Looking Ahead

Although we will be well into the twenty-first century before we know whether Reeve will achieve his goal, it is clear that he represents a powerful example of the triumph of the human spirit over adversity. Reeve's situation also raises a variety of issues that illustrate the many branches of psychology: Psychologists studying the biology underlying behavior might consider the causes of damage in spinal cord injuries and examine procedures for reversing the damage. Psychologists who study learning and thinking could examine how Reeve must learn alternative means of carrying out everyday, and previously simple, tasks. Psychologists who specialize in the study of memory could investigate why Reeve is unable to recall his accident, and, more generally, why people's recollections are often incomplete or inaccurate. Developmental psychologists might ask how Reeve's courage was shaped during his development, and how the course of his life will change due to the injury. Health psychologists might examine the stress brought about by the challenging circumstances of Reeve's altered life. Clinical and counseling psychologists would seek to identify the most effective ways to help Reeve cope with his loss of mobility following the accident. Social psychologists would try to understand how others' empathy was affected by Reeve's plight, and whether he was an effective role model for others with paralyzing injuries. Although the approaches that different types of psychologists would take in the Reeve case are diverse, there is a common link: Each represents a specialty area within the general field of study called psychology. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. This definition seems straightforward, but its simplicity is deceptive. In fact, since the first stirrings of the discipline, psychologists have debated just what should constitute the appropriate scope of the field. Should psychologists limit themselves to the study of outward, observable behavior? Is it possible to study internal thinking scientifically? Should the field encompass the study of such diverse topics as physical and mental health, perception, dreaming, and motivation? Is it appropriate to focus solely on human behavior, or should the behavior of nonhumans be included? The Home Page for the American Psychological Association. A great place to start to find out what the science of psychology is all about. http://www.apa.org/ Most psychologists have answered these questions by taking a broad view, arguing that the field should be receptive to a variety of viewpoints and approaches. Consequently, the phrase "behavior and mental processes" in the definition must be understood to mean many things: It encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts, feelings, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that maintain bodily functioning. When psychologists speak of "studying" behavior and mental processes, their perspective is equally broad. To psychologists, it is not enough simply to describe behavior. As with any science, psychology attempts to explain, predict, modify, and ultimately improve the lives of people and the world in which they live.

By using scientific methods, psychologists are able to find answers to questions about the nature of human behavior and thought processes that are far more valid and legitimate than those resulting from mere intuition and speculation. And what a variety and range of questions psychologists pose. Consider these examples: How do we distinguish between colors? What is intelligence? Can abnormal behavior be altered? How long can we go without sleep? Can aging be delayed? How does stress affect us? What is the best way to study? What is normal sexual behavior? How do we reduce violence? These questionswhich will be addressed in this bookprovide just a hint of the various topics that we will encounter as we explore the field of psychology. Our discussions will take us across the spectrum of what is known about behavior and mental processes. At times, we will leave the realm of human beings to explore animal behavior, because many psychologists study nonhuman animals in order to determine general laws of behavior that pertain to all organisms. Behavior of other animals thus provides important clues to answering questions about human behavior. But we will always return to a consideration of the usefulness of psychology in helping to solve the everyday problems that confront all human beings. In sum, this book will not only cover the breadth of the field of psychology, it will also try to convey its content in a way that arouses your interest and continuing curiosity about psychology. To that end, this text is intended to provide as close a facsimile to two people sitting down and discussing psychology as I can convey with the written word; when I write "we," I am talking about the two of us reader and writer. The book also incorporates several features meant to illustrate how psychology can have an impact on each of our lives. You will find how psychologists are applying what they have learned to resolve practical problems that people encounter (Applying Psychology in the 21st Century boxes). You will meet people who have experienced firsthand how valuable a background in psychology can be in their professional lives (Pathways Through Psychology boxes). You will learn about the contributions that psychology can make to enhancing our understanding of the multicultural world in which we live (Exploring Diversity sections). You will also find material intended to make you a more knowledgeable consumer of psychological information. These Informed Consumer of Psychology sections discuss concrete recommendations for incorporating psychology into your life. Finally, links to World Wide Web pages are indicated by the "PsychLinks" symbol in the margins (see above). When a PsychLinks symbol appears, it alerts you to related material on Web sites that can be reached through the Understanding Psychology, 5/e, Web site. The book itself has been designed to make it easier for you to learn the material we discuss. Based on principles developed by psychologists who specialize in learning and memory, information is presented in relatively small chunks, with each chapter containing three or four major segments. Each segment starts with a few broad questions and concludes with a Recap, Review, and Rethink section that lists the key points and poses questions for you to consider. Some questions ("Review") provide a quick test of recall, with answers provided immediately following the review. Others, designated "Rethink," are broader in scope and are designed to elicit critical analysis of the information you have read. These self tests will help you in learning, and later recalling, the material in each segment. To further reinforce your understanding of important terms and concepts, each chapter ends with a comprehensive summary, a list of key terms, and a brief epilogue, which asks you to return to the opening prologue and consider a few additional questions about it. The framework of the book is embodied in this introductory chapter, which presents several topics that are central to an understanding of psychology. We begin by describing the different types of psychologists and the various roles they play. Next, we examine the major perspectives used to guide the work psychologists do. Finally, we identify the major issues that underlie psychologists' views of the world and human behavior.

Copyright 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychologists at Work

The Branches of Psychology: Psychology's Family Tree The Demographics of the Discipline Recap, Review, and Rethink

What is psychology, and why is it a science? What are the different branches of the field of psychology? Where do psychologists work?

One month after losing his left arm in a car accident, Victor Quintero sat with his eyes closed in a brain-research laboratory as a scientist poked his cheek with a cotton swab. "Where do you feel that?" asked Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, a psychologist at the University of California in San Diego. "On my left cheek and on the back of my missing hand," said the 17-year-old high school student. Dr. Ramachandran touched a spot under Mr. Quintero's left nostril. "And where do you feel that?" "On my left pinky. It tingles." Eventually Dr. Ramachandran found points all over the young man's left face and jaw that evoked sensations in his amputated hand and arm. . . . Finally, Dr. Ramachandran dribbled warm water down Mr. Quintero's left cheek. Both were amazed. "I feel it running down my arm," said Mr. Quintero, blinking his eyes to check that the limb was still gone (Blakeslee, 1992, p. C1). *** The middle-aged woman welcomes the participants in the study, who, more often than not, enter the room in pairs. This is hardly surprising since the point of the study is to examine twins. They have come to a testing site to meet with researchers studying similarities in the behavioral and personality traits of twins. By comparing twins who have lived together virtually all their lives with those who have been separated from birth, researchers are seeking to determine the relative influence of heredity and experience on human behavior. *** A graduate-school student in China shows a group of university students a list of short proverbs, some of which contain two contradictory ideas ("too humble is half proud"), while others are more "linear" ("as the twig is bent, so grows the tree"). After learning which proverbs the Chinese students prefer, she then repeats the same study at a university in the United States. She finds that Chinese students prefer proverbs that contain two contradictory ideas, while U.S. students have the opposite preference (Peng & Nisbett, 1997). *** Methodicallyand painfullyretracing events of years before, the college student discloses a childhood secret that he has revealed previously to no one. The listener responds with support, suggesting to him that his concern is in fact shared by many people.

Although the last scene may be the only one that fits your image of what a psychologist does, each of these episodes describes work carried out by contemporary psychologists. The range and scope of psychology is remarkably broad.

The Branches of Psychology: Psychology's Family Tree

Figure 01-01 The Biological Foundations of Behavior Sensing, Perceiving, Learning, and Thinking Understanding Change and Individual Differences Physical and Mental Health Understanding Our Social Networks Newer Speciality Areas Psychology can be likened to a large extended family, with assorted nieces and nephews, aunts and uncles, and cousins who may not interact on a day-to-day basis, but who are related to one another in fundamental ways. We will examine psychology's family tree by considering each of the major specialty areas of the field, describing them in the general order in which they are discussed in subsequent chapters of this book. Figure 01-01 depicts the proportion of psychologists who identify themselves as belonging to each of these major specialty areas.

Figure 01-01 This figure depicts the percentage of psychologists falling into the major specialty areas of the field.

Figure 01-01

The Biological Foundations of Behavior

Biological Bases of Behavior Home Page from the University of Plymouth in Devon, England. A comprehensive and thorough journey through biopsychology with numerous links as well as course descriptions. http://salmon.psy.plym.ac.uk/year1/bbb.htm In the most fundamental sense, people are biological organisms. Some psychologists investigate the ways in which the physiological functions and structures of our body work together to influence our behavior. Biopsychology is the branch of psychology that specializes in the biological bases of behavior. Studying a broad range of topics, biopsychologists focus on the operation of the brain and

nervous system. For example, they may examine the ways in which specific sites in the brain are related to the muscular tremors found in Parkinson's disease (discussed in Chapter 3), or they may attempt to determine how our body's sensations are related to our emotions (Chapter 10).

Counseling Psychologists
Counseling psychologists who staff college centers advise students on career choices, methods of study, and strategies for coping with everyday problems.

Sensing, Perceiving, Learning, and Thinking

Counseling Psychologists If you have ever wondered how acute your vision is, how you sense pain, or how you can study most effectively, you have raised a question that is most appropriately answered by an experimental psychologist. Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world. The work of experimental psychologists overlaps that of biopsychologists, as well as other types of psychologists. For this reason, the term "experimental psychologist" is somewhat misleading; psychologists in every specialty area use experimental techniques, and experimental psychologists do not limit themselves solely to experimental methods. Several subspecialties have grown out of experimental psychology to become central branches of the field in their own right. One example is cognitive psychology, which focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making. Covering a wide range of human behavior, cognitive psychologists have, for instance, identified more efficient ways of remembering and better strategies for solving problems involving logic (as we will discuss in Chapter 7 and Chapter 8).

Understanding Change and Individual Differences

A baby producing her first smile . . . taking her first step . . . saying her first word. These events, which can be characterized as universal milestones in development, are also singularly special and unique for each person. Developmental psychologists, whose work we will discuss in Chapter 12 and Chapter 13, trace the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur throughout life. Developmental psychology, then, is the branch of psychology that studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death. Another branch, personality psychology, attempts to explain both consistency and change in a person's behavior over time, as well as the individual traits that differentiate the behavior of one person from another when they confront the same situation. The major issues relating to the study of personality will be considered in Chapter 14.

Physical and Mental Health

If you suffer from constant stress, are frequently depressed, or seek to overcome a fear that prevents you from carrying out your normal activities, your problems would be addressed by one of the psychologists who devote their energies to the study of physical or mental health: health psychologists, clinical psychologists, and counseling psychologists. Health Psychology Web Site. Here you'll find information about an association dedicated to health psychology. http://freud.apa.org/divisions/div38/ Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. For instance, health psychologists are interested in how long-term stress (a psychological factor) can affect physical health. They are also concerned with identifying ways of promoting behavior related to good health (such as increased exercise) or discouraging unhealthy behavior such as smoking, as we will discuss in Chapter 15. Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology that deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior. Clinical psychologists are trained to diagnose and treat problems ranging from the everyday crises of life, such as grief due to the death of a loved one, to more extreme conditions, such as losing touch with reality. Some clinical psychologists also conduct research, investigating issues that range from identifying the early signs of psychological disturbance to studying the relationship between family communication patterns and psychological disorders. As we will see in Chapters 16 and Chapter 17, the kinds of activities carried out by clinical psychologists are varied indeed. It is clinical psychologists who administer and score psychological tests and who provide psychological services in community mental health centers. Even sexual problems, as we will see when we consider human sexuality in Chapter 11, are often treated by clinical psychologists. Like clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists deal with people's psychological problems, but the problems they deal with are of a particular sort. Counseling psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. Almost every college has a center staffed with counseling psychologists. This is where students can get advice on the kinds of jobs they might be best suited for, methods of studying effectively, and strategies for resolving everyday difficulties, such as problems with roommates and concerns about a specific professor's grading practices. Many large business organizations also employ counseling psychologists to help employees with work-related problems. Two close relatives of counseling psychology are educational psychology and school psychology. Educational psychology is concerned with teaching and learning processes. It is, for example, concerned with ways of understanding intelligence, developing better teaching techniques, and understanding teacher-student interaction. School psychology, in contrast, is the specialty area devoted to assessing children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems and developing solutions to such problems.

Understanding Our Social Networks

None of us lives in isolation; rather, we are all part of a complex network of social interrelationships. These networks with other people and with society as a whole are the focus of study for many different kinds of psychologists.

Social psychology, as we will see in Chapter 18, is the study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. Social psychologists focus on such diverse topics as human aggression, liking and loving, persuasion, and conformity. For instance, social psychologists ask, "Does observation of televised violence make people more aggressive?" "What is the role of physical attractiveness in choosing a spouse?" and "How are we influenced by salespeople?" The study of the psychology of women concentrates on psychological factors relating to women's behavior and development. It focuses on a broad range of issues, such as discrimination against women, the possibility that structural differences exist in men's and women's brains, the effects of hormones on behavior, and the causes of violence against women (Chrisler, Golden & Rozee, 1996; Matlin, 1996). Industrial-organizational psychology is concerned with the psychology of the workplace. Specifically, it considers issues such as productivity, job satisfaction, and decision-making (Cascio, 1995; Riggio & Porter, 1996; Spector, 1996; Aamodt, 1996). A related branch is consumer psychology, which analyzes people's buying habits and the effects of advertising on buyer behavior. An industrial-organizational psychologist might ask a question such as "How do you influence workers to improve the quality of products they produce," while a consumer psychologist might ask "How does product quality enter into decisions to purchase a specific product?" Finally, cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in various cultures and ethnic groups. As we discuss throughout this book, psychologists specializing in cross-cultural issues investigate such questions as the following (Shweder & Sullivan, 1993; Goldberger & Veroff, 1995; Gergen et al., 1996): How do the ways in which people in different cultures attribute their academic success or failures lead to differences in scholastic performance (a factor that may account for differences in academic achievement between American and Japanese students)? How do child-rearing practices, which differ substantially among various cultures, affect subsequent adult values and attitudes? and "Why do cultures vary in their interpretation of what constitutes physical attractiveness?"

Newer Speciality Areas

As the field of psychology matures, the number of specialty areas continues to increase (Bower, 1993; Koch, 1993). For example, evolutionary psychology, an increasingly influential area, seeks to identify behavior patterns that are a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Evolutionary psychology is rooted in the work of Charles Darwin, whose On the Origin of Species in 1859 argued that a process of natural selection produces traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment. Following Darwin's perspective, evolutionary psychology examines whether our genetic inheritance not only determines such traits as hair color and race, but also holds the key to understanding certain behaviors. As we'll see in future chapters, recent evidence suggests that a surprising array of behaviors, such as the degree to which we are outgoing or introverted, may well be influenced by genetic factors (Plomin & McClearn, 1993; Crawford & Krebs, 1997). Other more recent additions to the field of psychology include clinical neuropsychology and environmental psychology. Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology. It focuses on the relationship between biological factors, such as brain dysfunctions and psychological disorders. Environmental psychology considers the relationship between people and their physical environment. Environmental psychologists have made significant progress in understanding how our physical environment affects our emotions, the way we behave toward others, and the amount of stress we experience in a particular setting. Forensic psychology focuses on legal issues, such as deciding on criteria for determining whether a person is legally insane, and whether larger or smaller juries make fairer decisions (Stern, 1992; Palermo & Knudten, 1994; Davies et al., 1995; Gudjonsson, 1996). "Is there a home court advantage?" "Are there personality differences between people who participate in sports and exercise programs and those who don't?" "Does participation in sports reduce aggressive behavior?" "How can we motivate ourselves to perform at an optimal level?" Questions of

this sort are addressed by sport and exercise psychology, the branch of the field that investigates the applications of psychology to athletic activity and exercise. It considers the role of motivation, the social aspects of sports, and even such physiological issues as the impact of training on muscle development. The growing influence of the field is suggested by the fact that no fewer than twenty sport and exercise psychologists were on site at the international Olympics in Atlanta (Murray, 1996). Psychologists interested in program evaluation also constitute a growing body. They focus on assessing large-scale programs, usually managed by the government, to determine whether they are effective in meeting their goals. For example, such psychologists have examined the effectiveness of such governmental social services as the Head Start preschool program and Medicaid (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; Caruso, Horm-Wingerd, & Dickinson, 1996; Sisk et al., 1996).

The Demographics of the Discipline

Psychology's Workplace Psychologists: A Statistical Portrait The Education of a Psychologist Help Wanted: Assistant professor at a small liberal arts college. Teach undergraduate courses in introductory psychology and courses in specialty areas of cognitive psychology, perception, and learning. Strong commitment to quality teaching and student advising necessary. The candidate must also provide evidence of scholarship and research productivity or potential. Help Wanted: Industrial-organizational consulting psychologist. International firm is seeking psychologists for full-time career positions as consultants to management. Candidates must have the ability to establish a rapport with senior business executives and to assist them with innovative, practical, and psychologically sound solutions to problems concerning people and organizations. Help Wanted: Clinical psychologist. Ph.D., internship experience, and license required. Comprehensive clinic seeks psychologist to work with children and adults providing individual and group therapy, psychological evaluations, crisis intervention, and development of behavior treatment plans on multidisciplinary team. Broad experience with substance abuse problems is desirable.

Psychology's Workplace
Figure 01-02

Given the diversity of roles that psychologists play, it is not surprising that they are employed in a variety of settings. As you can see in Figure 01-02, many doctoral-level psychologists are employed by institutions of higher learning (universities and colleges) or are self-employed, usually working as private practitioners treating clients. The next-most-frequent employment settings are private for-profit and non-profit organizations, Figure 01-02 such as hospitals, clinics, mental-health centers, and counseling centers. Other settings include government human-services organizations and Figure 01-02 This graph schools (APA, 1996).

shows a breakdown of where doctoral-level psychologists work.

Why are so many psychologists found in academic settings? The answer is that the three major roles played by psychologists in societyteacher, scientist, and clinical practitionerare easily carried out in such an environment. Very often psychology professors are also actively involved in research or in serving clients. Whatever their particular job site, however, psychologists share a commitment to improving individual lives as well as society in general (Peterson, 1991; Coie et al., 1993; Rheingold, 1994; Robertson, 1994). (For the perspective of a government analyst who uses psychology in her work on a daily basis, see the Pathways Through Psychology box.)

Psychologists: A Statistical Portrait

Figure 01-03 Pathways Through Psychology Is there an "average" psychologist in terms of personal characteristics? Probably not. Just as the subfields of psychology are highly diversified, the kinds of people who make up the field are also

Figure 01-03
Figure 01-03 This graph shows the origin of published research.

quite varied. Some basic demographic statistics begin to tell the story. For example, about 60 percent of U.S. psychologists are men and about 40 percent are women. Yet these figures are not static: by the year 2000 these percentages are expected to be about equal, and by the year 2010 the number of women in the field is predicted to exceed the number of men (APA, 1993; Fowler, 1993; Pion et al., 1996). Furthermore, although today most psychologists are found in the United States, the field extends well beyond U.S. borders. About one-third of the world's 500,000 psychologists are found in other parts of the world (see Figure 01-03). Psychologists outside the United States are increasingly

influential in adding to the knowledge base and practices of psychology, which in the last half century have been shaped by U.S. psychologists (Rosenzweig, 1992; Mays et al., 1996; Pawlik & d'Ydewalle, 1996). One issue of great concern to psychologists is the relative lack of racial and ethnic diversity among psychologists in the United States. According to figures compiled by the American Psychological Association, of those psychologists who identify themselves by race and ethnic origin in surveysand almost one-fifth don't respond to the questionthe vast majority are white. Past educational and occupational discrimination, and a lack of encouragement for minorities to enter the field have resulted in a situation in which less than 2 percent are Hispanic, 1.6 percent are African American, 1.2 percent are Asian, and 0.5 percent are Native American. Although the number of nonwhite psychologists currently in graduate school is higher, the numbers are still not representative of the proportion of minorities in society at large. In fact, the gains have not even kept up with the increasing growth of the minority population (APA, 1994). The underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities among psychologists is significant for several reasons. First, the field of psychology may be harmed from a lack of the diverse perspectives and talents provided by minority group members. Furthermore, minority group psychologists serve as role models for members of minority communities. Their lack of representation within the profession may deter additional minority group members from seeking to enter the field (King, 1993). Another reason is that members of minority groups frequently prefer to receive psychological therapy and counseling from treatment providers of the same race or ethnic group as their own. The relative rarity of minority psychologists may therefore discourage some members of minority groups from seeking treatment. Consequently, both the American Psychological Association and individual graduate schools are vigorously seeking to increase the numbers of psychologists from underrepresented groups (Sue & Sue, 1990; Youngman, 1992; Fowler, 1993; Patterson, 1996).

Pathways Through Psychology

Carolyn Copper

Carolyn Copper, Government Analyst

National Security and International Affairs Division U.S. General Accounting Office

Carolyn Copper
Born: 1964 Education: B.A. in psychology, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio; M.A., Ph.D., Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York Home: Arlington, Virginia Carolyn Copper entered college with an interest in social problems and their resolution. Her initial instinct was to pursue a career in social work, but after taking courses in psychology she changed her direction. "After taking the first few introductory courses in psychology I thought it was the better avenue to get the skills I needed to perform research and deal effectively with social problems and issues," says Copper, who is now a senior social science analyst with the National Security and International Affairs Division of the U.S. General Accounting Office. "I've found that the fundamental skills I acquired in both my undergraduate and graduate psychology training are similar to the skills that are needed to conduct credible research that serves the needs of customers with policymaking responsibilities," she notes. Since joining the General Accounting Office more than four years ago, Copper has been conducting research on federal programs and activities related to national defense. "My most recent assignments include a review of the Operation Desert Storm air campaign and a historic overview of multiple financial indicators for the U.S. defense industry," she says. "In my work, I design research, collect data, conduct interviews and statistical analyses, review and synthesize literature, interpret data, prepare reports of study procedures and findings, and plan future work. "To conduct this work I draw on my skills as a social psychologist. My training in psychology is critical for the work that I do, and especially useful for trying to make my work meaningful for the public and members of Congress," she explains. The research on Operation Desert Storm required more than one hundred interviews, many in a group setting. According to Copper, her psychology background prepared her well for facilitating communications during the interviews for that project. "If you want to expand your career options as a psychologist, I would recommend diversifying your training program. The multidisciplinary nature of nonacademic research and the fact that successful applied research requires skills in addition to those obtained in the laboratory justify diversification. "Training people as academicians and clinicians in psychology is fine. Academic and laboratory research can be engaging and illuminating.

However, there is a unique satisfaction and a special challenge associated with public sector research, and particularly with serving the public," she adds. For more on careers in psychology, click here.

The Education of a Psychologist

Some of the skills that can be obtained through graduate training in psychology are described here. http://www.apa.org/science/skills.html How do people become psychologists? The most common route is a long one. Most psychologists have a doctoral graduate degree, either in the form of a Ph.D. or (less frequently) a Psy.D. The Ph.D. is a research degree, requiring a dissertation based on an original investigation. The Psy.D. is obtained by psychologists who wish to focus on the treatment of psychological disorders. Both the Ph.D. and the Psy.D. typically take four or five years of work past the bachelor's level (Ellis, 1992). Some fields of psychology involve education beyond the doctorate. For instance, doctoral-level clinical psychologists, who deal with people with psychological disorders, typically spend an additional year on an internship. They can be licensed by a state accreditation board. Although most psychologists have a doctoral degree, not everyone who works in the field of psychology has a doctorate. About one-third have a master's degree, which is earned following two or three years of graduate work. Master's-level psychologists may teach, conduct research under the supervision of a doctoral-level psychologist, or work in specialized programs dealing with drug abuse or crisis intervention. Some work in universities, government, and business, collecting and analyzing data. Still, career opportunities are more limited for those with a master's degree than for those with a doctorate (APA, 1996). An undergraduate major in psychology provides worthwhile preparation for a variety of occupations, although it does not allow professional work in psychology per se. For instance, many people in business, nursing, law, social work, and other professions report that an undergraduate background in psychology has proven invaluable in their careers. Undergraduates who specialize in psychology typically have good analytical, higher-order thinking abilities, and they are able to synthesize and evaluate information wellskills that are held in high regard by employers in business and industry and the government. Furthermore, some 20 percent of recipients of bachelor's degrees in psychology work in the social services or in some other form of public affairs (APA, 1996; Sternberg, 1997). People other than psychologists also deal with psychological issues, but their training tends to differ in significant ways from that of psychologists. For instance, although psychiatrists treat people with psychological disorders, they have medical degrees and can prescribe medicine. Trained initially as physicians, they often focus on the physical causes of psychological disorders. Consequently, they may be more apt to employ treatments involving medications than to focus on psychological causes of disorders. In addition, people in allied fields such as social work, marriage counseling, and school counseling often deal with psychological issues. However, their direct training in psychology is more limited than that attained by psychologists.

Recap, Review, and Rethink

Recap Review Rethink

Recap

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Among the major branches of psychology are biopsychology, experimental and cognitive psychology, developmental and personality psychology, health, clinical, and counseling psychology, educational and school psychology, social psychology, psychology of women, industrial-organizational psychology, and cross-cultural psychology. Many psychologists are employed by institutions of higher learning, and the balance are employed by hospitals, clinics, and community health centers or are engaged in private practice.

Review
1. The foundation of psychology today lies in a. intuition. b. observation and experimentation. c. trial and error. d. metaphysics. 2. Match each branch of psychology with the issues or questions posed below. a. Biopsychology b. Experimental psychology c. Cognitive psychology d. Developmental psychology e. Personality psychology f. Health psychology g. Clinical psychology h. Counseling psychology i. Educational psychology j. School psychology k. Social psychology l. Industrial psychology m. Consumer psychology 1. Joan, a college freshman, is panicking. She needs to learn better organizational skills and study habits to cope with the demands of college. 2. At what age do children generally begin to acquire an emotional attachment to their fathers? 3. It is thought that pornographic films that depict violence against women may prompt aggressive behavior in some men.

4. What chemicals are released in the human body as a result of a stressful event? What are their effects on behavior? 5. John is unique in his manner of responding to crisis situations, with an even temperament and a positive outlook. 6. The general public is more apt to buy products that are promoted by attractive and successful actors. 7. The teachers of eight-year-old Jack are concerned that he has recently begun to withdraw socially and shows little interest in school work. 8. Janet's job is demanding and stressful. She wonders if her lifestyle is making her more prone to certain illnesses such as cancer and heart disease. 9. A psychologist is intrigued by the fact that some people are much more sensitive to painful stimuli than others. 10. A strong fear of crowds leads a young woman to seek treatment for her problem. 11. What mental strategies are involved in solving complex word problems? 12. What teaching methods most effectively motivate elementary school students to successfully accomplish academic tasks? 13. Jessica is asked to develop a management strategy that will encourage safer work practices in an assembly plant. Answers to Review Questions

Rethink
1. Why might the study of twins who were raised together and twins who were not be helpful in distinguishing the effects of heredity and environment? 2. Imagine you had a seven-year-old child who was having problems learning to read. Imagine further that you could consult as many psychologists as you wanted. How might each type of psychologist approach the problem? 3. Are intuition and common sense sufficient for understanding why people act the way they do? Why is a scientific approach appropriate for studying human behavior?

Copyright 1999 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychologists at Work

The Branches of Psychology: Psychology's Family Tree The Demographics of the Discipline Recap, Review, and Rethink

What is psychology, and why is it a science?

What are the different branches of the field of psychology? Where do psychologists work?

One month after losing his left arm in a car accident, Victor Quintero sat with his eyes closed in a brain-research laboratory as a scientist poked his cheek with a cotton swab. "Where do you feel that?" asked Dr. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, a psychologist at the University of California in San Diego. "On my left cheek and on the back of my missing hand," said the 17-year-old high school student. Dr. Ramachandran touched a spot under Mr. Quintero's left nostril. "And where do you feel that?" "On my left pinky. It tingles." Eventually Dr. Ramachandran found points all over the young man's left face and jaw that evoked sensations in his amputated hand and arm. . . . Finally, Dr. Ramachandran dribbled warm water down Mr. Quintero's left cheek. Both were amazed. "I feel it running down my arm," said Mr. Quintero, blinking his eyes to check that the limb was still gone (Blakeslee, 1992, p. C1). *** The middle-aged woman welcomes the participants in the study, who, more often than not, enter the room in pairs. This is hardly surprising since the point of the study is to examine twins. They have come to a testing site to meet with researchers studying similarities in the behavioral and personality traits of twins. By comparing twins who have lived together virtually all their lives with those who have been separated from birth, researchers are seeking to determine the relative influence of heredity and experience on human behavior. *** A graduate-school student in China shows a group of university students a list of short proverbs, some of which contain two contradictory ideas ("too humble is half proud"), while others are more "linear" ("as the twig is bent, so grows the tree"). After learning which proverbs the Chinese students prefer, she then repeats the same study at a university in the United States. She finds that Chinese students prefer proverbs that contain two contradictory ideas, while U.S. students have the opposite preference (Peng & Nisbett, 1997). *** Methodicallyand painfullyretracing events of years before, the college student discloses a childhood secret that he has revealed previously to no one. The listener responds with support, suggesting to him that his concern is in fact shared by many people. Although the last scene may be the only one that fits your image of what a psychologist does, each of these episodes describes work carried out by contemporary psychologists. The range and scope of psychology is remarkably broad.

The Branches of Psychology: Psychology's Family Tree

Figure 01-01 The Biological Foundations of Behavior Sensing, Perceiving, Learning, and Thinking Understanding Change and Individual Differences

Physical and Mental Health Understanding Our Social Networks Newer Speciality Areas Psychology can be likened to a large extended family, with assorted nieces and nephews, aunts and uncles, and cousins who may not interact on a day-to-day basis, but who are related to one another in fundamental ways. We will examine psychology's family tree by considering each of the major specialty areas of the field, describing them in the general order in which they are discussed in subsequent chapters of this book. Figure 01-01 depicts the proportion of psychologists who identify themselves as belonging to each of these major specialty areas.

Figure 01-01 This figure depicts the percentage of psychologists falling into the major specialty areas of the field.

Figure 01-01

The Biological Foundations of Behavior

Biological Bases of Behavior Home Page from the University of Plymouth in Devon, England. A comprehensive and thorough journey through biopsychology with numerous links as well as course descriptions. http://salmon.psy.plym.ac.uk/year1/bbb.htm In the most fundamental sense, people are biological organisms. Some psychologists investigate the ways in which the physiological functions and structures of our body work together to influence our behavior. Biopsychology is the branch of psychology that specializes in the biological bases of behavior. Studying a broad range of topics, biopsychologists focus on the operation of the brain and nervous system. For example, they may examine the ways in which specific sites in the brain are related to the muscular tremors found in Parkinson's disease (discussed in Chapter 3), or they may attempt to determine how our body's sensations are related to our emotions (Chapter 10).

Sensing, Perceiving, Learning, and Thinking

Counseling Psychologists

If you have ever wondered how acute your vision is, how you sense pain, or how you can study most effectively, you have raised a question that is most appropriately answered by an Counseling Psychologists experimental psychologist. Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, Counseling psychologists who staff learning, and thinking about the world. college centers advise students on
career choices, methods of study, and strategies for coping with everyday problems.

The work of experimental psychologists overlaps that of biopsychologists, as well as other types of psychologists. For this reason, the term "experimental psychologist" is somewhat misleading; psychologists in every specialty area use experimental techniques, and experimental psychologists do not limit themselves solely to experimental methods. Several subspecialties have grown out of experimental psychology to become central branches of the field in their own right. One example is cognitive psychology, which focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making. Covering a wide range of human behavior, cognitive psychologists have, for instance, identified more efficient ways of remembering and better strategies for solving problems involving logic (as we will discuss in Chapter 7 and Chapter 8).

Understanding Change and Individual Differences

A baby producing her first smile . . . taking her first step . . . saying her first word. These events, which can be characterized as universal milestones in development, are also singularly special and unique for each person. Developmental psychologists, whose work we will discuss in Chapter 12 and Chapter 13, trace the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur throughout life. Developmental psychology, then, is the branch of psychology that studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death. Another branch, personality psychology, attempts to explain both consistency and change in a person's behavior over time, as well as the individual traits that differentiate the behavior of one person from another when they confront the same situation. The major issues relating to the study of personality will be considered in Chapter 14.

Physical and Mental Health

If you suffer from constant stress, are frequently depressed, or seek to overcome a fear that prevents you from carrying out your normal activities, your problems would be addressed by one of the psychologists who devote their energies to the study of physical or mental health: health psychologists, clinical psychologists, and counseling psychologists. Health Psychology Web Site. Here you'll find information about an association dedicated to health psychology. http://freud.apa.org/divisions/div38/ Health psychology explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease. For instance, health psychologists are interested in how long-term stress (a psychological factor) can affect physical health. They are also concerned with identifying ways of promoting

behavior related to good health (such as increased exercise) or discouraging unhealthy behavior such as smoking, as we will discuss in Chapter 15. Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology that deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior. Clinical psychologists are trained to diagnose and treat problems ranging from the everyday crises of life, such as grief due to the death of a loved one, to more extreme conditions, such as losing touch with reality. Some clinical psychologists also conduct research, investigating issues that range from identifying the early signs of psychological disturbance to studying the relationship between family communication patterns and psychological disorders. As we will see in Chapters 16 and Chapter 17, the kinds of activities carried out by clinical psychologists are varied indeed. It is clinical psychologists who administer and score psychological tests and who provide psychological services in community mental health centers. Even sexual problems, as we will see when we consider human sexuality in Chapter 11, are often treated by clinical psychologists. Like clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists deal with people's psychological problems, but the problems they deal with are of a particular sort. Counseling psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. Almost every college has a center staffed with counseling psychologists. This is where students can get advice on the kinds of jobs they might be best suited for, methods of studying effectively, and strategies for resolving everyday difficulties, such as problems with roommates and concerns about a specific professor's grading practices. Many large business organizations also employ counseling psychologists to help employees with work-related problems. Two close relatives of counseling psychology are educational psychology and school psychology. Educational psychology is concerned with teaching and learning processes. It is, for example, concerned with ways of understanding intelligence, developing better teaching techniques, and understanding teacher-student interaction. School psychology, in contrast, is the specialty area devoted to assessing children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems and developing solutions to such problems.

Understanding Our Social Networks

None of us lives in isolation; rather, we are all part of a complex network of social interrelationships. These networks with other people and with society as a whole are the focus of study for many different kinds of psychologists. Social psychology, as we will see in Chapter 18, is the study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. Social psychologists focus on such diverse topics as human aggression, liking and loving, persuasion, and conformity. For instance, social psychologists ask, "Does observation of televised violence make people more aggressive?" "What is the role of physical attractiveness in choosing a spouse?" and "How are we influenced by salespeople?" The study of the psychology of women concentrates on psychological factors relating to women's behavior and development. It focuses on a broad range of issues, such as discrimination against women, the possibility that structural differences exist in men's and women's brains, the effects of hormones on behavior, and the causes of violence against women (Chrisler, Golden & Rozee, 1996; Matlin, 1996). Industrial-organizational psychology is concerned with the psychology of the workplace. Specifically, it considers issues such as productivity, job satisfaction, and decision-making (Cascio, 1995; Riggio & Porter, 1996; Spector, 1996; Aamodt, 1996). A related branch is consumer psychology, which analyzes people's buying habits and the effects of advertising on buyer behavior. An industrial-organizational psychologist might ask a question such as "How do you influence workers to improve the quality of products they produce," while a consumer psychologist might ask "How does product quality enter into decisions to purchase a specific product?"

Finally, cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in various cultures and ethnic groups. As we discuss throughout this book, psychologists specializing in cross-cultural issues investigate such questions as the following (Shweder & Sullivan, 1993; Goldberger & Veroff, 1995; Gergen et al., 1996): How do the ways in which people in different cultures attribute their academic success or failures lead to differences in scholastic performance (a factor that may account for differences in academic achievement between American and Japanese students)? How do child-rearing practices, which differ substantially among various cultures, affect subsequent adult values and attitudes? and "Why do cultures vary in their interpretation of what constitutes physical attractiveness?"

Newer Speciality Areas

As the field of psychology matures, the number of specialty areas continues to increase (Bower, 1993; Koch, 1993). For example, evolutionary psychology, an increasingly influential area, seeks to identify behavior patterns that are a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Evolutionary psychology is rooted in the work of Charles Darwin, whose On the Origin of Species in 1859 argued that a process of natural selection produces traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment. Following Darwin's perspective, evolutionary psychology examines whether our genetic inheritance not only determines such traits as hair color and race, but also holds the key to understanding certain behaviors. As we'll see in future chapters, recent evidence suggests that a surprising array of behaviors, such as the degree to which we are outgoing or introverted, may well be influenced by genetic factors (Plomin & McClearn, 1993; Crawford & Krebs, 1997). Other more recent additions to the field of psychology include clinical neuropsychology and environmental psychology. Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology. It focuses on the relationship between biological factors, such as brain dysfunctions and psychological disorders. Environmental psychology considers the relationship between people and their physical environment. Environmental psychologists have made significant progress in understanding how our physical environment affects our emotions, the way we behave toward others, and the amount of stress we experience in a particular setting. Forensic psychology focuses on legal issues, such as deciding on criteria for determining whether a person is legally insane, and whether larger or smaller juries make fairer decisions (Stern, 1992; Palermo & Knudten, 1994; Davies et al., 1995; Gudjonsson, 1996). "Is there a home court advantage?" "Are there personality differences between people who participate in sports and exercise programs and those who don't?" "Does participation in sports reduce aggressive behavior?" "How can we motivate ourselves to perform at an optimal level?" Questions of this sort are addressed by sport and exercise psychology, the branch of the field that investigates the applications of psychology to athletic activity and exercise. It considers the role of motivation, the social aspects of sports, and even such physiological issues as the impact of training on muscle development. The growing influence of the field is suggested by the fact that no fewer than twenty sport and exercise psychologists were on site at the international Olympics in Atlanta (Murray, 1996). Psychologists interested in program evaluation also constitute a growing body. They focus on assessing large-scale programs, usually managed by the government, to determine whether they are effective in meeting their goals. For example, such psychologists have examined the effectiveness of such governmental social services as the Head Start preschool program and Medicaid (Rossi & Freeman, 1993; Caruso, Horm-Wingerd, & Dickinson, 1996; Sisk et al., 1996).

The Demographics of the Discipline

Psychology's Workplace Psychologists: A Statistical Portrait The Education of a Psychologist Help Wanted: Assistant professor at a small liberal arts college. Teach undergraduate courses in introductory psychology and courses in specialty areas of cognitive psychology, perception, and learning. Strong commitment to quality teaching and student advising necessary. The candidate must also provide evidence of scholarship and research productivity or potential. Help Wanted: Industrial-organizational consulting psychologist. International firm is seeking psychologists for full-time career positions as consultants to management. Candidates must have the ability to establish a rapport with senior business executives and to assist them with innovative, practical, and psychologically sound solutions to problems concerning people and organizations. Help Wanted: Clinical psychologist. Ph.D., internship experience, and license required. Comprehensive clinic seeks psychologist to work with children and adults providing individual and group therapy, psychological evaluations, crisis intervention, and development of behavior treatment plans on multidisciplinary team. Broad experience with substance abuse problems is desirable.

Figure 01-02
Figure 01-02 This graph shows a breakdown of where doctoral-level psychologists work.

Psychology's Workplace
Figure 01-02 Given the diversity of roles that psychologists play, it is not surprising that they are employed in a variety of settings. As you can see in Figure 01-02, many doctoral-level psychologists are employed by institutions of higher learning (universities and colleges) or are self-employed, usually working as private practitioners treating clients. The next-most-frequent employment settings are private for-profit and non-profit organizations, such as hospitals, clinics, mental-health centers, and counseling centers. Other settings include government human-services organizations and schools (APA, 1996). Why are so many psychologists found in academic settings? The answer is that the three major roles played by psychologists in societyteacher, scientist, and clinical practitionerare easily carried out in such an environment. Very often psychology professors are also actively involved in

research or in serving clients. Whatever their particular job site, however, psychologists share a commitment to improving individual lives as well as society in general (Peterson, 1991; Coie et al., 1993; Rheingold, 1994; Robertson, 1994). (For the perspective of a government analyst who uses psychology in her work on a daily basis, see the Pathways Through Psychology box.)

Psychologists: A Statistical Portrait

Figure 01-03 Pathways Through Psychology Is there an "average" psychologist in terms of personal characteristics? Probably not. Just as the subfields of psychology are highly diversified, the kinds of people who make up the field are also

Figure 01-03
Figure 01-03 This graph shows the origin of published research.

quite varied. Some basic demographic statistics begin to tell the story. For example, about 60 percent of U.S. psychologists are men and about 40 percent are women. Yet these figures are not static: by the year 2000 these percentages are expected to be about equal, and by the year 2010 the number of women in the field is predicted to exceed the number of men (APA, 1993; Fowler, 1993; Pion et al., 1996). Furthermore, although today most psychologists are found in the United States, the field extends well beyond U.S. borders. About one-third of the world's 500,000 psychologists are found in other parts of the world (see Figure 01-03). Psychologists outside the United States are increasingly influential in adding to the knowledge base and practices of psychology, which in the last half century have been shaped by U.S. psychologists (Rosenzweig, 1992; Mays et al., 1996; Pawlik & d'Ydewalle, 1996). One issue of great concern to psychologists is the relative lack of racial and ethnic diversity among psychologists in the United States. According to figures compiled by the American Psychological Association, of those psychologists who identify themselves by race and ethnic origin in surveysand almost one-fifth don't respond to the questionthe vast majority are white. Past educational and occupational discrimination, and a lack of encouragement for minorities to enter the field have resulted in a situation in which less than 2 percent are Hispanic, 1.6 percent are African American, 1.2 percent are Asian, and 0.5 percent are Native American. Although the number of nonwhite psychologists currently in graduate school is higher, the numbers are still not representative of the proportion of minorities in society at large. In fact, the gains have not even kept up with the increasing growth of the minority population (APA, 1994).

The underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities among psychologists is significant for several reasons. First, the field of psychology may be harmed from a lack of the diverse perspectives and talents provided by minority group members. Furthermore, minority group psychologists serve as role models for members of minority communities. Their lack of representation within the profession may deter additional minority group members from seeking to enter the field (King, 1993). Another reason is that members of minority groups frequently prefer to receive psychological therapy and counseling from treatment providers of the same race or ethnic group as their own. The relative rarity of minority psychologists may therefore discourage some members of minority groups from seeking treatment. Consequently, both the American Psychological Association and individual graduate schools are vigorously seeking to increase the numbers of psychologists from underrepresented groups (Sue & Sue, 1990; Youngman, 1992; Fowler, 1993; Patterson, 1996).

Pathways Through Psychology

Carolyn Copper

Carolyn Copper, Government Analyst

National Security and International Affairs Division

Carolyn Copper
U.S. General Accounting Office Born: 1964 Education: B.A. in psychology, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio; M.A., Ph.D., Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York Home: Arlington, Virginia Carolyn Copper entered college with an interest in social problems and their resolution. Her initial instinct was to pursue a career in social work, but after taking courses in psychology she changed her direction. "After taking the first few introductory courses in psychology I thought it was the better avenue to get the skills I needed to perform research and deal effectively with social problems and issues," says Copper, who is now a senior social science analyst with the National Security and International

Affairs Division of the U.S. General Accounting Office. "I've found that the fundamental skills I acquired in both my undergraduate and graduate psychology training are similar to the skills that are needed to conduct credible research that serves the needs of customers with policymaking responsibilities," she notes. Since joining the General Accounting Office more than four years ago, Copper has been conducting research on federal programs and activities related to national defense. "My most recent assignments include a review of the Operation Desert Storm air campaign and a historic overview of multiple financial indicators for the U.S. defense industry," she says. "In my work, I design research, collect data, conduct interviews and statistical analyses, review and synthesize literature, interpret data, prepare reports of study procedures and findings, and plan future work. "To conduct this work I draw on my skills as a social psychologist. My training in psychology is critical for the work that I do, and especially useful for trying to make my work meaningful for the public and members of Congress," she explains. The research on Operation Desert Storm required more than one hundred interviews, many in a group setting. According to Copper, her psychology background prepared her well for facilitating communications during the interviews for that project. "If you want to expand your career options as a psychologist, I would recommend diversifying your training program. The multidisciplinary nature of nonacademic research and the fact that successful applied research requires skills in addition to those obtained in the laboratory justify diversification. "Training people as academicians and clinicians in psychology is fine. Academic and laboratory research can be engaging and illuminating. However, there is a unique satisfaction and a special challenge associated with public sector research, and particularly with serving the public," she adds. For more on careers in psychology, click here.

The Education of a Psychologist

Some of the skills that can be obtained through graduate training in psychology are described here. http://www.apa.org/science/skills.html How do people become psychologists? The most common route is a long one. Most psychologists have a doctoral graduate degree, either in the form of a Ph.D. or (less frequently) a Psy.D. The Ph.D. is a research degree, requiring a dissertation based on an original investigation. The Psy.D. is obtained by psychologists who wish to focus on the treatment of psychological disorders. Both the Ph.D. and the Psy.D. typically take four or five years of work past the bachelor's level (Ellis, 1992). Some fields of psychology involve education beyond the doctorate. For instance, doctoral-level clinical psychologists, who deal with people with psychological disorders, typically spend an additional year on an internship. They can be licensed by a state accreditation board.

Although most psychologists have a doctoral degree, not everyone who works in the field of psychology has a doctorate. About one-third have a master's degree, which is earned following two or three years of graduate work. Master's-level psychologists may teach, conduct research under the supervision of a doctoral-level psychologist, or work in specialized programs dealing with drug abuse or crisis intervention. Some work in universities, government, and business, collecting and analyzing data. Still, career opportunities are more limited for those with a master's degree than for those with a doctorate (APA, 1996). An undergraduate major in psychology provides worthwhile preparation for a variety of occupations, although it does not allow professional work in psychology per se. For instance, many people in business, nursing, law, social work, and other professions report that an undergraduate background in psychology has proven invaluable in their careers. Undergraduates who specialize in psychology typically have good analytical, higher-order thinking abilities, and they are able to synthesize and evaluate information wellskills that are held in high regard by employers in business and industry and the government. Furthermore, some 20 percent of recipients of bachelor's degrees in psychology work in the social services or in some other form of public affairs (APA, 1996; Sternberg, 1997). People other than psychologists also deal with psychological issues, but their training tends to differ in significant ways from that of psychologists. For instance, although psychiatrists treat people with psychological disorders, they have medical degrees and can prescribe medicine. Trained initially as physicians, they often focus on the physical causes of psychological disorders. Consequently, they may be more apt to employ treatments involving medications than to focus on psychological causes of disorders. In addition, people in allied fields such as social work, marriage counseling, and school counseling often deal with psychological issues. However, their direct training in psychology is more limited than that attained by psychologists.

Recap, Review, and Rethink

Recap Review Rethink

Recap

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Among the major branches of psychology are biopsychology, experimental and cognitive psychology, developmental and personality psychology, health, clinical, and counseling psychology, educational and school psychology, social psychology, psychology of women, industrial-organizational psychology, and cross-cultural psychology. Many psychologists are employed by institutions of higher learning, and the balance are employed by hospitals, clinics, and community health centers or are engaged in private practice.

Review
1. The foundation of psychology today lies in

a. intuition. b. observation and experimentation. c. trial and error. d. metaphysics. 2. Match each branch of psychology with the issues or questions posed below. a. Biopsychology b. Experimental psychology c. Cognitive psychology d. Developmental psychology e. Personality psychology f. Health psychology g. Clinical psychology h. Counseling psychology i. Educational psychology j. School psychology k. Social psychology l. Industrial psychology m. Consumer psychology 1. Joan, a college freshman, is panicking. She needs to learn better organizational skills and study habits to cope with the demands of college. 2. At what age do children generally begin to acquire an emotional attachment to their fathers? 3. It is thought that pornographic films that depict violence against women may prompt aggressive behavior in some men. 4. What chemicals are released in the human body as a result of a stressful event? What are their effects on behavior? 5. John is unique in his manner of responding to crisis situations, with an even temperament and a positive outlook. 6. The general public is more apt to buy products that are promoted by attractive and successful actors. 7. The teachers of eight-year-old Jack are concerned that he has recently begun to withdraw socially and shows little interest in school work. 8. Janet's job is demanding and stressful. She wonders if her lifestyle is making her more prone to certain illnesses such as cancer and heart disease. 9. A psychologist is intrigued by the fact that some people are much more sensitive to painful stimuli than others. 10. A strong fear of crowds leads a young woman to seek treatment for her problem. 11. What mental strategies are involved in solving complex word problems? 12. What teaching methods most effectively motivate elementary school students to successfully accomplish academic tasks? 13. Jessica is asked to develop a management strategy that will encourage safer work practices in an assembly plant. Answers to Review Questions

Rethink
1. Why might the study of twins who were raised together and twins who were not be helpful in distinguishing the effects of heredity and environment? 2. Imagine you had a seven-year-old child who was having problems learning to read. Imagine further that you could consult as many psychologists as you wanted. How might each type of psychologist approach the problem? 3. Are intuition and common sense sufficient for understanding why people act the way they do? Why is a scientific approach appropriate for studying human behavior?