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The Iron Age kingdom of Israel (blue) and kingdom of Judah (yellow), with their neighbors (tan) (8th century BCE)
History of Israel
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Israel and Judah were related Iron Age kingdoms of the ancient Levant. The Kingdom of Israel emerged as an important local power by the 9th century BCE before falling to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 722BCE. Israel's southern neighbor, the Kingdom of Judah, emerged in the 8th century[1] and enjoyed a period of prosperity as a client-state of first Assyria and then Babylon before a revolt against the Neo-Babylonian Empire led to its destruction in 586BCE. Following the fall of Babylon to the Persian king Cyrus the Great, 539BCE, some Judean exiles returned to Jerusalem, inaugurating the formative period in the development of a distinctive Judahite identity
History of ancient Israel and Judah in the Persian province of Yehud. Yehud was absorbed into the subsequent Hellenistic kingdoms that followed the conquests of Alexander the Great, but in the 2nd century BCE the Judaeans revolted against the Hellenist Seleucid Empire and created the Hasmonean kingdom. This, the last nominally independent Judean kingdom, came to an end in 63BCE with its conquest by Rome.
Periods
Iron Age I: 12001000 Iron Age II: 1000-586 Neo-Babylonian: 586539 Persian: 539332 Hellenistic: 33253[2]
Sources
The sources for the history of ancient Israel and Judah can be broadly divided into the biblical narrative (the Hebrew Bible, Deuterocanonical and non-biblical works for the later period) and the archaeological record. The latter can again be divided between epigraphy (written inscriptions, both from Israel and other lands including Mesopotamia and Egypt) and the material record (everything else).
History of ancient Israel and Judah in throwing off the oppression of the "House of Omri" (i.e., Israel). It bears what is generally thought to be the earliest extra-biblical Semitic reference to the name Yahweh (YHWH), whose temple goods were plundered by Mesha and brought before his own god Kemosh.[28] French scholar Andr Lemaire has reconstructed a portion of line 31 of the stele as mentioning the "House of David".[27][29] The Tel Dan stele (c. 841) tells of the death of a king of Israel, probably Jehoram, at the hands of a king of Aram Damascus.[27] A century later Israel came into increasing conflict with the expanding neo-Assyrian empire, which first split its territory into several smaller units and then destroyed its capital, Samaria (722). Both the biblical and Assyrian sources speak of a massive deportation of people from Israel and their replacement with settlers from other parts of the empire such population exchanges were an established part of Assyrian imperial policy, a means of breaking the old power structure - and the former Israel never again became an independent political entity.[30] Judah emerged somewhat later than Israel, probably during the 9th century BCE, but the subject is one of considerable controversy.[1] There are indications that during the 10th and 9th centuries BCE, the southern highlands had been divided between a number of centres, none with clear primacy.[31] During the reign of Hezekiah, between c. 715 and 686BCE, a notable increase in the power of the Judean state can be observed.[32] This is reflected in archaeological sites and findings, such as the Broad Wall; a defensive city wall in Jerusalem; and Hezekiah's Tunnel, an aqueduct designed to provide Jerusalem with water during an impending siege by the Assyrians led by Sennacherib; and the Siloam Inscription, a lintel inscription found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to comptroller Shebna. LMLK seals on storage jar handles, excavated from strata in and around that formed by Sennacherib's destruction, appear to have been used throughout Sennacherib's 29-year reign, along with Bullae from sealed documents, some that belonged to Hezekiah himself and others that name his servants;[33] King Ahaz's Seal is a piece of reddish-brown clay that belonged to King Ahaz of Judah, who ruled from 732 to 716BCE. This seal contains not only the name of the king, but the name of his father, King Yehotam. In addition, Ahaz is specifically identified as "king of Judah." The Hebrew inscription, which is set on three lines, reads as follows: "l'hz*y/hwtm*mlk*/yhdh", which translates as "belonging to Ahaz (son of) Yehotam, King of Judah.)[34] In the 7th century Jerusalem grew to contain a population many times greater than earlier and achieved clear dominance over its neighbours.[35] This occurred at the same time that Israel was being destroyed by Assyria, and was probably the result of a cooperative arrangement with the Assyrians to establish Judah as an Assyrian vassal controlling the valuable olive industry.[35] Judah prospered as an Assyrian vassal state, despite a disastrous rebellion against Sennacherib), but in the last half of the 7th century BCE Assyria suddenly collapsed, and the ensuing competition between the Egyptian and Neo-Babylonian empires for control of Palestine led to the destruction of Judah in a series of campaigns between 597 and 582.[35]
Babylonian period
Babylonian Judah suffered a steep decline in both economy and population[36] and lost the Negev, the Shephelah, and part of the Judean hill country, including Hebron, to encroachments from Edom and other neighbours.[37] Jerusalem, while probably not totally abandoned, was much smaller than previously, and the town of Mizpah in Benjamin in the relatively unscathed northern section of the kingdom became the capital of the new Babylonian province of Yehud Medinata.[38] (This was standard Babylonian practice: when the Philistine city of Ashkalon was conquered in 604, the political, religious and economic elite [but not the bulk of the population] was banished and the administrative centre shifted to a new location).[39] There is also a strong probability that for most or all of the period the temple at Bethel in Benjamin replaced that at Jerusalem, boosting the prestige of Bethel's priests (the Aaronites) against those of Jerusalem (the Zadokites), now in exile in Babylon.[40]
The Ishtar Gate of Babylon
The Babylonian conquest entailed not just the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, but the liquidation of the entire infrastructure which had sustained Judah for centuries.[41] The most significant casualty was the state ideology of "Zion theology,"[42] the idea that the god of Israel had chosen Jerusalem for his dwelling-place and that the Davidic dynasty would reign there forever.[43] The fall of the city and the end of Davidic kingship forced the leaders of the exile community kings, priests, scribes and prophets to reformulate the concepts of community, faith and politics.[44] The exile community in Babylon thus became the source of significant portions of the Hebrew Bible: Isaiah 4055; Ezekiel; the final version of Jeremiah; the work of the priestly source in the Pentateuch; and the final form of the history of Israel from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings.[45] Theologically, the Babylonian exiles were responsible for the doctrines of individual responsibility and universalism (the concept that one god controls the entire world) and for the increased emphasis on purity and holiness.[45] Most significantly, the trauma of the exile experience led to the development of a strong sense of Hebrew identity distinct from other peoples,[46] with increased emphasis on symbols such as circumcision and Sabbath-observance to sustain that distinction.[47] The concentration of the biblical literature on the experience of the exiles in Babylon disguises the fact that the great majority of the population remained in Judah; for them, life after the fall of Jerusalem probably went on much as it had before.[48] It may even have improved, as they were rewarded with the land and property of the deportees, much to the anger of the community of exiles remaining in Babylon.[49] The assassination around 582 of the Babylonian governor by a disaffected member of the former royal House of David provoked a Babylonian crackdown, possibly reflected in the Book of Lamentations, but the situation seems to have soon stabilised again.[50] Nevertheless, those unwalled cities and towns that remained were subject to slave raids by the Phoenicians and intervention in their internal affairs by Samaritans, Arabs, and Ammonites.[51]
Persian period
When Babylon fell to the Persian Cyrus the Great in 539BCE, Judah (or Yehud medinata, the "province of Yehud") became an administrative division within the Persian empire. Cyrus was succeeded as king by Cambyses, who added Egypt to the empire, incidentally transforming Yehud and the Philistine plain into an important frontier zone. His death in 522 was followed by a period of turmoil until Darius the Great seized the throne in about 521. Darius introduced a reform of the administrative arrangements of the empire including the collection, codification and administration of local law codes, and it is reasonable to suppose that this policy lay behind the redaction of the Jewish Torah.[52] After 404 the Persians lost control of Egypt, which became Persia's main rival outside Europe, causing the Persian authorities to tighten their administrative control over Yehud and the rest of the Levant.[53] Egypt was eventually reconquered, but soon afterward Persia fell to Alexander the Great, ushering in the Hellenistic period in the Levant. Yehud's population over the entire period was probably never more than about 30,000 and that of Jerusalem no more than about 1,500, most of them connected in some way to the Temple.[54] According to the biblical history, one of the first acts of Cyrus, the Persian conqueror of Babylon, was to commission Jewish exiles to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their Temple, a task which they are said to have completed c. 515.[55] Yet it was probably not until the middle of the next century, at the earliest, that Jerusalem again became the capital of Judah.[56] The Persians may have experimented initially with ruling Yehud as a Davidic client-kingdom under descendants of Jehoiachin,[57] but by the mid5th century BCE, Yehud had become, in practice, a theocracy, ruled by hereditary high priests,[58] with a Persian-appointed governor, frequently Jewish, charged with keeping order and seeing that taxes (tribute) were collected and paid.[59] According to the biblical history, Ezra and Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem in the middle of the 5th century BCE, the former empowered by the Persian king to enforce the Torah, the latter holding the status of governor with a royal commission to restore the Jerusalem's walls.[60] The biblical history mentions tension between the returnees and those who had remained in Yehud, the returnees rebuffing the attempt of the "peoples of the land" to participate in the rebuilding of the Temple; this attitude was based partly on the exclusivism that the exiles had developed while in Babylon and, probably, also partly on disputes over property.[61] During the 5th century BCE, Ezra and Nehemiah attempted to re-integrate these rival factions into a united and ritually pure society, inspired by the prophesies of Ezekiel and his followers.[62] The Persian era, and especially the period between 538 and 400 BCE, laid the foundations for the Jewish and Christian religions and the beginning of a scriptural canon.[63] Other important landmarks in this period include the replacement of Hebrew as the everyday language of Judah by Aramaic (although Hebrew continued to be used for religious and literary purposes)[64] and Darius's reform of the empire's bureaucracy, which may have led to extensive revisions and reorganizations of the Jewish Torah.[52] The Israel of the Persian period consisted of descendants of the inhabitants of the old kingdom of Judah, returnees from the Babylonian exile community, Mesopotamians who had joined them or had been exiled themselves to Samaria at a far earlier period, Samaritans, and others.[65]
Hellenistic period
On the death of Alexander the Great (322), Alexander's generals divided the empire among themselves. Ptolemy I, the ruler of Egypt, seized Palestine, but his successors lost it in 198 to the Seleucids of Syria. At first, relations between Seleucids and Jews were cordial, but the attempt of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (174163) to impose Hellenic cults on Judea sparked a national rebellion that ended in the expulsion of the Seleucids and the establishment of an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmonean dynasty. Some modern commentators see this period also as a civil war between orthodox and hellenized Jews.[66][67] Hasmonean kings attempted to revive the Judah described in the Bible: a Jewish monarchy ruled from Jerusalem and including all territories once ruled by David and Solomon. In order to carry out this project, the Hasmoneans forcibly converted one-time Moabites, Edomites, and Ammonites to Judaism, as well as the lost kingdom of Israel.[68] Some scholars argue that the Hasmonean dynasty institutionalized the Jewish biblical canon.[69] In 63BCE the Roman general Pompey conquered Jerusalem and made the The Hasmonean kingdom at its largest Jewish kingdom a Client state of Rome. In 4039 BCE, Herod the Great was extent appointed King of the Jews by the Roman Senate, and in 6CE the last ethnarch of Judea was deposed by the emperor Augustus, his territories combined with Idumea and Samaria and annexed as Iudaea Province under direct Roman administration.[70] The name Judea (Iudaea) ceased to be used by Greco-Romans after the revolt of Simon Bar Kochba in 135CE; the area was henceforth called Syria Palaestina (Greek: , Palaistin; Latin: Palaestina).
Religion
Iron Age Yahwism
Israelite monotheism evolved gradually out of pre-existing beliefs and practices of the ancient world.[71] The religion of the Israelites of Iron Age I, like the Canaanite faith from which it evolved[72] and other ancient Near Eastern religions, was based on a cult of ancestors and worship of family gods (the "gods of the fathers").[73] Its major deities were not numerous El, Asherah, and Yahweh, with Baal as a fourth god, and perhaps Shamash (the sun) in the early period.[74] By the time of the early Hebrew kings, El and Yahweh had become fused and Asherah did not continue as a separate state cult,[74] although she continued to be popular at a community level until Persian times.[75] Yahweh, later the national god of both Israel and Judah, seems to have originated in Edom and Midian in southern Canaan and may have been brought north to Israel by the Kenites and Midianites at an early stage.[76] After the monarchy emerged at the beginning of Iron Age II, kings promoted their family god, Yahweh, as the god of the kingdom, but beyond the royal court, religion continued to be both polytheistic and family-centered as it was also for other societies in the ancient Near East.[77] There is a general consensus among scholars that the first formative event in the emergence of the distinctive religion described in the Bible was triggered by the destruction of Israel by Assyria in c.722BCE. Refugees came south to Judah, bringing with them laws and a prophetic tradition of Yahweh. This religion was subsequently adopted by the landowners, who in 640BCE placed on the throne the eight-year-old Josiah. Judah at this time was a vassal state of Assyria, but Assyrian power collapsed in the 630s, and around 622, Josiah and the Deuteronomists launched a bid for independence expressed as loyalty to "Yahweh alone" and in the law-code in the Book of Deuteronomy, written as a treaty between Judah and Yahweh to replace the vassal-treaty with Assyria.[78]
History of ancient Israel and Judah The earliest Israelite inscription found alluding to Yahveh as the redeemer of Jerusalem dates to the 7th century BCE. Beit Lehi also contains the oldest known Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem as the inscription, I am YHWH thy Lord. I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, and Absolve us oh merciful God. Absolve us oh YHWH." [79] According to the Deuteronomists, the treaty with Yahweh would enable the god to preserve both the city and the king in return for the people's worship and obedience to the legal code. The destruction of Jerusalem, its Temple, and the Davidic dynasty by Babylon in 587/586BCE was deeply thought-provoking and led to revisions of the national mythos. The history books, Joshua and Judges to Samuel and Kings, interpreted the Babylonian destruction as divinely-ordained punishment for the failure of the Hebrew kings to worship Yahweh to the exclusion of all other deities.[78]
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References
[1] Grabbe 2008, pp. 2256. [2] King 2001, p. xxiii. [3] Dever 2001, p. 2. [4] Rendsburg, pp.3-5 [5] Rendsburg, pp.6-7 [6] Rendsburg, pp.5-6 [7] Miller 1986, p. 36. [8] Coogan 1998, pp. 47. [9] Finkelstein 2001, p. 78. [10] Killebrew 2005, pp. 389. [11] Cahill in Vaughn 1992, pp. 2733. [12] Kuhrt 1995, p. 317. [13] Killebrew 2005, pp. 106. [14] Golden 2004b, pp. 612. [15] McNutt 1999, p. 47. [16] Golden 2004a, p. 155. [17] Stager in Coogan 1998, p. 91. [18] Dever 2003, p. 206. [19] McNutt 1999, pp. 35. [20] McNutt 1999, pp.46-47. [21] McNutt 1999, p. 69. [22] Miller 1986, p. 72. [23] Killebrew 2005, p. 13. [24] Edelman in Brett 2002, p. 46-47. [25] Gnuse 1997, pp.28,31 [26] Thompson 1992, p. 408. [27] Mazar in Finkelstein 2007, p. 163. [29] Biblical Archaeology Review [May/June 1994], pp. 3037 [30] Lemche 1998, p. 85. [31] Lehman in Vaughn 1992, p. 149. [32] David M. Carr, Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature, Oxford University Press, 2005, 164. [33] Seal of Amariah Hananiah--Servant of Hezekiah (http:/ / www. lmlk. com/ research/ lmlk_ahoh. htm) [34] First Impression: What We Learn from King Ahazs Seal (#m1) (http:/ / www. archaeological-center. com/ en/ monographs/ m1), by Robert Deutsch, Archaeological Center.
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[57] Niehr in Becking 1999, p. 231. [58] Wylen 1996, p. 25. [59] Grabbe 2004, pp. 1545. [60] Soggin 1998, p. 311. [61] Miller 1986, p. 458. [62] Blenkinsopp 2009, p. 229. [63] Albertz 1994, pp. 4378. [64] Kottsieper in Lipschits 2006, pp. 10910. [65] Becking in Albertz 2003b, p. 19. [68] Davies 1992, pp. 14950. [69] Philip R. Davies in The Canon Debate, page 50: "With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty." [70] Ben-Sasson 1976, p. 246. [71] Gnuse 1997, pp. 623. [72] Tubbs, Jonathan (2006)"The Canaanites" (BBC Books) [73] Van der Toorn 1996, p.4. [74] Smith 2002, p. 57. [75] Dever (2005), p. [76] Van der Toorn 1999, p. 9113. [77] Van der Toorn 1996, p. 1812. [78] Dunn and Rogerson, pp.153154 [80] Avery Peck, p.58 [81] Grabbe (2004), pp. 243-244 [82] Avery Peck, p.59
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Coogan, Michael D. (2009). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament (http://books.google.com/ books?id=nlb1PQAACAAJ&dq=A+brief+introduction+to+the+old+testament+coogan). Oxford University Press. Coote, Robert B.; Whitelam, Keith W. (1986). "The Emergence of Israel: Social Transformation and State Formation Following the Decline in Late Bronze Age Trade". Semeia (37): 10747. Davies, Philip R. (1992). In Search of Ancient Israel (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=pMcM8GGO_n8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Philip+Davies+In+search+of+Ancient+ Israel#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Sheffield. Davies, Philip R. (2009). "The Origin of Biblical Israel" (http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/ article_47.htm). Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 9 (47). Day, John (2002). Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=y-gfwlltlRwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Yahweh+and+the+gods+and+goddesses+of+ Canaan#v=onepage&q&f=false). Sheffield Academic Press. Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=What+did+the+biblical+writers+ know,+and+when+did+they+know+it#v=onepage&q&f=false). Eerdmans. Dever, William (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? (http://books.google. com.au/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC&dq=Who+were+the+early+Israelites,+and+where+did+they+come+ from?&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Eerdmans. Dever, William (2005). Did God Have a Wife?: Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=6AOE9sxg3bMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Did+God+have+a+wife?:+ archaeology+and+folk+religion+in+ancient+Israel#v=onepage&q&f=false). Eerdmans. Dunn, James D.G; Rogerson, John William, eds. (2003). Eerdmans commentary on the Bible (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=John+W.+Rogerson+ Deuteronomy#v=onepage&q=John W.Rogerson Deuteronomy&f=false). Eerdmans. Rogerson, John William. "Deuteronomy". Edelman, Diana, ed. (1995). The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms (http://books.google.com. au/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+crisis+of+Israelite+religion:+transformation+ of+religious+tradition&cad=1#v=onepage&q&f=false). Kok Pharos.
History of ancient Israel and Judah Finkelstein, Neil Asher; Silberman (2001). The Bible Unearthed (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Bible+Unearthed:+Archaeology's+New+Vision+ of+Ancient+Israel#v=onepage&q&f=false). Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihay; Schmidt, Brian B. (2007). The Quest for the Historical Israel (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&dq=The+quest+for+the+historical+Israel:& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Society of Biblical Literature. Mazar, Amihay. "The Divided Monarchy: Comments on Some Archaeological Issues". Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=0Kf1ZwDifdAC&dq=Robert+Karl+Gnuse,+"No+Other+Gods:+Emergent+Monotheism+in+ Israel"&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Sheffield Academic Press. Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004a). Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=EResmS5wOnkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ancient+Canaan+and+Israel:+An+Introduction++ By+Jonathan+M+Golden#v=onepage&q&f=false). Oxford University Press. Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004b). Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives (http://books.google.com. au/books?id=yTMzJAKowyEC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=Late+Bronze+collapse+in+ Canaan#v=onepage&q=Late Bronze collapse in Canaan&f=false). ABC-CLIO. Goodison, Lucy; Morris, Christine (1998). Goddesses in Early Israelite Religion in Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&dq=Family+religion+in+ Babylonia,+Syria,+and+Israel&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). University of Wisconsin Press. Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (http://books.google. com.au/books?id=VK2fEzruIn0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+history+of+the+Jews+and+Judaism+in+ the+Second+Temple+Period#v=onepage&q&f=false). T&T Clark International. Grabbe, Lester L., ed. (2008). Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIa (c. 1250850 B.C.E.) (http:// books.google.com.au/books?id=tR0Qpz2zRogC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Israel+in+transition:+from+ late+Bronze+II+to+Iron+IIa+(c.+1250-850+B.C.E.)#v=onepage&q&f=false). T&T Clark International. Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 13001100 B.C.E. (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC& printsec=frontcover&dq=Biblical+peoples+and+ethnicity:+an+archaeological#v=onepage&q&f=false). Society of Biblical Literature. King, Philip J.; Stager, Lawrence E. (2001). Life in Biblical Israel (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=OtOhypZz_pEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Life+in+biblical+Israel++By+Philip+J.+King,+ Lawrence+E.+Stager#v=onepage&q&f=false). Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN0-664-22148-3. Kuhrt, Amlie (1995). The Ancient Near East c. 3000330 BC (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=V_sfMzRPTgoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Amlie+Kuhrt+The+ancient+Near+ East#v=onepage&q&f=false). Routledge. Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=JIoY7PagAOAC&dq=lemche+the+israelites+in+history+and+tradition& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Westminster John Knox Press. Levy, Thomas E. (1998). The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=-etsKv-4V2oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+archaeology+of+society+in+the+Holy+Land++ Thomas+E.+Levy#v=onepage&q&f=false). Continuum International Publishing. LaBianca, ystein S.; Younker, Randall W. "The Kingdoms of Ammon, Moab and Edom: The Archaeology of Society in Late Bronze/Iron Age Transjordan (c. 1400500CE)". Lipschits, Oded (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=78nRWgb-rp8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lipschitz,+Oded+fall+and+rise#v=onepage&q& f=false). Eisenbrauns.
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History of ancient Israel and Judah Lipschits, Oded, et al., eds. (2006). Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. (http://books.google. com.au/books?id=6NsxZRnxE70C&pg=PA75&lpg=PA75&dq=Lipschits+Yehud#v=onepage&q=Lipschits Yehud&f=false). Eisenbrauns. Kottsieper, Ingo. "And They Did Not Care to Speak Yehudit". Lipschits, Oded; Vanderhooft, David. "Yehud Stamp Impressions in the Fourth Century B.C.E.". Liverani, Mario (2005). Israel's History and the History of Israel, London, Equinox. Markoe, Glenn (2000). Phoenicians (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC& printsec=frontcover&dq=Phoenicians++Glenn+Markoe#v=onepage&q&f=false). University of California Press. Mays, James Luther, et al., eds. (1995). Old Testament Interpretation (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=SNLN1nEEys0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+Interpretation+James+Luther+ Mays,+David+L.+Petersen,+Kent+Harold+Richards#v=onepage&q&f=false). T&T Clarke. Miller, J. Maxwell. "The Middle East and Archaeology". McNutt, Paula (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=hd28MdGNyTYC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=Reconstructing+the+Society+of+Ancient+Israel+ +By+Paula+M.+McNutt#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Westminster John Knox Press. Merrill, Eugene H. (1995). "The Late Bronze/Early Iron Age Transition and the Emergence of Israel". Bibliotheca Sacra 152 (606): 14562. Middlemas, Jill Anne (2005). The Troubles of Templeless Judah (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=Jrpx-op_-XkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=lester+grabbe+1995&cad=1#v=onepage&q&f=false). Oxford University Press. Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=uDijjc_D5P0C&dq=A+history+of+ancient+Israel+and+Judah++By+James+ Maxwell+Miller,+John+Haralson+Hayes&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN0-664-21262-X. Miller, Robert D. (2005). Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the 12th and 11th Centuries B.C. (http://books.google.com.kh/books?id=Gtm7NtK87poC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chieftains+of+ the+highland+clans#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Eerdmans. Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel's Past (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&printsec=frontcover). Eerdmans. Nodet, tienne (1999) [Editions du Cerf 1997]. A Search for the Origins of Judaism: From Joshua to the Mishnah (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=rE49wYHz5YUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+search+for+the+ origins+of+Judaism:+from+Joshua+to+the+Mishnah#v=onepage&q&f=false). Sheffield Academic Press. Pitknen, Pekka (2004). "Ethnicity, Assimilation and the Israelite Settlement" (http://www.tyndalehouse.com/ tynbul/library/TynBull_2004_55_2_01_Pitkanen_EthnicityIsraelSettlement.pdf). Tyndale Bulletin 55 (2): 16182. Silberman, Neil Asher; Small, David B., eds. (1997). The Archaeology of Israel: Constructing the Past, Interpreting the Present (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=qX7r2lAQdFkC&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238& dq=hesse+wapnish#v=onepage&q=hesse wapnish&f=false). Sheffield Academic Press. Hesse, Brian; Wapnish, Paula. "Can Pig Remains Be Used for Ethnic Diagnosis in the Ancient Near East?". Smith, Mark S. (2001). Untold Stories: The Bible and Ugaritic Studies in the Twentieth Century. Hendrickson Publishers. Smith, Mark S.; Miller, Patrick D. (2002) [Harper & Row 1990]. The Early History of God (http://books.google. com.au/books?id=1yM3AuBh4AsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Smith+Early+History+of+God#v=onepage& q&f=false). Eerdmans. Rendsburg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible" (http://books.google.com/books?id=Z0wawEnu0UkC& pg=PA43&dq=Hebrew+Bible&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false). In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: new insights and scholarship. NYU Press.
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History of ancient Israel and Judah Soggin, Michael J. (1998). An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=Dzw_H5GhkfYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=An+introduction+to+the+history+of+Israel+and+ Judah++By+J.+Alberto+Soggin#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Paideia. Thompson, Thomas L. (1992). Early History of the Israelite People (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=XqoMRPJca-wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Early+history+of+the+Israelite+people:+from+the+ written+and+archaeological+...++By+Thomas+L.+Thompson#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Brill. Van der Toorn, Karel (1996). Family Religion in Babylonia, Syria, and Israel (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&dq=Family+religion+in+Babylonia,+Syria,+and+Israel& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Brill. Van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; Van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dictionary+of+ Deities#v=onepage&q&f=false) (2d ed.). Koninklijke Brill. Vaughn, Andrew G.; Killebrew, Ann E., eds. (1992). Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C&dq=Jerusalem+in+Bible+and+ archaeology:+the+First+Temple+period++By+Andrew+G.+Vaughn,+Ann+E.+Killebrew& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Sheffield. Cahill, Jane M. "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy". Lehman, Gunnar. "The United Monarchy in the Countryside". Wylen, Stephen M. (1996). The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=SHgiy-k_wsUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=An+introduction+to+early+Judaism++By+James+C. +VanderKam&cad=1#v=onepage&q&f=false). Paulist Press. Zevit, Ziony (2001). The Religions of Ancient Israel: A Synthesis of Parallactic Approaches (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=db4hr55j0yYC&pg=PA1&dq=The+religion+of+ancient+Israel++By+Patrick+ D.+Miller&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false). Continuum.
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Further reading
Avery-Peck, Alan, and Neusner, Jacob, (eds), "The Blackwell Companion to Judaism (Blackwell, 2003) (http:// books.google.com.au/books?id=asYoIwz9z2UC&pg=PA230&lpg=PA230&dq=The+Blackwell+ Companion+to+Judaism++By+Jacob+Neusner,+Alan+Avery-Peck&source=bl&ots=NIriudGN3T& sig=Rd1jzFvXYUkYiqgqAMIElvmQBb8&hl=en&ei=YmdZS4-gM8yLkAXPvpySAg&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false) Boadt, Lawrence, "Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction" (Paulist Press, 1984) (http://books.google. com.au/books?id=LGQNT6G_do8C&dq=Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction++By+ Lawrence+Boadt&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=qO1YS92uJZGTkAXzquHzBA&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=&f=false) Brettler, Marc Zvi, "The Creation of History in Ancient Israel" (Routledge, 1995) (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=xvfCESeU_hwC&pg=PA196&lpg=PA196&dq=The+Creation+of+History+in+Ancient+Israel++ By+Marc+Zvi+Brettler&source=bl&ots=vAE0TBiWBB&sig=_DKZlbl8vnrk1GfYg1UrYHmMHx8& hl=en&ei=pSJYS_bbHdWgkQW0l_DpBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CAwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false), and also review at Dannyreviews.com (http://dannyreviews. com/h/Creation_of_History_in_Ancient_Israel.html) Cook, Stephen L., "The social roots of biblical Yahwism" (Society of Biblical Literature, 2004) (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=4LEA7FnNi-kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+social+roots+of+biblical+ Yahwism&source=bl&ots=o-z4u7_glH&sig=My-dQVZGIs9uGlwF9e6PXV3UEuc&hl=en& ei=AMGETN_tKcOwcf64pdAL&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) Day, John (ed), "In search of pre-exilic Israel: proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar" (T&T Clark International, 2004) (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=In+
History of ancient Israel and Judah search+of+pre-exilic+Israel:+proceedings+of+the+Oxford+Old+Testament+Seminar&source=bl& ots=9UYxExZRZQ&sig=cMzlvskYBc6uUAqvhN_ITpyPOHs&hl=en&ei=a32HTMjuOcaXcbOc3Z4I& sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) Gravett, Sandra L., "An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible: A Thematic Approach" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008) (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=y0PtOdR5pxkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=An+Introduction+ to+the+Hebrew+Bible:+A+Thematic+Approach++Sandra+L.+Gravett&source=bl&ots=u0DJbzvOLJ& sig=u0h1DipUA4wMQuIV6CDgn5rfat4&hl=en&ei=C_FYS7zeNJaekQWI69XzBA&sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false) Grisanti, Michael A., and Howard, David M., (eds), "Giving the Sense:Understanding and Using Old Testament Historical Texts" (Kregel Publications, 2003) (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=stMd0QV97IYC& printsec=frontcover&dq=Giving+the+sense:+understanding+and+using+Old+Testament+historical+texts& source=bl&ots=sd1LmTBJo4&sig=qC6JSYAXqcGDh7hUvmDCA5DSLqI&hl=en& ei=yanjS4vlGNCgkQXMnekJ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) Hess, Richard S., "Israelite religions: an archaeological and biblical survey" Baker, 2007) (http://books.google. com.au/books?id=2jNoqNRDYDUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Israelite+religions:+an+archaeological+ and+biblical+survey&source=bl&ots=e-g06-h-pq&sig=Kdjz3ET2Bn8TKs52JZYy5EVsP9s&hl=en& ei=xYKhTeOqAoG-uwPxk5iOBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5& ved=0CEEQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false) Kavon, Eli, "Did the Maccabees Betray the Hanukka Revolution?" (http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article. aspx?id=8467), The Jerusalem Post, 26 December 2005 Lemche, Neils Peter, "The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2008) (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=RWqLVc7ccG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+ Old+Testament+between+theology+and+history:+a+critical+survey&source=bl&ots=oz29UVfXLM& sig=Z547aDKQpmTVSAzLYRXyYjkCJLw&hl=en&ei=enQRTfKSKYKUvAOG1dnYDQ&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false) Levine, Lee I., "Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the second Temple period (538 B.C.E.70 C.E.)" (Jewish Publication Society, 2002) (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=gqL8C_JBEm0C&pg=PA196& lpg=PA196&dq=Jerusalem:+portrait+of+the+city+in+the+second+Temple+period+(538+B.C.E.-70+C. E.)&source=bl&ots=gDgRtu7RxH&sig=ZesxP2Mtbc0EiYimTMEMbjmZg7E&hl=en& ei=zO0MTIC8F4jCcYvVzbAO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2& ved=0CB8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false) Na'aman, Nadav, "Ancient Israel and its neighbours" (Eisenbrauns, 2005) (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=1RgRPAkLqLUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ancient+Israel+and+its+neighbors+Nadav+ Naaman&source=bl&ots=HJlFWoITAw&sig=EcyA7QZGk83FCI9o_Dowd7aC-U8&hl=en& ei=iASbTIjzBIKycKzXmb0J&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CBkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) Penchansky, David, "Twilight of the gods: polytheism in the Hebrew Bible" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2005) (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=BDq7AUgIYacC&dq=Twilight+of+the+gods:+polytheism+ in+the+Hebrew+Bible&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=oMWETPuiHsjRcbimxNAL&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false) Provan, Iain William, Long, V. Philips, Longman, Tremper, "A Biblical History of Israel" (Westminster John Knox Press, 2003) (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=dmI4eW8qvOYC&dq=The+Origins+of+ Biblical+Israel+Davies&printsec=frontcover&source=in&hl=en&ei=jo5iS-3kJM2HkAXp28j6Bg&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=11&ved=0CDgQ6AEwCg#v=onepage&q=The Origins of Biblical Israel Davies&f=false)
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History of ancient Israel and Judah Russell, Stephen C., "Images of Egypt in early biblical literature" (Walter de Gruyter, 2009) (http://books. google.com.au/books?id=OMISLh2ZC08C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Images+of+Egypt+in+early+ biblical+literature&source=bl&ots=pcFRmhj8cB&sig=FsAKzE4DxCrLGYYtp7C9h6JHXlU&hl=en& ei=Uw0bTZWIBoqsvgOYltiTDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2& ved=0CCYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false) Sparks, Kenton L., "Ethnicity and identity in ancient Israel" (Eisenbrauns, 1998) (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=KztVonFGqcsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ethnicity+and+identity+in+ancient+Israel:+ prolegomena+to+the+study+of+ethnic&source=bl&ots=vixtemHFhD& sig=HRNrafgmZulCltm6mGA0EF_-qcs&hl=en&ei=5OOBTfmlEoiyvwP_u-nbCA&sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false) Stackert, Jeffrey, "Rewriting the Torah: literary revision in Deuteronomy and the holiness code" (Mohr Siebeck, 2007) (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=XAsgfNCjWWwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Rewriting+the+ Torah+Jeffrey+Stackert&source=bl&ots=IvuYP9FNX3&sig=QQGRwN5loomO0ADdZa1s0WAsKL4& hl=en&ei=lR0OTN_RF8LBceCSpcsM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) Vanderkam, James, "An introduction to early Judaism" (Eerdmans, 2001) (http://books.google.com.au/ books?id=0fFlz7PbgTcC&dq=An+introduction+to+early+Judaism++By+James+C.+VanderKam& printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=S0gLTNF8htlxxLfsrA4&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result& resnum=4&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false) Velazquez, Efrain, "The Persian Period and the Origins of 'Israel': Beyond the Myths", (Bible and Interpretation, July 2009) (http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/persian.shtml) Library of latest modern books of biblical studies and biblical criticism (http://biblicalauthorship.blogspot.com/ 2011/07/library.html)
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