Original citation: Ling, T.-C., Poon, C.-S.

(2013) High temperatures properties of barite concrete with CRT funnel glass. Fire and Materials, In press, Available online 15 February 2013 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fam.2181/abstract

High temperatures properties of barite concrete with CRT funnel glass

Tung-Chai Ling1,2, and Chi-Sun Poon1,*
1

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 2University of Birmingham

Abstract Heavyweight concrete has been used for different types of radiation shielding applications. Research studies have been performed to determine the mechanical properties of heavyweight concrete. However, relatively little information is available on the fire performance of heavyweight concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures. This study investigates the effects of elevated temperatures (25C, 300C, 500C, 600C and 800C) on the residual density, compressive strength and water sorptivity of heavyweight barite concrete. A control mix of normal granite concrete was produced for comparison. The influence of using treated cathode ray tube (CRT) funnel glass cullets as a fine aggregate replacement in the barite concrete was also examined. The results show that the type of aggregate used had a significant influence on the residual properties of concrete mainly due to their physical and mineralogical transformation upon heating. Incorporation of CRT glass in barite concrete seemed to increase the risk of explosive spalling after exposure to 500C. However, as the temperature was increased from 600C to 800C, the loss of mechanical properties of the concrete containing CRT glass was smaller due to the molten glass being able to fill the pores/cracks which was followed by resolidification upon cooling. Keywords: Heavyweight concrete, CRT funnel glass, barite, elevated temperatures, residual properties, spalling 1. Introduction Heavyweight concrete has superior radiation shielding properties compared to those of conventional concrete [1-3]. A key for producing heavyweight concrete (with density >2,600 kg/m3) is the employment of heavyweight aggregates that have specific densities of higher than 3,000 kg/m3 [4]. A number of research studies have been carried out to incorporate special natural heavyweight mineral ore such as barite, ilmenite, colemanite or galena into concrete for the purpose of radiation shielding applications [5-9]. All the studies have proved that heavyweight concrete can provide good shielding properties against different types of radiation such as gamma rays and x-rays [10-12]. However, heat generated from the reactor system and produced internally due to radiation attenuation could affect the structural quality of concrete and may pose safety problems [8]. Therefore, finding *Frist author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 1

suitable aggregates used in the radiation shielding concrete for elevated temperatures exposure is of particular important. Gencel [8] reported that incorporating of hematite aggregate into concrete improved the thermal stability of concrete at elevated temperatures as compared to concrete prepared with normal aggregates. Sakr [6] found that concrete prepared with ilmenite and barite had higher compressive strength than normal gravel concrete. Kilincarslan et al. [13] showed that using barite instead of gravel aggregates did not affect the mechanical durability of concrete. Another study carried out by Akkurt et al. [14] found that chemical corrosion (by NaOH and Na2SO4) on concrete had significant effects on the shielding effectiveness against gamma rays. For sustainable development, it is important to explore alternative potential materials to be used in heavyweight concrete so as to conserve the limited natural heavyweight minerals. Recycled funnel glass derived from discarded cathode ray tube (CRT) glass having an approximate specific gravity of 3.0 g/cm3 [15] could be a potential recycled heavyweight aggregate. The relatively high density of recycled funnel glass is due to the presence of lead (mainly in the form of PbO) in the glass for preventing the escape of xray radiation in computer monitors and TV sets [16]. A preliminary study has been carried out at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University to utilize treated CRT funnel glass as a fine aggregate in cement mortar and concrete [1719]. The experimental results confirmed that the incorporation of CRT glass in cement mortar contributes to the prevention of lead leaching. The properties of mortar made with CRT glass were found to be similar to those of the control sand mortar, and displayed innocuous behaviour in the alkali-silica reaction (ASR) expansion test. In addition, the use of CRT glass can enhance the hardened density to promote radiation shielding properties of mortar [20]. This study is a further development of our previous work to explore the potential of using treated CRT funnel glass in heavyweight barite concrete. The behaviour of such concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures is also studied. 2. Experimental programme 2.1. Materials ASTM type I ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and ASTM class F fly ash (PFA) were used as cementitious materials. Table 1 gives the chemical compositions and physical properties of both materials. Two types of coarse aggregate were used in this study. One was natural crushed granite (normal weight aggregates, obtained locally) and the other was heavyweight barite (sourced from Hunan, China). The crushed granite used had a density of 2.6 g/cm3 and a 10% fine value of 159.0 kN. 10% fines value is a measurement of the strength of the aggregate and is the load (kN) required to produce 10% fine particles (passing a 2.36 mm sieve) from a batch 10-14 mm particles. The barite aggregate used had a density of 4.1 g/cm3 and a 10% fine value of 40.7 kN. The grading curves and physical properties of the two types of coarse aggregates are shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2, respectively.

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Table 1 The chemical compositions and physical properties of cementitious materials. Chemical compositions (%) Cement Fly ash Calcium oxide (CaO) 63.15 <3 Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 19.61 56.79 Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 7.33 28.21 Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 3.32 5.31 Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2.54 5.21 Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.13 0.45 Potassium (K2O) 0.39 1.34 Sulfur trioxide (SO3) 2.13 0.68 Loss on ignition 2.97 3.9 Physical properties Specific gravity (g/cm3) 3.16 2.31 Blaine fineness (cm2/g) 3519 3960

100 90 80 P ercen t passin g (% ) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.1 1 Sie ve s ize (mm) 10 100

Gran ite 10/20 B arite 10/20 Gran ite 5/10 B arite 5/10 C ru sh e d fin e ston e T re ate d fu n n e l gl ass

Fig. 1 Grading curves of coarse and fine aggregates. Table 2 Physical properties of coarse and fine aggregates. Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Physical properties Granite Barite CFS TFG Fineness modulus 1.8 3.4 3 Relative density (g/cm ) 2.62 4.11 2.62 2.99 Water absorption (%) 0.87 1.49 1.23 0.03 10% fine value (kN) 159.0 40.7 *Frist author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 3

Crushed fine stone (CFS) sourced from a granite quarry having a fineness modulus of 1.8 and a density of 2.6 g/cm3 was used as the control fine aggregate. A treated CRT funnel glass cullet was used as the substitute of CFS. The treated funnel glass (TFG) was obtained from a local CRT Waste Recycling Centre and the glass had been crushed and undergone an acid treatment process [21]. The treatment process was carried out by immersing the crushed funnel glass cullet in a 5% solution of nitric acid for 3h to remove lead on the glass surface. The grading curves and physical properties of the fine aggregates are also presented in Fig. 1 and Table 2, respectively. 2.2. Mix proportions Five heavyweight concrete mixes and one normal granite concrete (regarded as the control mix for comparison) were prepared in this study. All the concrete mixes were produced with a constant cementitious materials (75%OPC+25%PFA) content of 417 kg/m3 and a fixed water-to-cementitious materials (w/c) ratio of 0.48. The ratio of fineto-total aggregates was kept at 0.42 throughout for all mixes. To investigate the feasibility of using CRT glass as a fine aggregate for the production of barite concrete, TFG was used to replace CFS by volume at ratios of 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. All the mix proportions are detailed in Table 3. Table 3 Mix proportions of concretes mix.
Proportions (kg/m3) Notation w/c Cement 355 355 355 355 355 355 PFA 62 62 62 62 62 62 Coarse aggregates Granite Barite 10/20 5/10 10/20 5/10 669 335 1047 1047 1047 1047 1047 523 523 523 523 523 Fine aggregates Replacement by TFG vol. (%) 0 209 416 623 830 0 0 25 50 75 100

CFS 727 727 545 364 182 0

Granite concrete Barite concrete TFG-25 TFG-50 TFG-75 TFG-100

0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48

2.3. Sample preparation, curing and heating temperature Mixing and casting of the concrete samples were carried out according to EN 12390-2 [22]. After casting, the samples were covered with a thin plastic sheet and cured in a laboratory environment at a temperature of 233C for about 24 h. Then they were demoulded and cured in water for another 27 days at a temperature of 233C. Thereafter, they were conveyed to an electrical furnace and heated at a constant rate of 5C/min from room temperature (25C) up to 300C, 500C, 600C and 800C. Once the electrical furnace reached the target temperature, the temperature was maintained for 4 h in order to achieve thermal steady sate [23]. After such heat treatment, the samples were allowed to cool naturally to room temperature. Physical and mechanical tests were performed on the unheated (25C) concrete as a reference to compare the residual *Frist author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 4

properties of the heated concrete. 2.4. Testing procedure 2.4.1. Density The mass of the concretes before and after heating were determined using an electronic balance with an accuracy of 0.1 g. The residual density of the samples after exposure to the elevated temperatures was determined according to the following equation:

M heated Density = M M imm. where M initial and Mheated are the initial (before heating) and initial initial imm. heated masses (after heating) of concrete weighed in the air, respectively. is M initial the initial mass (before heating) weighed in the water.
2.4.2. Compressive strength The compressive strength test was performed according to BS 1881- 116 [24]. A loading rate of 0.6 kN/s was set during the test. 2.4.3. Water sorptivity Prior to the water sorptivity test, a double-layer paint coating (water-impermeable) was applied on the 4 side surfaces of the cubic specimens to ensure that free water movement could only penetrate through the bottom surface. The specimens were then placed on plastic rods in a tray in such a way that the free water level was about 5 mm above the bottom surface of the specimens in contact with water. The mass of water absorbed per unit area before immersion and subsequently after intervals of 10 min, 20 min, 30 min, 60 min, 2 h, 4 h and 24 h was determined. Three specimens were used for each measurement. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Hardened density 3.1.1. Initial denstiy The effects of aggregate type on the concrete density before exposure to the elevated temperatures are illustrated in Fig. 2. The use of barite as coarse aggregate and treated funnel glass as fine aggregate increased the density of the concrete. The differences in concrete density can be attributed to the differences in specific gravity of the coarse and fine aggregates used. The highest concrete density of 2,665kg/m3 was achieved when 100% of TFG was incorporated into the barite concrete.

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B a rite c o nc re te s c o nta ining T F G 2700 2600 H a rd en sity d en sity (k g /m 3 ) 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 G ra nite c o nc re te B a rite c o nc re te 25 50 75 100 P e c e nta g e o f vo lume re pla c e me nt

Fig. 2 Hardened density of concretes at ambient temperature. 3.1.2. Residual density The effects of elevated temperature on the density of the granite and barite concretes are presented in Fig. 3. For both types of concrete, the most significant change was found after expsoure to 300C and 500C. It is known that loss of concrete mass in these temperatures is mainly related to the loss of evaporable water (105C), and driving out of water from the aggregates and the cement hydration products: ettringite at 170C [25], CS-H at 300C [26] and carboaluminate hydrates at 550C [27-29]. After exposoure to 300C, the decrease in density for the barite concrete was higher than that of the granite concrete. This is probably due to the relatively higher amount of free water from barite aggregate than granite aggregate (based on the water absorption capacity of aggregate, as shown in Table 2). The higher thermal/heat conductivity property of barite aggregate compared to that of granite aggregate [30], which leads to a faster diffusion process in the concrete, might also be the cause of the higher rate of loss of mass. However, as the temperature was raised from 300C to 500C, the opposite trend was observed. The rate of mass loss of the granite concrete increased whereas the rate mass loss of the barite concrete decreased. The lower heat conductivity of granite was partly responsible for the delay of release of water associated with the aggregate.

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Above 500C, the rates of mass loss in the two types of concrete were similar. This is explained by the fact that the mass loss over this range of temperature was mainly due to the decarbonation of calcium carbonate of the hydrated cement paste.

2700 R esid u a l h a rd en ed d en sity (k g /m 3 )

G rani te co ncrete B ar i te co ncrete

2500

2300

2100

1900 0 200 400 T e mpe ra ture (o C ) 600 800

Fig. 3 Residual density of granite and barite concretes at elevated temperatures. 3.1.3. Residual density of concretes containing treated funnel glass The residual density of the barite concretes containing TFG after exposure to the elevated temperatures are plotted in Fig 4. A similar trend can be oberved for all concrete irrespective of the presence of TFG content. The concrete containing 100% TFG maitained the highest residual density, at 300C and 500C, as compared to the other concretes. Nevertheless, the residual density of the concretes after expsoure to 500C did not vary with the CRT glass content. This inconistence might be due to the explosive spalling that occurred on the surfae of the concrete as shown in Fig. 5. The explosive spalling observed on the concrete surface layer can be attributed to the thermal expansion of aggregates. According to Witte and Backstrom [31], the thermal expansion coefficient of barite aggregates (20.610-6 K-1) is nearly twice that of granite aggregate (8.610-6 K-1). As for CRT funnel glass, the relatively high thermal coefficient of expansion (10.510-6 K-1) can be attributed to the lead present within the glass [32].

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2700
BC

R esid u a l h a rd en ed d en sity (k g /m 3 )

TFG-25 TFG-50 TFG-75 TFG-100

2500

2300 0 200 400 600

o

800

T empe ra ture ( C )

Fig. 4 Residual density of barite concretes containing TFG at elevated temperatures.

GC-300

GC-500

GC-600

GC-800

BC-300

BC-500

BC-600

BC-800

TFG25-300

TFG25-500

TFG25-600

TFG25-800

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TFG50-300

TFG50-500

TFG50-600

TFG50-800

TFG75-300

TFG75-500

TFG75-600

TFG75-800

TFG100-300

TFG100-500

TFG100-600

TFG100-800

Fig. 5 Explosive spalling on the concretes after exposure to elevated temperatures. 3.2. Compressive strength 3.2.1. Initial compressive strength The initial compressive strengths of unheated (25C) concrete tested at the age of 28 days are presented in Fig. 6. The granite concrete showed the highest compressive strength when compared to all barite concretes with and without TFG. This was due to the granite aggregate having a higher intrinsic strength than the barite aggregate, as indicated by their 10% fine value shown in Table 2. In general, inclusion of TFG decreased the compressive strength of the concrete, probably because of the weak adhesion between the glass particles and the cement paste due to the smooth surface of the glass particles [31]. Nevertheless, all the heavyweight concretes produced in this study achieved a minimum strength of 35 MPa at 28 days.

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50 45 C o m p ressiv e stren g th (M P a ) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 G ra nite co nc rete B a rite c o ncrete 25 50 75 100 P ece nta g e o f vo lume repla ce ment B a rite co ncre te s co nta ining T F G

Fig. 6 Initial compressive strength of concretes. 3.2.2. Residual compressive strength The effects of elevated temperature on the compressive strength are plotted in Fig. 7. As expected, the compressive strenght of both control concretes decreased with increase in temperature. The reduction of strength at 300C might be related to the loss of the evaporable water and crosening of pore structures [34-35]. Considering that barite has a higher thermal coefficient of expansion than that of granite, the loss of strength of the barite concrete was higher particularly over the temperature range of 300C to 600C. After exposure to above 600C, dramatic losses of strength were observed in both concretes due to thermal decompositions of cement hydration products. After 800C, the residual strength of the granite concrete and barite concrete were only 34.3% and 31.5%, repectively, of their original compressive strength.

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50

R esid u a l co m p ressiv e stren g th (M P a )

45 40 35 30
Granite co nc re te

25 20 15 10

B arite co nc re te

200

400 o T e mpera ture ( C )

600

800

Fig. 7 Residual compressive strength of granite and barite concretes. 3.2.3. Residual compressive strength of barite concretes containing TFG Fig. 8 shows the residual compressive strength of the barite concretes containing TFG after exposure to the high temperatures. The relative strengths in respect to their initial strengths at a given elevated temperature are given in Fig. 9. In general, the residual strength of the barite concrete and the concrete made with TFG followed a similar decreasing trend with increase in temperature. The loss of strength after exposure to the elevated temperature increased with increasing TFG content. After heating at 600C, the residual strength of the barite concretes containing 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% TFG were on average 68.9%, 67.2%, 52.0%, 46.9% and 46.2% of their initial strength, respectively. As the temperature was increased from 600C to 800C, the rate of strength loss decreased with increase in TFG content. Except the TFG-50, all the relative residual strengths of the barite concretes containing TFG were higher than that of the control (no TFG) barite concrete. The reason for this behaviour can be related to the transformation of the physical properties and mineralogy of the TFG used. At this high temperature, the amorphous solid funnel glass had gone through the glass transformation from a hard (brittle state) into a molten (rubber-like state) at its softening temperature at about 720C, and the molten glass served as a repairing/filling agent to reduce the concrete deterioration in the temperature range of 600C to 800C [15].

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43
BC

R esid u a l co m p ressiv e stren g th (M P a )

38 33 28 23 18 13 8

T FG-2 5 T FG-5 0 T FG-7 5 T FG-1 0 0

200

400 o T e mpera ture ( C )

600

800

Fig. 8 Residual compressive strength of barite concretes containing TFG.

100 90
BC TFG-25 TFG-50 TFG-75 TFG-100

R ela tiv e resid u a l co m p ressiv e stren g th (% )

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 300 500 600

o

800

T e mpe ra ture ( C )

Fig. 9 Relative residual compressive strength of barite concretes containing TFG. 3.3. Water sorptivity The sorptivity values indicate the mass of water taken up by the concrete from the bottom surface, and are directly related to the voids and cracks present in the concrete. Fig. 10 *Frist author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 12

compares the water sorptivity results of the tested samples. The water sorptivities of all tested concretes increased sharply with increasing exposure temperature (except TFG100800). As for the control concretes, the water sorptivity of the barite concrete was significantly higher than that of the granite concrete at 300C and 500C. However, when the temperature reached 600C or above, the opposite trend was observed.This might be related to the change of the crystalline structure of granite as at about 573C, -quartz changes to -quartz [36] which induces volume expansion in the aggregate. An assessment of the water absorption of the samples that had been exposed to 500C and 600C did not display an obvious relationship between water sorptivity and TFG content (see Fig. 11). Interestingly, the water sorptivity decreased rapidly after the concrete was heated to 800C, probably due to the molten glass being able to fill up pores and cracks within the concrete, followed by resolidification when the concrete cooled down to room temperature [37]. This was particularly noticeable as the glass content reached 100%.

25 W ater absorbed per unit area (10-3g/m2)

G C -300 B C -300

20

T FG 100-300 G C -500

15

B C -500 T FG 100-500 G C -600

10

B C -600 T FG 100-600

G C -800 B C -800 T FG 100-800

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Time (min)

Fig. 10 Water sorptivity test results.

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250
GC BC T FG-50 T FG-100 TFG-25

M a ss o f w a ter a b so rb ed a fter 2 4 h (g )

200

TFG-75

150

100

50

0 300 500 600 800

T e m pe ra ture ( o C )

Fig. 11 Total mass of water absorbed by concretes. 4. Conclusions This study has demonstrated that it is feasible to use barite aggregate and treated CRT funnel glass (TFG) to produce heavyweight concrete, and these aggregates have considerable influence on the residual properties of concrete after exposure to high temperatures. Based on the results of the study, the following can be summarized: At 25C, the (heavyweight) barite concrete, particularly concrete with the inclusion of TFG, had a higher density as compared to the (normal) granite concrete due to the differences in specific gravity of aggregates used. However, the compressive strength was slightly decreased and this was related to the lower intrinsic strength of the barite aggregate and the weak adhesion between the smooth glass particle surface and the cement paste. After exposure to 300C, a drastic reduction in density and strength was clearly observed in the barite concrete as compared to the granite concrete. Also, the barite concrete, particularly that with higher TFG content showed higher water sorptivity values. A major influence on these residual properties over this temperature range could be related to the thermal conductivity property of the aggregates used. After exposure to 500C, the reduction in residual strength and water sorptivity of the barite concrete prepared with and without TFG were approximately the same. This can be attributed to the damage induced to the microstructure of the cement matrix concrete. After exposure to 600C, explosive spalling occurred on the surface of some of the tested samples caused by the relatively high thermal expansion of the barite aggregate and the TFG. From 600 to 800C, the rate of strength loss decreased with increasing TFG content. This observation was consistent with the results of the water sorptivity measurements. *Frist author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 14

This is because the presence of glass reduced the damage of the microstructure of the concrete as the molten glass could fill up the pores and cracks. There is still a need for real fire tests allowing analyzing the performance of barite concrete containing recycled CRT glass. The effect of rate of heating under a real fire test which would influence the physicochemical and mechanical properties of barite concrete is of particular interest. The present results obtained (under a controlled environment at using an electric furnace) would be useful information and reference to compare the result in the real fire test. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Environment and Conservation Fund, the Woo Wheelock Green Fund and The Hong Kong Polytechnic University for funding support. References [1] Kharita MH, Takeyeddin M, Alnassar M, Yousef S. Development of special radiation shielding concretes using natural local materials and evaluation of their shielding characteristics. Progress in Nuclear Energy 2008; 50(1): 33-6. [2] Amritphale SS, Anshul A, Chandra N, Ramakrishnan N. Development of celsian ceramics from fly ash useful for X-ray radiation-shielding application. Journal of European Ceramic Society 2007; 27(16): 4639-4647. [3] Akkurt I, Akyldrm H, Mavi B, Kilincarslan S, Basyigit C. Gamma-ray shielding properties of concrete including barite at different energies. Progress in Nuclear Energy 2010; 52(7): 620-623. [4] Akkurt I, Akyldrm H, Mavi B, Kilincarslan S, Basyigit C. Radiation shielding of concrete containing zeolite. Radiation Measurements 2010; 45(7): 827-830. [5] Topu IB. Properties of heavyweight concrete produced with barite. Cement and Concrete Research 2003; 33(6): 815-822. [6] Sakr K, EL-Hakim E. Effect of high temperature or fire on heavy weight concrete properties. Cement and Concrete Research 2005; 35(3): 590-596. [7] Gencel O, Brostow W, Ozel C, Filiz M. Concretes containing hematite for use as shielding barriers. Materials Science 2010; 16(3): 249-256. [8] Gencel O. Effect of elevated temperatures on mechanical properties of high strength concrete containing varying proportions of hematite. Fire and Materials 2012; 36(3): 217-230. [9] Akkurt I, Basyigit C, Kilincarslan S, Mavi B, Akkurt A. Radiation shielding of concretes containing different aggregates. Cement and Concrete Composites 2006; 28(2): 153-157. [10] Gencel O, Brostow W, Ozel C, Filiz M. An investigation on the concrete properties containing colemanite. International Journal of Physical Sciences 2010; 5(3): 216225. [11] Gencel O. Physical and mechanical properties of concrete containing hematite as aggregates. Science and Engineering of Composite Materials 2011; 18(3): 191-199. [12] Gencel O, Bozkurt A, Kam E, Korkut T. Determining the gamma and neutron shielding characteristics of concretes containing different hematite proportions. Annals of Nuclear Energy 2011; 38(12): 2719-2723. [13] Kilincarslan S, Akkurt I, Basyigit C. The effect of barite rate on some physical and *Frist author: t.ling.1@bham.ac.uk; tcling611@yahoo.com Page 15

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[32] Piers J, Peelen J. Glass for a cone of a display tubes, display tube envelope comprising a cone of such a glass and method of manufacturing a cone from such a glass. Philips Corporation, US Patent 5725627, U.S., 1998. [33] Ling TC, Poon CS, Kou SC. Feasibility of using recycled glass in architectural mortars. Cement and Concrete Composites 2011; 33(8): 848-854. [34] Bingl AF, Gl R. Effect of elevated temperatures and cooling regimes on normal strength concrete. Fire and Materials 2009; 33(2): 79-88. [35] Arioz O. Retained properties of concrete exposed to high temperatures: Size effect. Fire and Materials 2009; 33(5): 211-222. [36] Matesova D, Bonen D, Shah SP. Factors affecting the resistance of cementatious materials at high temperatures and medium [0] heating rates. Materials and Structures 2006; 39(9): 73-87. [37] Ling TC, Poon CS, Kou SC. Influence of recycled glass content and curing conditions on the properties of self-compacting concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures. Cement and Concrete Composites 2012; 34(2): 265-272.

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