined. One of the most thorough literature reviews of the dynamics of polymer molecules in turbulent flows was written by Lumley [8]. He reported a consensus option that drag-reducing polymer molecules in turbulent boundary layers are stretched by the flow, resulting in an increase in the total increase in the local fluid viscosity. A recent theoretical study was conducted by Rabin & Zielinska [9]. They examined the effect of polymer molecules on the vortices distribution in elongational flows and argued that there will be a shift in the turbulent energy from high down to low wave numbers. The second category includes studies on the effects of polymers on the time-averaged turbulence statistics. One of the best examples of this type of research was done by Virk [10]. They measured streamwise velocity in a drag-reducing pipe flow with different molecular weight polymers and different solvents. This work produced the well known Virk asymptote for drag reduction as a function of polymer concentration. With advances in instrumentation and visualization techniques, the third category arose, in which changes in coherent turbulent structure due to polymers are examined. Next technology is directed, not at reducing friction drag, but rather at trying to maintain the level of drag associated with a smooth surface through the use of anti-foulant coatings. These coatings can negate the increase in drag associated with marine fouling, but they offer no improvement over a clean smooth hull surface. Sea-Slide coating is a typical coating that reduces friction between hull and water and can be used over most anti-fouling paints. This is a unique coating with excellent drag reduction and can be used on personal water craft to improve speed and handling; on boats to improve speed and fuel consumption; on any other craft where reducing the drag through the water is important. 3.3. Air-lubricated ships Air cavity, Micro Bubble Drag Reduction and Air film, are three methods which are generated by air injection to super water repellent (SWR) coated ship. All techniques have proven to deliver a net drag reduction; net in this regard means that the propulsive power of the vessel was more reduced than the required additional power for the air supply. The achieved reductions are in excess of 5%, in other words, hardly any other existing technique offers so much potential to reduce either the power demand of sailing crafts or to let them sail faster with constant power. Most suitable for ships sailing at one particular target speed turned out to be the ACS concept, which is delivering the highest net reduction in a very narrow speed range. Air cavity is based on the successful usage of bottom ventilation aimed at reducing friction resistance. Air is supplied under the specially profiled bottom, so that a steady air layer is formed separating a considerable part of the bottom from the contact with water. Fig. 3 shows an image of the SeaCoaster. SeaCoaster, an air assisted catamaran is a hybrid of a standard catamaran and hovercraft design. Total power requirements including blowers is only 60 percent of a conventional catamaran [11].

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Fig. 3 SeaCoaster is hybrid of a standard catamaran and hovercraft design [11]. Slika 3. SeaCoaster je hibrid standardnog katamarana [11]. Fig. 4 The Seiun Maru Ship - air ejection ducts [13] Slika 4. Brod Seiun Maru ventili za ispuh zraka [13]

One of the advantages of an air cavity ship is that low air consumption required maintaining the cavity (ten times less than for SES). Experimental trials show that spending only 3% of the power from main propulsion system gives 25% drag reduction [12]. The idea of the micro-bubbles came for skin friction reduction of ships. Some specialists in Japan studied microbubble effect on resistance of displacement ships. They estimated that by use of micro-bubble at the bottom of ships, 5% of ship drag is reduced. One reason for that study is that displacement ship skin friction resistance component occupies about 80% of the total resistance. Numerous laboratory experiments have shown that microbubbles are very effective in skin friction reduction. Research Committee performed a full-scale experiment using the Seiun-Maru in September 2001 (Fig. 4). The Seiun-Maru is a training ship that belongs to the National Institute for Sea Training, Japan [13]. Fig.5 shows an example of its skin friction reduction effect. The data was taken in a circulating water tunnel, where the bubbles were injected at the top flat wall and skin friction was measured by a skin friction sensor placed downstream of the injection point. The horizontal axis shows the amount of injected air and the vertical axis shows the ratio of reduced skin friction to that at non-bubble condition. This figure shows that, as the amount of injected air increases, skin friction reduction effect by microbubbles increases up to 80% [14].
Plate

Integrated

Skin

Fig. 5 Measured skin friction reduction by microbubbles [14] Slika 5. Izmjerena redukcija trenja oplate zbog mikromjehuria [14]

Fig. 6 Thrust increase by microbubbles [15] Slika 6. Poveanje poriva zbog mikromjehuria [15]

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Another vessel explained here is a SES Catamaran (made in USA) fitted with micro-bubble drag reduction (MBDR) system. This vessel uses two micro-bubble injections from the vertical hull sides. The model tests showed this MBDR system achieved an overall resistance reduction of 5-15%. Also the full-scale trials recorded a 2.5-3% speed increase at 40-45 kn [16]. The survey of Latorre and Bablenko [17] showed the reduction in the local skin friction is sensitive to the bubble orientation on the surface. Fig. 6 shows the results, in which the bubbles were ejected from ejection ducts, with the maximum compressor power (ALL MAX) and one Half of the maximum power [16]. 3.4. New hull forms New hull forms have been successful in altering the character and reducing the level of residuary drag of hull forms. The past two decades have witnessed a multitude of developments for fast and unconventional marine vehicles for various applications, notably navy applications, fast ferries and racing boats/fast yachts. These vehicles are frequently referred to as highperformance marine vehicles (HPMV) or high-speed craft (HSC). The term HPMV is more popular with navies, while HSC is adopted by various rules of IMO (International Maritime Organization) and classification societies. This review of assorted HPMV draws on previous publications. Papanikolaou [18] focuses in his HPMV review rather on the commercial market, ANEP [19], Azcueta and Bertram [20], on HPMV as naval platforms. The technological feedback from the racing scene into military and commercial fast vessels often is considerable, e.g. Acampora [21].
Fig. 7 shows main methods for decreasing resistance of boats and ships in new hull forms. At the present, there are many high-speed crafts, which are designed and constructed according to these methods. Some of the advanced marine vehicles have the displacement volume above the water surface e.g. planing crafts, ACV and WIG. This can be achieved by combination of hydrostatic, hydrodynamic, aerostatic and aerodynamic forces. The others have the displacement volume below the water surface, e.g. SWATH and SLICE. In the following sections each of these types are described briefly and then relative advantages of these types are compared with each other [22].
Other Concepts

Multi Hull Ships

SWATH

Hybrid

Wing in Ground

Methods of Drag Reduction

&

High L B

Air Cushion

Hydrofoil

Planing ship

Fig. 7 Methods of drag reduction Slika 7. Metode smanjenja otpora

Fig. 8 Slice reduces wave-making resistance at high Speed [23] Slika 8.

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Multihull Ship Increasing the speed of a conventional displacement ship is only possible to a certain extent. At Froude numbers approximately Fn>0.4, wave resistance increases disproportionately with ship speed for most ship hull forms. One approach for fast ships, particularly those requiring or benefiting from considerable deck area, are multihulls allowing very thin waterline entrance angles while ensuring sufficient stability. The most popular multihulls are catamarans, Jansson and Lamb [24]. SWATH and SLICE Early SWATH (Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull) ships are semi-submerged catamarans; prototypes have been built as technology demonstrators for the US navy and the Japanese navy. Most SWATH ships were designed for speeds lower than 25 knots. The SWATH concept is a type of catamaran that features two fully submerged hulls, each connected to a structure by one or more relatively thin struts. The innovation lies in the arrangement of the Slices buoyancy while a standard SWATH has two Coke-bottle-shaped hulls running the full length of the ship. As shown in fig. 8, the SLICE advantage can reduce propulsion power, required to achieve the same speed, by 20% to 35% or for the same power, increase the speed by 3 knot [23]. Slices short hulls are able to push through the wave "hump" much more quickly. Slice has the same stable ride as a SWATH, but can go faster with the same horsepower [25]. Adding to these benefits, SLICE has higher speed, reduced wake, better range, endurance and fuel consumption, and is built utilizing conventional shipyard practices, including design, construction, materials and equipment. Monohulls (High L B ) The wave-piercing principle can also be applied to displacement monohulls like the German MTG project of a 7000 t frigate. Kvaerner Masayards and Guy Design Group in Finland teamed up to develop the Euroexpress design, a futuristic wave-piercing fast ferry design, Fig. 9. The craft has a long slender hull shape with two large chines to generate lift and dynamic stability. The designers feel the craft will be capable of reaching speeds in the 40-60 knot range with a length to beam ratio of about 9:1.

Fig. 9 Euroexpress of Kvaerner Slika 9. Kvaernerov Euroexpress

Fig. 10 Typically resistance curves for a catamaran and a planing craft Slika 10. Tipine krivulje otpora za katamaranske i glisirajue forme

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Planing Craft They have a simple hull structure. The numbers of planing crafts in the world are very high and have been used for passenger transportation, military purposes, racing, and pleasure and so on. Planing boats are designed to rise up on top of the water. They can go very fast, but need more power to get up on top of the water. The heavier the boat, the more power required to get it "on plane." At high speeds it rises from water, which almost 80% of weight will be supported by hydrodynamic forces. Fig. 10 shows typical resistance curves for a catamaran and a planing craft of the same displacement. Catamarans have low resistance at low speed and perform better than a planing craft in preplaning region. However at planing speeds the advantages return to planing craft. Hydrofoil crafts Hydrofoils, similar to airplanes, use wing surfaces to generate lift (Fig. 11). Since water density is much greater than that of the air, the area of hydrofoil surface can be very small compared to airplane wings. Hydrofoils can be either surface-piercing hydrofoils (SPH) or fully submerged hydrofoils (FSH). Fig.12 shows effect of Sea State on hydrofoil speed for a submerged-foil hydrofoil ship in actual sea conditions. The curve shows only a modest reduction in speed as wave heights increase. The principal disadvantage of the hydrofoil craft is the limited payload capability and large draft [26].
50 Speed(knots) 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Significant Wave Height(meters) 6
2 3 4 50-knot hydrofoil operating envelope

Sea State
5 6

Fig. 11 Jetfoil fully submerged hydrofoils Slika 11. Jetfoil potpuno uronjeni hidrokrilci

Fig. 12 Effect of Sea State on Hydrofoil Speed Curve [26] Slika 12. Utjecaj stanja mora na krivulju brzine hidrokrilca [26]

Air Cushion Vehicles The amphibious hovercraft is supported totally by its air cushion, with an air curtain (high pressure jet) or a flexible skirt system around its periphery to seal the cushion air. The outstanding features of ACV's or Air cushion vehicles are their ability to operate at very high speeds, their low vulnerability to underwater explosions, their small draft and underwater signatures and foremost their amphibious capability.[27].

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35 30 25 20 10 5 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

L/D 15

h/c

Fig. 13 Atlantis I WIG project [28] Slika 13. Atlantis I WIG projekt [28]

Fig. 14 The influence of ground effect on lift-to-drag ratio [29] Slika 14. Utjecaj dubine na odnos uzgon otpor [29]

Another type of vessels which operate like an ACV are commonly known as SES (surface effect ships), SES is a catamaran type vessel which contains an air cushion between both side hull structure at the forward and aft ends. Wing-in-Ground A WIG (Wing-In-Ground Effect) craft can be seen as a vessel between an ACV and an aircraft. The principle of the WIG craft is based on a phenomenon called the "GROUND" effect (Fig. 13). If the wing approaches to the ground, the lifting force of the wing increase, fig.14 illustrates as the wing approaches to the ground, the lift increases significantly while the drag varies little, resulting in a higher lift-to-drag ratio and transport efficiency becomes better [29]. It has a very high transport efficiency compared to airplanes expressed as the amount of fuel used per passenger per km. [30] Further studies and developments in these types of vessels are going on in Germany, USA, China, Japan and some other countries. Hybrid Forms Several hybrid designs combine buoyancy, hydrodynamic and other forms of lift force. The HYSWAS (hybrid small water plane area single hull) is a mental version with a deeply submerged torpedo-like buoyancy body and hydrofoils giving 30%-70% of the required lift force. The HYSUCAT is a hybrid of a catamaran hull fitted with a hydrofoil system, which carries part of the craft's weight at speed resulting in a most economical high speed craft. This is accomplished through dynamic lift, which reduces the wetted area of a catamaran in water. Lift created by hydrofoil reduces the resistance of the craft up to 45%. The craft consequently is propelled with lower power input at reduced fuel consumption. Several types have been built as patrol boats reaching speeds up to 50 knots. Notice that the foil design is sensitive and requires tailoring towards specific design conditions [31]. High Aspect Ratio Twin Hull (H.A.R.T.H.) is still a basic displacement hull. It does not use horsepower to lift, or rise, it above the waves like hydrofoil. It does not have gyros, shifting ballast, or trim tabs, to make it ride level, and remain straight and true, in high seas. Buoyancy holds it up, and the well-understood physics of hydrostatic pressure, keeps the hull straight and true. According to the developer, if the power is lost in seas, HARTH ships are designed for stability, with a geometry that assures dynamic wave averaging. HARTH ships are still at the prototype testing stage and not all information related to this technology is available. Fig. 15 shows an artist concept of a 360-passenger ferry [11].

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Other concepts
Among the many other types of hybrid craft and unconventional hull forms no discussed in this short overview due to time and space limitations, are:

Fast monohull by Blohm+Voss, a displacement hull with the hull volume as deep submerged as possible. Deep-V monohull with excellent calm water performance and payload, acceptable seakeeping. Fast catamarans, usually planing or almost-planing hulls. Weinblume, are catamarans with staggered hulls excellent wave resistance at moderate speeds, acceptable seakeeping, and low washing [27].

Fig. 15 HARTH ships, concept of a 360 passengers ferry [11] Slika 15. HARTH brodovi, koncept za trajekt za 360 putnika [11]

Fig. 16 Typical water jet Slika 16. Tipini vodomlazni propulzor

4. Improvement Propulsion System The demand for reduced fuel consumption in marine transportation challenges the designers to select propulsion system that meets performance requirements economically throughout different operational profiles. The combined hydrodynamic characteristics of hull and propulsors result in a speed-thrust relationship for the environment in which the vessel operation takes place. 4.1. Propeller system Most vessels utilize fixed-pitch submerged propellers. Surface propellers are fitted to vessels which operate perform at very high speeds or to those with an operational draft limitation. Waterjet propulsors are utilized for increased frequency demand on larger vessels with high-speed operational profile [3]. Water jet The concept of waterjet propulsion dates back to 1661 when Toogood and Hays first proposed this form of propulsion. Its use in the intervening years has been confident principally to small high-speed pleasure and work boat situations where high maneuverability is required with perhaps a draught limitation. It is only in recent years that the waterjet has been considered for large high-speed crafts. This propulsion is simpler, lighter and more efficient than screw propellers. A typical form of a waterjet propulsion system is shown in Fig. 16 [32]. Surface Piercing Propeller At present, supercavitating propellers and waterjet propellers are popular propulsive devices for high-speed crafts. But surface piercing propellers have more possibility of high-speed

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performance. Fig. 17 shows approximate efficiency of different propulsion types. Surface propellers also known as partially submerged propellers, are special propulsive devices, which have the following excellent advantages: 1) High propulsive efficiency 2) Shaft resistance and hub resistance avoidance 3) Low probability of Cavitation occurrence It is found that propeller efficiency in high speed range of SPP is higher compared to other types of propellers and even addition of appropriate horizontal rake angle increases propeller forward efficiency. But SPP equipped crafts are a few in spite of high performance. The reason is the lack of well-organized data of SPPs because of their intricate phenomena. Another reason is lack of quantitative researches on excepted weak points as mentioned below. 1) High level of bearing forces and moments, or vibratory forces and moments 2) High level of blade stress 3) Reduction in performance [in back ward motion [33]]. Fig. 18 shows a typical form of SPP.

Fig. 17 Approximate efficiency of propulsion devices Slika 17. Priblina korisnost propulzijskih ureaja

Fig. 18 Simple sketch of surface piercing propeller Slika 18. Jednostavna skica

4.2.

Prime Movers

Nowadays, research and development in the field of main engines have resulted in much better fuel consumption. Gas Turbine Approaches to obtaining higher power output and improved efficiency were considered. Clearly the advanced gas turbine has [center stage] in the world for converting fuel to work. The power and efficiency delivered by the advanced gas turbine have made it the predominant prime mover in the sea. The enhancement options of gas turbines are: 1) intercooling, 2) thermal [recuperation], 3) steam injection, 4) reheat, 5) closed loop cooling, 6) catalytic partial oxidation and 7) water recovery [34]. Fuel Cells Recent advances in fuel cell technology have occurred which make fuel cells increasingly attractive for naval ship and commercial marine applications. Fuel cell systems have been identified as promising power generators for both ship service power and hybrid propulsion systems. They are among the cleanest, most efficient innovations being developed for future power generation. Fuel cells generate electricity and heat from an electrochemical reaction,

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rather than relying on combustion. Advantages of fuel cells are their compact size, mobility, modularity, and quiet operation. [35] Plants with combined system Modern combined plants usually comprise combinations of diesel engines, steam turbines, gas turbines and electric motors. Such plants are more commonly found in naval vessels. [One example is ferry which have been retrofitted with electric motor or diesel engine power animating main propulsion thruster units to increase service speed and improve maneuverability as well. [31]. Typical modern systems of combined propulsion machinery are thus: COSAG, CODOG, CODAG, CODLOG and etc. 5. Operation 5.1. Ship routing For the past twenty years, ships officers have been able to make use of routing advises from weather routing departments, connected with meteorological institutes. With a known or expected rough weather pattern on the ocean, an optimum ships route, with respect to a minimum traveling time, fuel consumption or risk of damage, can be found. The forecast of wind and waves is a meteorological problem. The prediction of the ships reaction to wind and waves, in particular the ships speed, is usually based on routing experience with the ship under consideration, or with similar ships. For an accurate routing of ships the routing officer needs reliable speed loss information for every sea condition. Developments in the last decade make it possible to calculate the speed in a seaway. In 1974 the Shipbuilding Institute of Hamburg University published a program system with respect to this subject [36]. The Delft University of Technology has also published a prediction method for speed, power and motions in a seaway [37]. These computer programs can help to avoid dangerous situations, minimize traveling time and reduce fuel consumption. The speed of a ship in a seaway depends on the ship's resistance, the action of propeller and engine, and the behavior of the ship in waves. The effect of routing on the operational costs is to be found mainly in the fuel and lubricating oil costs. Maintenance and repair costs are also affected, but it is very difficult to find exact data on this subject. One of the parameters on which the consumption of fuel and lubricating oil at sea is dependent is the type of weather encountered by the ship during the voyage in a given period. In rough weather the resistance of a ship increases due to the effects of wind and waves. With the main engine set at constant rev/min sailing through a wave field implies a speed reduction and an Increase of the engine output. Thus the time necessary to sail a distinct route increases together with the fuel consumption over that route. 5.2. Maintenance Hull maintenance The loss of speed or the increase in fuel consumption owing to the growth of marine weed and small molluscs on the hull is a more significant problem for marine vessel operators than hull roughness. The rate of weed and mollusc growth depends on: the mode of operation of the vessel; the effectiveness of any antifouling paint that has been applied; and Local environmental conditions, especially water temperature - the warmer the water, the faster weed grow.

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Fig. 20 Typical increase in power required to maintain vessel speed of a fast fine ship vs increasing hull roughness Fig. 19 Power increase due to fouling Slika 19. Slika 20. Typical increase in power required to maintain vessel speed of a fast fine ship vs increasing hull roughness

Fouling will only affect the friction part of the ships resistance, for instance, an increase of the frictional resistance by about 30 per cent for a ship with an age of five years and a time since last docking of year. The effect of fouling is much larger for tankers than for container ships. An investigation made by the author from log data of a 200,000 tdw tanker, sailing from Europe to the Persian Gulf, showed an increase of the still water resistance. For full load and ballast condition, this increase was as 26 to 29 per cent one year after the last docking, and 47 to 52 per cent two years after the last docking. After the oil crisis these ships reduced power by 50 per cent, resulting in a speed reduction for the clean hull of 16 to 13 knots. To maintain this speed two years after the last docking the power of a fully loaded ship had to be increased from 50 to over 80 per cent; see Fig. 19. Estimates indicate that fouling can contribute to an increase in fuel consumption of up to 7 percent after only one month, and 44 percent after six months, but can be reduced significantly through the use of antifouling paints [38]. Fig. 20 shows the increase in power required and hence the typical increase in fuel consumption necessary to maintain vessel speed of a fast fine ship (e.g. Container Liner) versus increasing physical hull roughness. Engine maintenance Careful initial running-in and regular maintenance are extremely important for ensuring the reliability as well as the performance (including fuel consumption) of any engine. This applies equally to inboard and outboard marine engines. Every engine manufacturer recommends service intervals and these should be adhered to rigorously, especially for basic services such oil changes and filter and separator replacement.
A new or reconditioned engine needs to be run in carefully The engine manufacturer's maintenance programme must be followed Complicated mechanical work should be entrusted to a qualified mechanic

6. Weight saving In the maritime sector, weight reduction is getting more and more important, just as in the automotive and aerospace sector. Especially parts that are placed high on the ship have a significant effect on the stability of the ship. Every kilogram saved on top of the ship saves three

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kilograms in the keel necessary for stability. Weight reduction can have a big influence on the draught of the ship and can therefore reduce fuel consumption. Saving structural weight can provide the designer with trade-off leverage that will have significant effect upon increasing the useful load capacity and fuel consumption of a vessel. The trends for useful load fraction (as well as weight fractions for structure, machinery, and other fixed weights) for four planing hulls have been studied in ref. [39]. These trends are extrapolated to hull sizes up to 1000 tons. It is found that the useful load fraction increase with increasing displacement. The term useful load includes military payload, ships fuel and potable water, ships complement and effects, and stores [3]. 6.1. New materials Several commercially available materials and technologies can be used now to improve today's marine vehicle. High-strength steels could reduce weight without reducing protection, and aluminum and magnesium alloys could replace steel altogether in some components. Also, ceramic- and metal-matrix composites could reduce the weight of braking systems without sacrificing performance. Dry cargo ships have been affected by new design trends that emphasize a need for lower topside weight. Heavier cargo handling gear and related machinery, and more narrow, hydrodynamically contoured, high-speed hulls have increased stability problems. Thus, weight saving is required to permit more efficient hull designs. 6.2. Optimum design Ship structural design has a large influence on issues such as useful service life, maintenance requirements, and the overall cost of operation. This influence is especially prominent for very large vessels. The design of structural components (bulkheads, stiffeners, plating, connections, etc.) is governed by such factors as material selection and structural configuration requirements. The primary structure constitutes the most important aspect of any ship structural design. Currently, much of the design process is dictated by subjective experience, even for new designs, oftentimes resulting in a less-than-optimal design. The recent increase in information technologies dedicated to optimal design, associated with the progress of the numerical tools for predicting ship hydrodynamic performances, allows significant improvement in ship design [40]. The possible application of mathematical optimization to design problems was investigated early in many industrial sectors. However, in spite of the attractiveness of this approach, it was still rather unused in practical design applications up to recent years, for reasons related with the unavailability of numerical models for product performances evaluation, or the difficulty of operating them in a smooth way [41]. 7. Conclusion Most methods for reducing fuel consumption are reviewed in this paper. There are considerable potential for using these methods and many improvements can be made. Many of these methods are still investigated in the reasearch centers and conisderable studies are necessary for their application is marine transportation.

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New technologies for reducing fuel consumption in marine vehicles

REFERENCES
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New technologies for reducing fuel consumption in marine vehicles

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