ONE MONTH TRAINING REPORT

In the partial fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics and Communication engineering.

Submitted To: 90640415486

Submitted By:

RIMT - INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MANDI GOBINDGARH

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2. RESISTORS
FIXED RESISTORS CARBON FILM RESISTORS METAL FILM RESISTORS 2.2. VARIABLE RESISTORS 2.3. RESISTOR COLOR CODE

6 7

7
7 7 8 9

3. CAPACITORS

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2

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS CERAMIC CAPACITORS MULTI LAYER CERAMIC CAPACITORS MICA CAPACITORS VARIABLE CAPACITORS 4. DIODES RECTIFICATION / SWITCHING / REGULATION DIODE LIGHT EMITTING DIODE SHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE

11 12 13 13 13 15 16 17 18

5. TRANSISTORS
SIMPLIFIED OPERATION TRANSISTOR AS ASWITCH TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER TYPES OF TRANSISTORS BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR 19 20 21 21 21 22

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6. INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

THREE TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATOR 23

23 25
25 26

7. MULTIMETER
USES OF MULTIMETER ACCURACY

8. CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE PROJECT REPORT SEMINAR REPORT

27 30 32

LIST OF FIGURES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. CARBON FILM RESISTORS METAL FILM RESISTOR VARIABLE RESISTOR ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS CERAMIC CAPACITORS MULTI LAYER CERAMIC CAPACITORS MICA CAPACITORS VARIABLE CAPACITORS FOR DIFFERENT SPECIFICATIONS 7 8 8 12 12 13 13 14

9. REGULATION DIODES 10. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES OF DIFFERENT COLORS 11. SHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE 12. SIMPLIFIED OPERATION OF TRANSISTOR 13. TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH 14. TRANSISTOR AS AMPLIFIER 15. STRUCTURE OF ICS 16. THREE TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATOR 17. MULTIMETER 18. .CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

16 17 18 19 20 21 23 23 25 27

1. INTRODUCTION: ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS

An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system whose intention is to affect the electrons or their associated fields in a desired manner consistent with the intended function of the electronic system. Components are generally intended to be in mutual electromechanical contact, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits. Various components and devices are described below.

ACTIVE COMPONENTS
Active components increase the power of a signal and must be supplied with the signal and a source of power. The signal is fed into one connection of the active device and the amplified version taken from another connection.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Passive components do not increase the power of a signal. They often cause power to be lost. Some can increase the voltage at the expense of current, so overall there is loss of power. Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors & Diodes are the examples of passive components.

2. RESISTORS
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The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current. This symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as a schematic. Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A 1000 Ohm resistor is typically shown as 1KOhm (kilo Ohm), and 1000 K-Ohms is written as 1M-Ohm (megohm). There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the variable resistors. They are also classified according to the material from which they are made. The typical resistor is made of either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as well, but these are the most common.The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor are also important.The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated resistence value. For example, a 5% tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within 5% of the specified resistance value.The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate. Just like you wouldn't use a 6 volt flashlight lamp to replace a burned out light in your house, you wouldn't use a 1/8 watt resistor when you should be using a 1/2 watt resistor.

2.1 FIXED RESISTORS

A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.

2.1.1CARBON FILM RESISTORS

This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the resistance value is 5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used.Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy. Metal film resistors are recommended for use in analog circuits. However, I have never experienced any problems with this noise. The physical size of the different resistors is as follows.

2.1.2 METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is needed. They are much more accurate in value than carbon film resistors. They have about 0.05% tolerance. They have about 0.05% tolerance. I don't use any high tolerance resistors in my circuits. Resistors that are about 1% are more than sufficient. Ni-Cr (Nichrome) seems to be used for the material of resistor. The metal film resistor is used for bridge circuits, filter circuits, and low-noise analog signal circuits.

2.2 VARIABLE RESISTORS

There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by anyone but a technician. It is used to adjust the operating condition of the circuit by the technician. Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate for the inaccuracies of the resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of the variable resistor is usually about 300 degrees. Some variable resistors must be turned many times to use the whole range of resistance they offer. This allows for very precise adjustments of their value. These are called "Potentiometers" or "Trimmer Potentiometers." The variable resistor typically used for volume controls can be seen on the far right. Its value is very easy to adjust. The four resistors at the center of the photograph are the semi-fixed type. These ones are mounted on the printed circuit board. The two resistors on the left are the trimmer potentiometers. This symbol is used to indicate a variable resistor in a circuit diagram.

There are three ways in which a variable resistor's value can change according to the rotation angle of its axis. When type "A" rotates clockwise, at first, the resistance value changes slowly and then in the second half of its axis, it changes very quickly. The "A" type variable resistor is typically used for the volume control of a radio, for example. It is well suited to adjust a low sound subtly. It suits the characteristics of the ear. The ear hears low sound changes well, but isn't as sensitive to small changes in loud sounds. A larger change is needed as the volume is increased. These "A" type variable resistors are sometimes called "audio taper" potentiometers. As for type "B", the rotation of the axis and the change of the resistance value are directly related. The rate of change is the same, or linear, throughout the sweep of the axis. This type suits a resistance value adjustment in a circuit, a balance circuit and so on. They are sometimes called "linear taper" potentiometers. Type "C" changes exactly the opposite way to type "A". In the early stages of the rotation of the axis, the resistance value changes rapidly, and in the second half, the change occurs more slowly. This type isn't too much used. It is a special use. As for the variable resistor, most are type "A" or type "B".

2.3 RESISTOR COLOR CODE

Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White Gold Silver None

Value Multiplier 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -1 -2 -

Tolerance (%) 1 2 0.05 0.5 0.25 0.1 5 10 20

3. CAPACITORS
The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC).This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but separated by an insulator. When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing when the capacitor has fully charged. The value of a capacitor (the capacitance), is designated in units called the Farad ( F ).The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so units such as the microfarad ( 10 -6F ), Nano farad ( 10-9F ), and Pico farad (10-12F ) are used. Recently, a new capacitor with very high capacitance has been developed. The Electric Double Layer capacitor has capacitance designated in Farad units. These are known as "Super Capacitors. Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor. There are two ways in which the capacitance can be written. One uses letters and numbers, the other uses only numbers. In either case, there are only three characters used. [10n] and [103] denote the same value of capacitance. The method used differs depending on the capacitor supplier. In the case that the value is displayed with the three-digit code, the 1st and 2nd digits from the left show the 1st figure and the 2nd figure, and the 3rd digit is a multiplier which determines how many zeros are to be added to the capacitance. Picofarad (pF) units are written this way.

3.1. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization membrane. Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size of the capacitor, because the dielectric used is very thin. The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have polarity. They have a positive and a negative electrode. [Polarized] This means that it is very important which way round they are connected. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding its working voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it may burst. It is extremely dangerous, because it can quite literally explode. Make absolutely no mistakes. Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive side is indicated by a "+" (plus) symbol. Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1F to thousands of F. mainly this type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass low frequency signals, etc. Because this type of capacitor is comparatively similar to the nature of a coil in construction, it isn't possible to use for high-frequency circuits. (It is said that the frequency characteristic is bad.)

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From the left to right: 1F (50V) [diameter 5 mm, high 12 mm] 47F (16V) [diameter 6 mm, high 5 mm] 100F(25V)[diameter 5 mm, high 11 mm] 220F (25V) [diameter 8 mm, high 12 mm] 1000F (50V) [diameter 18 mm, high 40 mm] The size of the capacitor sometimes depends on the manufacture.

3.2. CERAMIC CAPACITORS

Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium acid barium used as the dielectric. Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be

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used in high frequency applications. Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass high frequency signals to ground. These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their capacitance is comparatively small. The capacitor on the left is a 100pF capacitor with a diameter of about 3 mm. The capacitor on the right side is printed with 103, so 10 x 10 3pF becomes 0.01 F. The diameter of the disk is about 6 mm. Ceramic capacitors have no polarity. Ceramic capacitors should not be used for analog circuits, because they can distort the signal.

3.3. MULTI LAYER CERAMIC CAPACITORS

The multilayer ceramic capacitor has a many-layered dielectric. These capacitors are small in size, and have good temperature and frequency characteristics. Square wave signals used in digital circuits can have a comparatively high frequency component included. This capacitor is used to bypass the high frequency to ground. In the photograph, the capacitance of the component on the left is displayed as 104. So, the capacitance is 10 x 10 4 pF = 0.1 F. The thickness is 2 mm, the height is 3 mm, and the width is 4 mm. The capacitor to the right has a capacitance of 103 (10 x 103 pF = 0.01 F). The height is 4 mm; the diameter of the round part is 2 mm. These capacitors are not polarized. That is, they have no polarity.

3.4. MICA CAPACITORS

These capacitors use Mica for the dielectric. Mica capacitors have good stability because their temperature coefficient is small. Because their frequency characteristic is excellent, they are used for resonance circuits, and high frequency filters. Also, they have good insulation, and so can be utilized in high voltage circuits. It was often used for vacuum tube style radio transmitters, etc. Mica capacitors do not have high values of capacitance, and they can be relatively expensive. Pictured above are "Dipped mica capacitors." These can handle up to 500 volts. The capacitance from the left .Capacitance: 47pF (printed with 70J) [the width 7mm, the height 5mm, the thickness 4mm] Capacitance: 220pF (printed with 221J) [the width 10mm, the height 6mm, the thickness 4mm] Capacitance: 1000pF (printed with 102J) [the width 14mm, the height 9mm, the thickness 4mm] These capacitors have no polarity.

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3.5. VARIABLE CAPACITORS

Variable capacitors are used for adjustment etc. of frequency mainly. On the left in the photograph is a "trimmer," which uses ceramic as the dielectric. Next to it on the right is one that uses polyester film for the dielectric. The pictured components are meant to be mounted on a printed circuit board. When adjusting the value of a variable capacitor, it is advisable to be careful. One of the component's leads is connected to the adjustment screw of the capacitor. This means that the value of the capacitor can be affected by the capacitance of the screwdriver in your hand. It is better to use a special screwdriver to adjust these components.

Pictured in the above photograph are variable capacitors with the following specifications: Capacitance: 20pF (3pF - 27pF measured) [Thickness 6 mm, height 4.8 mm] Their are different colors, as well. Blue: 7pF (2 - 9), white: 10pF (3 - 15), green: 30pF (5 - 35), brown: 60pF (8 - 72). In the same photograph, the device on the right has the following specifications: Capacitance: 30pF (5pF - 40pF measured) [The width (long) 6.8 mm, width (short) 4.9 mm, and the height 5 mm]

The components in the photograph are used for radio tuners, etc. They are called "Varicons" but this may be only in Japan. The variable capacitor on the left in the photograph uses air as the dielectric. It combines three independent capacitors. For each one, the capacitance changed 2pF - 18pF. When the adjustment axis is turned, the capacitance of all 3 capacitors change simultaneously. Physically, the device has a depth of 29 mm, and 17 mm width and height. (Not including the adjustment rod.) There are various kinds of variable capacitor, chosen in accordance with the purpose for which they are needed. The pictured components are very small. To the right in the photograph is a variable capacitor using polyester film as the

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dielectric. Two independent capacitors are combined. The capacitance of one side changes 12pF - 150pF, while the other side changes from 11pF - 70pF. Physically, it has a depth of 11mm, and 20mm width and height. (Not including the adjustment rod.) The pictured device also has a small trimmer built in to each capacitor to allow.

4. DIODES
A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in only one direction. Although a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a diode does. A diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one direction. Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here. A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a power supply device. Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies. Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current. This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram. (Cathode).Current flows from

The meaning of the symbol is (Anode) The anode side.

Although all diodes operate with the same general principle, there are different types suited to different applications. For example, the following devices are best used for the applications noted. Voltage regulation diode (Zener Diode) The circuit symbol is. It is used to regulate voltage, by taking advantage of the fact that Zener diodes tend to stabilize at a certain voltage when that voltage is applied in the opposite direction. Light emitting diode The circuit symbol is. This type of diode emits light when current flows through it in the forward direction. (Forward biased.)

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Variable capacitance diode The circuit symbol is. The current does not flow when applying the voltage of the opposite direction to the diode. In this condition, the diode has a capacitance like the capacitor. It is a very small capacitance. The capacitance of the diode changes when changing voltage. With the change of this capacitance, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed. The graph shows the electrical characteristics of a typical diode.

When a small voltage is applied to the diode in the forward direction, current flows easily. Because the diode has a certain amount of resistance, the voltage will drop slightly as current flows through the diode. A typical diode causes a voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (VF) (In the case of silicon diode, almost 0.6V) this voltage drop needs to be taken into consideration in a circuit which uses many diodes in series. Also, the amount of current passing through the diodes must be considered. When voltage is applied in the reverse direction through a diode, the diode will have a great resistance to current flow. Different diodes have different characteristics when reverse-biased. A given diode should be selected depending on how it will be used in the circuit. The current that will flow through a diode biased in the reverse direction will vary from several mA to just A, which is very small. The limiting voltages and currents permissible must be considered on a case by case basis. For example, when using diodes for rectification, part of the time they will be required to withstand a reverse voltage. If the diodes are not chosen carefully, they will break down.

4.1. RECTIFICATION / SWITCHING / REGULATION DIODE

The stripe stamped on one end of the diode shows indicates the polarity of the diode. 15

The stripe shows the cathode side. The top two devices shown in the picture are diodes used for rectification. They are made to handle relatively high currents. The device on top can handle as high as 6A, and the one below it can safely handle up to 1A. However, it is best used at about 70% of its rating because this current value is a maximum rating. The third device from the top (red color) has a part number of 1S1588. This diode is used for switching, because it can switch on and off at very high speed. However, the maximum current it can handle is 120 mA. This makes it well suited to use within digital circuits. The maximum reverse voltage (reverse bias) this diode can handle is 30V. The device at the bottom of the picture is a voltage regulation diode with a rating of 6V. When this type of diode is reverse biased, it will resist changes in voltage. If the input voltage is increased, the output voltage will not change. (Or any change will be an insignificant amount.) While the output voltage does not increase with an increase in input voltage, the output current will. This requires some thought for a protection circuit so that too much current does not flow. The rated current limit for the device is 30 mA. Generally, a 3-terminal voltage regulator is used for the stabilization of a power supply. Therefore, this diode is typically used to protect the circuit from momentary voltage spikes. 3 terminal regulators use voltage regulation diodes inside.

4.2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Light emitting diodes must be chosen according to how they will be used, because there are various kinds. The diodes are available in several colors. The most common colors are red and green, but there are even blue ones. The device on the far right in the photograph combines a red LED and green LED in one package. The component lead in the middle is common to both LEDs. As for the remaing two leads, one side is for the green, the other for the red LED. When both are turned on simultaneously, it becomes orange. When an LED is new out of the package, the polarity of the device can be determined by looking at the leads. The longer lead is the Anode side, and the short one is the Cathode side. The polarity of an LED can also be determined using a resistance meter, or even a 1.5 V battery. When using a test meter to determine polarity, set the meter to a low resistance measurement range. Connect the probes of the meter to the LED. If the polarity is correct, the LED will glow. If the LED does not glow, switch the meter probes to the opposite leads on the LED. In either case, the side of the diode which is connected to the 16

black meter probe when the LED glows, is the Anode side. Positive voltage flows out of the black probe when the meter is set to measure resistance.

4.3. SHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE

Diodes are used to rectify alternating current into direct current. However, rectification will not occur when the frequency of the alternating current is too high. This is due to what is known as the "reverse recovery characteristic." The reverse recovery characteristic can be explained as follows: IF the opposite voltage is suddenly applied to a forward-biased diode, current will continue to flow in the forward direction for a brief moment. This time until the current stops flowing is called the Reverse Recovery Time. The current is considered to be stopped when it falls to about 10% of the value of the peak reverse current. The Shottky barrier diode has a short reverse recovery time, which makes it ideally suited to use in high frequency rectification. The shottky barrier diode has the following characteristics. The voltage drop in the forward direction is low. The reverse recovery time is short. However, it has the following disadvantages. The diode can have relatively high leakage current. The surge resistance is low. Because the reverse recovery time is short, this diode is often used for the switching regulator in a high frequency circuit.

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5. TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and its presence is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions of the twentieth century. Its importance in today's society rests on it ability to be mass produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor device Fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor costs. Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority of transistors now produced are in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with diodes , resistors , capacitors and other electronic components to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 2.3 billion transistors (MOSFETs) 5.1. SIMPLIFIED OPERATION

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. The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal, that is, can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain. The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to asVBE .

5.2. TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration. Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications including switched-mode power supplies and low power applications such as logic gates.

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In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage raises the base and collector current rise exponentially, and the collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistor. The relevant equations: VRC = ICE RC, the voltage across the load (the lamp with resistance RC) VRC + VCE = VCC, the supply voltage shown as 6V If VCE could fall to 0 (perfect closed switch) then IC could go no higher than VCC / RC, even with higher base voltage and current. The transistor is then said to be saturated. Hence, values of input voltage can be chosen such that the output is either completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.

5.3. TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

Amplifier circuit, standard common-emitter configuration.

The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage in (Vin) changes the small current through the base of the transistor and the transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout. Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred mill watts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive.

5.4. TYPES OF TRANSISTORS

5.4.1. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

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Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The bipolar junction transistor (BJT), the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n-p-n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p-n-p transistor). This construction produces two p-n junctions: a baseemitter junction and a basecollector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semi conducting region will not make a transistor). The BJT has three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor an emitter, abase, and a collector. It is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a relatively small base current. In an NPN transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reversebiased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction) basecollector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled. Collector current is approximately (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.

5.4.2. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

The field-effect transistor (FET) relies on an electric field to control the shape and hence the conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor material. FETs are sometimes called unipolar transistors to contrast their single-carrier-type operation with the dual-carrier-type operation of bipolar (junction) transistors (BJT). The concept of the FET predates the BJT, though it was not physically implemented until after BJTs due to the limitations of semiconductor materials and the relative ease of manufacturing BJTs compared to FETs at the time.

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6. INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

An integrated circuit contains transistors, capacitors, resistors and other parts packed in high density on one chip. Although the function is similar to a circuit made with separate components, the internal structure of the components are different in an integrated circuit. The transistors, resistors, and capacitors are formed very small, and in high density on a foundation of silicon. They are formed by a variation of printing technology. There are many kind of ICs, including special use ICs. The top left device in the photograph is an SN7400. It contains 4 separate "2 input NAND" circuits. There are 7 pins on each side, 14 pins total. ICs in this form are called Dual In line Package (DIP). When an IC has only one row of pins, it so called a Single in line Package (SIP). The number of pins changes depending on the function of IC. At the bottom left is an IC socket for use with 14 pin DIP ICs. ICs can be attached directly to the printed circuit board with solder, but it's better to use an IC socket, because you can easily exchange it should the IC fail .

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On the top right is an LM386N audio amplifier. It can be used for amplification of low frequency, low power signals. IT has 8 pins and the maximum output is 660mW. On the bottom right is a TA7368P, which also is for amplification of low frequency electric power. It has a maximum output of 1.1 watts 6.1. THREE TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS It is very easy to get stabilized voltage for ICs by using a three terminal voltage regulator. The power supply voltage for a car is +12V - +14V. At this voltage, some ICs can not operate directly except for the car component ICs. In this case, a three terminal voltage regulator is necessary to get the required voltage. The three terminal voltage regulator outputs stabilized voltage at a lower level than the higher input voltage. A voltage regulator cannot put out higher voltage than the input voltage. They are similar in appearance to a transistor. On the left in the photograph is a 78L05. The size and form is similar to a 2SC1815 transistor. The output voltage is +5V, and the maximum output current is about 100mA. The maximum input voltage is +35V. (Differs by manufacturer). On the right is a 7805. The output voltage is +5V, and maximum output current is 500mA to 1A. (It depends on the heat sink used) The maximum input voltage is also +35V. There are many types with different output voltages.5V, 6V, 7V, 8V, 9V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V.

Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components. The 23

integrated circuit's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.

7. MULTIMETER
A multimeter or also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are two categories of multimeters, analog multimeters and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

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7.1. USES OF MULTIMETER

Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are: Voltage in volts. Current in amperes. Resistance in ohms. Additionally, multimeters may also measure: Capacitance in farads. Conductance in Siemens. Decibels. Duty cycle as a percentage. Frequency in hertz Inductance in henrys Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. Digital multimeters may also include circuits for: Continuity that beeps when a circuit conducts. Diodes (measuring forward drop and/or polarity) and transistors (measuring current gain and other parameters) "Battery Check" for simple 1.5 and 9V batteries. This is a current loaded voltage scale. Battery checking can be done less accurately using a DC Voltage scale.

7.2. ACCURACY
Digital multimeters generally take measurements with accuracy superior to their analog counterparts. Analog multimeters typically measure with about three percent accuracy Standard portable digital multimeters claim to be capable of taking measurements with an accuracy of 0.5% on the DC voltage ranges. Mainstream bench-top multimeters make claims to have an accuracy of better than 0.01%. Laboratory grade instruments can have accuracies in the parts per million figures. A multimeters quoted accuracy is specified as being that of the lower (mV) DC range, and is known as the "basic DC volts accuracy" figure. Higher DC voltage ranges, current, resistance, AC and other ranges will usually have a lower accuracy than the basic DC volts figure.

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8. CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The earliest and simplest type of oscilloscope consisted of a cathode ray tube, a vertical amplifier, a timebase, a horizontal amplifier and a power supply. These are now called 'analogue' scopes to distinguish them from the 'digital' scopes that became common in the 1990s and 2000s. Before the introduction of the CRO in its current form, the cathode ray tube had already been in use as a measuring device. The cathode ray tube is an evacuated glass envelope, similar to that in a black-and-white television set, with its flat face covered in a phosphorescent material (the phosphor. The screen is typically less than 20 cm in diameter, much smaller than the one in a television set. 26

In the neck of the tube is an electron gun, which is a heated metal plate with a wire mesh (the grid) in front of it. A small grid potential is used to block electrons from being accelerated when the electron beam needs to be turned off, as during sweep retrace or when no trigger events occur. A potential difference of at least several hundred volts is applied to make the heated plate (the cathode) negatively charged relative to the deflection plates. For higher bandwidth oscilloscopes where the trace may move more rapidly across the phosphor target, a positive post-deflection acceleration voltage of over 10,000 volts is often used, increasing the energy (speed) of the electrons that strike the phosphor. The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted by the phosphor into visible light at the point of impact. When switched on, a CRT normally displays a single bright dot in the center of the screen, but the dot can be moved about electrostatically or magnetically. The CRT in an oscilloscope uses electrostatic deflection. Between the electron gun and the screen are two opposed pairs of metal plates called the deflection plates. The vertical amplifier generates a potential difference across one pair of plates, giving rise to a vertical electric field through which the electron beam passes. When the plate potentials are the same, the beam is not deflected. When the top plate is positive with respect to the bottom plate, the beam is deflected upwards; when the field is reversed, the beam is deflected downwards. The horizontal amplifier does a similar job with the other pair of deflection plates, causing the beam to move left or right. This deflection system is called electrostatic deflection, and is different from the electromagnetic deflection system used in television tubes. In comparison to magnetic deflection, electrostatic deflection can more readily follow random changes in potential, but is limited to small deflection angles. The timebase is an electronic circuit that generates a ramp voltage. This is a voltage that changes continuously and linearly with time. When it reaches a predefined value the ramp is reset, with the voltage reestablishing its initial value. When a trigger event is recognized the reset is released, allowing the ramp to increase again. The timebase voltage usually drives the horizontal amplifier. Its effect is to sweep the electron beam at constant speed from left to right across the screen, then quickly return the beam to the left in time to begin the next sweep. The timebase can be adjusted to match the sweep time to the period of the signal. Meanwhile, the vertical amplifier is driven by an external voltage (the vertical input) that is taken from the circuit or experiment that is being measured. The amplifier has a very high input impedance, typically one megohm, so that it draws only a tiny current from the signal source. The amplifier drives the vertical deflection plates with a voltage that is proportional to the vertical input. Because the electrons have already been accelerated by hundreds of volt, this amplifier also has to deliver almost hundred volts and this with a very high bandwidth. The gain of the vertical amplifier can be adjusted to suit the amplitude of the input voltage. A positive input voltage bends the electron beam upwards, and a negative voltage bends it downwards, so that the vertical deflection of the dot shows the value of the input. The response of this system is much faster than that

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of mechanical measuring devices such as the multimeter, where the inertia of the pointer slows down its response to the input. When all these components work together, the result is a bright trace on the screen that represents a graph of voltage against time. Voltage is on the vertical axis, and time on the horizontal. Observing high speed signals, especially non-repetitive signals, with a conventional CRO is difficult, due to non-stable or changing triggering threshold which makes it hard to "freeze" the waveform on the screen. This often requires the room to be darkened or a special viewing hood to be placed over the face of the display tube. To aid in viewing such signals, special oscilloscopes have borrowed from night vision technology, employing a microchannel plate in the tube face to amplify faint light signals. Although a CRO allows one to view a signal, in its basic form it has no means of recording that signal on paper for the purpose of documentation. Therefore, special oscilloscope cameras were developed to photograph the screen directly. Early cameras used roll or plate film, while in the 1970s Polaroid instant cameras became popular. The vertical amplifier and timebase controls are calibrated to show the vertical distance on the screen that corresponds to a given voltage difference, and the horizontal distance that corresponds to a given time interval. The power supply is an important component of the scope. It provides low voltages to power the cathode heater in the tube, and the vertical and horizontal amplifiers. High voltages are needed to drive the electrostatic deflection plates. These voltages must be very stable. Any variations will cause errors in the position and brightness of the trace. Later analogue oscilloscopes added digital processing to the standard design. The same basic architecture - cathode ray tube, vertical and horizontal amplifiers - was retained, but the electron beam was controlled by digital circuitry that could display graphics and text mixed with the analogue waveforms. The extra features that this system provides include:

on-screen display of amplifier and timebase settings; voltage cursors - adjustable horizontal lines with voltage display; time cursors - adjustable vertical lines with time display; On-screen menus for trigger settings and other functions.

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PROJECT REPORT ON MOBILE CELL PHONE CHARGER

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MOBILE CELL PHONE CHARGER

Charging of the cell phone battery is a big problem while traveling as power supply source is not generally accessible. If you keep your cell phone Switched on continuously, its battery will go flat within five to six hours, making the cell phone useless. A fully charged battery becomes necessary especially when your distance from the nearest relay station increases. Heres a simple charger that replenishes the cell phone battery within two to three hours. Basically, the charger is a current-limited voltage source. Generally, cell phone battery packs require 3.6-6V DC and 180-200mA current for charging. These usually contain three NiCd cells, each having 1.2V rating. Current of 100mA is sufficient for charging the cellphone battery at a slow rate. A 12V battery containing eight pen cells gives sufficient current (1.8A) to charge the battery connected across the output terminals. The circuit also monitors the voltage level of the battery. It automatically cuts off the charging process when its output terminal voltage increases above the predetermined voltage level. Timer IC NE555 is used to charge and monitor the voltage level in the battery. Control voltage pin 5 of IC1 is provided with a reference voltage of 5.6V by zener diode ZD1. Threshold pin 6 is supplied with a voltage set by VR1 and trigger pin 2 is supplied with a voltage set by VR2.

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When the discharged cellphone battery is connected to the circuit, the voltage given to trigger pin 2 of IC1 is below 1/3Vcc and hence the flip-flop in the IC is switched on to take output pin 3 high. When the battery is fully charged, the output terminal voltage increases the voltage at pin 2 of IC1 above the trigger point threshold. This switches off the flip-flop and the output goes low to terminate the charging process. Threshold pin 6 of IC1 is referenced at 2/3Vcc set by VR1. Transistor T1 is used to enhance the charging current. Value of R3 is critical in providing the required current for charging. With the given value of 39-ohm the charging current is around 180 mA. The circuit can be constructed on a small general purpose PCB. For calibration of cutoff voltage level, use a variable DC power source. Connect the output terminals of the circuit to the variable power supply set at 7V. Adjust VR1 in the middle position and slowly adjust VR2 until LED1 goes off, indicating low output. LED1 should turn on when the voltage of the variable power supply reduces below 5V. Enclose the circuit in a small plastic case and use suitable connector for connecting to the cellphone battery.

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SEMINAR REPORT ON CABLE MODEMS

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CABLE MODEMS
The term Cable Modem is quite new and refers to a modem that operates over the ordinary cable TV network cables. Basically you just connect the Cable Modem to the TV outlet for your cable TV, and the cable TV operator connects a Cable Modem Termination System (CMTS) in his end (the Head-End). Actually the term "Cable Modem" is a bit misleading, as a Cable Modem works more like a Local Area Network (LAN) interface than as a modem. Cable modems allow consumers access to the Internet at higher speeds and at a fraction of the time it takes traditional telephone modems. This is true for two reasons: 1) Broadband networks make the connection up to a hundred times faster 2) The service is "always on," meaning customers get the information they want, when they want it. Unlike telephone modems, cable modems allow consumers to keep their telephone lines open for voice conversations. A CATV network is designed and used for cable TV distribution. With an upgrade of the system, it is normally possible to allow signals to flow in both directions. Higher frequencies flow Toward the subscriber and the lower frequencies go in the other direction. This is done by upgrades to the amplifiers in the cable

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Distribution network etc. Most CATV networks are Hybrid Fiber-Coax (HFC) networks. The signals run in fiber-optical cables from the Head-End center to locations near the subscriber. At that point the signal is converted to coaxial cables that run to the subscriber premises. One CMTS will normally drive about 1-2000 simultaneous Cable Modem users on a single TV channel. If more Cable Modems are required, the numbers of TV channels are increased by adding more channels to the CMTS. A number of different Cable Modem configurations are possible. These three configurations are the main products we see Now. Over time more systems will arrive.

EXTERNAL CABLE MODEM

The external Cable Modem is the small external box that connects to your computer normally through an ordinary Ethernet connection. You will need to add a (cheap) Ethernet card to your computer before you can connect the Cable Modem. A plus is that you can connect more computers to the Ethernet. Also the Cable Modem works with most operating systems and hardware platforms, including Mac, UNIX, laptop computers etc.Another interface for external Cable Modems is USB, which has the advantage of installing much faster (something that matters, because the cable operators are normally sending Technicians out to install each and every Cable Modem). The downside is that you can only connect one PC to a USB based Cable Modem.

INTERNAL CABLE MODEM

The internal Cable Modem is typically a PCI bus add-in card for a PC. That might be the cheapest implementation possible, but it has a number of drawbacks. First problem is that it can only be used in desktop PC's. Mac's and laptops are possible, but require a different design. Second problem is that the cable connector is not galvanic isolated from AC mains. This may pose a problem in some CATV networks, requiring a more expensive upgrade of the network installations. Some countries and/or CATV networks may not be able to use internal cable modems at all for technical and/or regulatory reasons. Interactive Set-Top Box The interactive set-top box is really a cable modem in disguise. The primary function of the set-top box is to provide more TV channels on the same limited number of frequencies. This is possible with the use of digital television encoding (DVB). An interactive set-top box provides a return channel often through the ordinary plain old telephone system (POTS) that allows the user access to web-browsing, email etc.directly on the TV screen.

TYPICAL MODEM INSTALLAT ION

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When installing a Cable Modem, a power splitter and a new cable are usually required. The splitter divides the signal for the "old" installations and the new segment that connects the Cable Modem. No TV-sets are accepted on the new string that goes to the Cable Modem. The transmitted signal from the Cable Modem can be so strong; that any TV sets connected on the same string might be disturbed. The isolation of the splitter may not be sufficient, so an extra high-pass filter can be needed in the string that goes to the TV sets. The high-pass filter allows only the TV channel frequencies to pass, and blocks the upstream frequency band. The other reason for the filter is to block ingress in the low upstream frequency range from the in-house wiring. Noise injected at each individual residence accumulates in the upstream path towards the head-end, so it is essential to keep it at a minimum at every single residence that needs Cable Modem service. Cable Modems are different, but the basic architecture is more or less the same as shown above. The major components are outlined below, along with an indication of some companies that are know to deliver products to the open market. Many other companies are working in the field, but may not be so well known to me - or may only produce components for their own use Cable modem technology offers high-speed access to the Internet and World Wide Web services. Cable data networks integrate the elements necessary to advance beyond modem technology and provide such measures as privacy, security, data networking, Internet access, and quality-of-service features. The end-to-end network architecture enables a user cable modem to connect to a CMTS which, in turn, connects to a regional data center for access to Internet services. Thus, through a system of network connections, a cable data network is capable of connecting users to other users anywhere in the global network. Because cable operates at speeds many times faster than a dialup phone line, it is now possible to view streaming video clips real-time, download multimegabyte software programs in seconds, videoconference with friends and family and play video games on-line. These capabilities were not practical nor, in some cases, even possible with 56K dialup. In addition, cable Internet subscribers can be fully connected, 24 hours a day, to both remote and local services without interfering with their cable television Service or tying up a phone line. The requirements for greater bandwidth and speed is on the rise. With the many advantages, Cable Modems with the present technology seem to be a feasible solutions.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_resistor.htm http://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_capa.htm http://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_diode.htm http://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_transist.htm http://hobby_elec.piclist.com/e_ic.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimeter http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscilloscope

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http://www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/lab/ad.asp? url=/EFYLinux/circuit/mar2004/Cir-01-mobilecharger.pdf&title=Mobile %20Cellphone%20Charger http://www.101seminartopics.com/cable-modems/

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