EARTHQUAKE DISASTER REDUCTION

MASONRY BUILDINGS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Chapter 1: EARTHQUAKE HAZARD IN INDIA 1.1 Earthquake Occurrences in India and the Neighbour Hood 1.2 Main Seismic Regions 1.3 The Seismic Hazard Zoning Map 1.4 Damaging Effects of Earthquakes 1.5 Earthquake Prediction 1.6 Earthquake Hazard Risk to Urban Areas 1.7 Conclusion 1.8 References Chapter 2: DESIGN OF STRUCTURES AGAINST EARTHQUAKE MOTIONS 2.1 General Nature of Earthquake Motions 2.2 Frequent Earthquakes 2.3 Probable Earthquake (Design Basis Earthquake) 2.4 Abnormal Earthquake (Maximum Credible Earthquake) 2.5 Design Acceleration versus Actual Acceleration 2.6 Structural Response 2.7 Energy Approach 2.8 Design Considerations 2.9 Design for Frequent Earthquakes 2.10 Design for Larger Shocks Provision of Ductility 2.11 Conclusion 2.12 Acknowledgements 2.13 References Chapter 3: RATIONAL SEISMIC COEFFICIENTS FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Earthquake Parameters 3.3 Structural Response 3.4 Approach to Design 3.5 Design Seismic Coefficient 3.6 Lateral Force for Design 3.7 Values of Various Factors 3.8 Illustrative Examples 3.9 Conclusion 3.10 References Chapter 4: DETERMINATION OF ISOACCELERATION LINES BY SLIDING AND OVERTURNING OF OBJECTS 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Basic Concepts 4.3 Conditions for Sliding and Overturning 4.4 Dynamic Analysis of Friction Supported Masses 4.5 Experimental Observations 4.6 Isoacceleration Map 4.7 Correlation of Results 4.8 Conclusions 4.9 References Chapter 5: CONCEPTS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SEISMIC BASE-ISOLATION OF STRUCTURES 5.1 Abstract 5.2 Conventional Aseismic Design Approach

5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15

Response Control Approach Seismic Response Control Concepts Base Isolation Fundamentals and Devices Flexibility Energy Dissipation Rigidity under low lateral loads Some Examples of Base-Isolation Applications Base Isolation of Small Masonry Dwelling Additional Consideration Reduction of Damage Potential by Response Control Conclusion Acknowledgement References

Chapter 6: ISOLATOR PARAMETERS FOR EARTHQUAKE RESPONSE REDUCTION 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Mathematical Model and Basic Equations 6.3 Computation of Response 6.4 Presentation of Results 6.5 Effect of isolator stiffness on the acceleration response 6.6 Effect of isolator stiffness on the displacement response 6.7 Effect of the damping of main structure 6.8 Effect of the damping of the isolator 6.9 Conclusion 6.10 Acknowledgement 6.11 References Chapter 7: VULNERABILITY AND RISK OF DAMAGE TO MASONRY BUILDINGS IN INDIA 7.1 Introduction 7.2 House Types 7.3 Risk of Damage to House Types 7.4 Damage Risk Levels for Earthquakes 7.5 The Housing Risk Tables 7.6 Risk of Earthquake Damage in Urban Areas 7.7 Conclusion 7.8 References Chapter 8: BEHAVIOUR OF BUILDINGS AND FOUNDATIONS DURING EARTHQUAKES 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Behavior of Different Constructions In Past Earthquakes 8.3 Effect of Foundation Soil Upon Structural Behavior 8.4 General Planning and Details 8.5 References Chapter 9: BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BEFORE AND AFTER EARTHQUAKE 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Pre-Earthquake Construction 9.3 Post-Earthquake Reconstruction 9.4 Common Building Systems in India 9.5 Earthen Houses 9.6 Fired-Brick Buildings 9.7 Stone Masonry Buildings 9.8 Wooden Buildings 9.9 Conclusion 9.10 References

Chapter 10: DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY BUILDINGS IN SEISMIC AREAS 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Structural Action 10.3 Design of Seismic Bands 10.4 Free Standing Walls 10.5 Partition Walls 10.6 Roofs and Floors 10.7 Design of Shear Walls 10.8 Conclusion 10.9 References Chapter 11: CONSTRUCTION OF SMALL BUILDINGS IN SEISMIC AREAS 11.1 Abstract 11.2 Introduction 11.3 General Principles Regarding Constructional Features 11.4 Recommendations for Small Masonry Buildings 11.5 Tabular Steel Construction 11.6 Conclusion 11.7 References Chapter 12: EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF ASEISMIC STRENGTHENING 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Construction of Brick Test Structures 12.3 Testing Procedure for Test Structures 12.4 Observations and Discussions 12.5 Damage Level of the Test Structure 12.6 Cost-Benefit Ratio 12.7 Conclusion 12.8 References Chapter 13: DYNAMIC TESTING OF BRICK BUILDING MODELS 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Pilot Tests on Sliding Type Building Models 13.3 Tests on half-size building models 13.4 Relative ability of the models to resist shock loads 13.5 Observations 13.6 Prediction of earthquake shock for prototype buildings 13.7 Summary of the significant results of the present investigation 13.8 Conclusions 13.9 References Chapter 14: A NEW CONCEPT FOR RESISTANCE OF MASONRY BUILDINGS IN SEVERE EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Mathematical Idealization of Sliding Type Building 14.3 Parametric Study of Sliding Type Building 14.4 Tests on Half-Full Size Building 14.5 Conclusions 14.6 Notation 14.7 References Chapter 15: SIMPLIFIED GUIDELINES FOR ALL NEW BUILDINGS IN THE SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Essential Elements for Earthquake Safety 15.3 Good Cement Mortar

15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11

Horizontal Seismic Bands Vertical Reinforcement in the Brick Walls Vertical Reinforcement at Jambs of Openings Foundation Costs of Improving Seismic Resistance of Buildings Some Real Earthquake Observations Conclusion References

CHAPTER 16: SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL BUILDINGS 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Seismic Response of Buildings 16.3 Seismic Analysis 16.4 Permissible Stresses in Brickwork 16.5 Results of the Analysis 16.6 Conclusion 16.7 References Chapter 17: AN EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT AS WELL AS ECONOMICAL BRICK BUILDING SYSTEM 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Description of Test Specimens 17.3 Testing Procedure 17.4 Relative Competence of Test Structures 17.5 Observed Behavior of Test Structures 17.6 Conclusions 17.7 References Chapter 18: DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF MULTISTOREYED BRICK BUILDINGS 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Mathematical Model of Brick Building 18.3 Equations of Motion 18.4 Seismic Stress Analysis of The Building Elements 18.5 Data for Study of Brick Buildings 18.6 Results and Discussion 18.7 Conclusions 18.8 References Chapter 19: SEISMIC ISOLATION OF MASONRY BUILDINGS AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Outline of The Study 19.3 Results of Experimental Investigation 19.4 Conclusions 19.5 References Chapter 20: RAPID VISUAL SEISMIC SCREENING OF BUILDINGS 20.1 RVS Procedure, Objectives and Scope 20.2 Uses of RVS Results 20.3 Seismic Hazard in India 20.4 Building Types Considered in RVS Procedure 20.5 Grades of Damageability 20.6 Relationship of Seismic Intensity, Building Type & Damage Grades 20.7 RVS Survey Forms Special Points Chapter 21: SEISMIC ASSESSMENT OF MASONRY BUILDINGS 21.1 Introduction

21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7

Building Categories Factors Considered In Seismic Safety as Per IS: 4326-1993 Assessment of a Building Testing of Materials Summary of Results of Comparative Assessment References

Chapter 22: DAMAGE SCENARIO OF A HYPOTHETICAL 8.0 MAGNITUDE EARTHQUAKE IN KANGRA REGION OF HIMACHAL PRADESH 22.1 Introduction 22.2 The Earthquake Occurrence in H.P. 22.3 Building Construction In H.P. 22.4 Damage Potential of Magnitude 8.0 Earthquake 22.5 Potential of Life and Economic Losses 22.6 Conclusion 22.7 References Chapter 23: REPAIR, RESTORATION AND RETROFITTING OF MASONARY BUILDINGS KACHCHH EARETHQUAKE AREAS OF GUJARAT 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Object and Scope 23.3 Categorization of Damage 23.4 Concepts of Repair, Restoration and Retrofitting 23.5 Assessment of Damage 23.6 Usual Damage Types in Masonry Buildings 23.7 Methodology for Grouting of Cracks 23.8 Installing Ferro-Cement Plates at the Corners 23.9 Rebuilding Portions of the Wall 23.10 Earthquake Resistant Retrofitting of Buildings 23.11 Control on Length, Height, Thickness of Walls 23.12 Control on Door and Window Openings in Masonry 23.13 Making 'through' bond Elements in R.R. Stone Wall (fig.7) 23.14 Providing Horizontal Seismic Belts 23.15 Vertical Seismic Belt at Corners 23.16 Seismic Belts around Door/Window Openings 23.17 Method of Fixing Seismic Belts 23.18 Providing Vertical Reinforcement at Corners and the Junctions of Walls 23.19 Stiffening the Flat Wooden Floor/Roof 23.20 Stiffening the Sloping Roof Structure 23.21 Alternative of Changing the Roof 23.22 References Chapter 24: REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING OF DAMAGED STONE HOUSES AFTER DHAMAR EARTHQUAKE OF DEC. 1982 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Typical Homes in Stone Masonry Construction 24.3 Main Causes of Damage and Collapse 24.4 Repair, Restoration and Strengthening 24.5 Details of Repair and Strengthening Scheme 24.6 Conclusion 24.7 References

PREFACE

During the earthquake occurrences in the last century in India and the neighboring countries as well as the most recent earthquakes in 2001 in Gujarat and 2005 in Jammu & Kashmir, the most extensive damage has occurred in masonry buildings of different types, which has resulted in massive loss of lives besides the loss of dwellings. When the School of Research and Training in Earthquake Engineering was established in the University of Roorkee in 1960, the problem about the safety of masonry buildings was one of the most important issues taken up for research and development work at the School. With those efforts, the basic Design Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures were established through IS: 1893 in 1962. The author with a CBRI scientist Dr. S. M. K. Chetty started working towards establishing appropriate design and construction standards for masonry buildings. This combined effort based on extensive analysis and some laboratory testing, was able to produce the Code of Practice IS: 4326 in 1967, in which guidelines for the design of brick, stone and wooden buildings were given in detail. Currently, as per Census of housing 2001, India has a total of 249 million housing units which by wall material consist of 111 million brick houses, 25.48 million stone houses and 73.79 million clay mud/unburnt brick houses. These masonry constructions account for more than 85% of the total dwelling units, which are spread over the rural as well as the urban areas. Thus, in any earthquake of magnitude 6.0 or higher on the Richter scale or earthquake Intensities of VII or higher on the MSK Intensity scale, these buildings will be vulnerable to various damage categories from moderate to total collapse. These Intensities are likely to occur in Seismic Zone III (Intensity VII), Seismic Zone IV (Intensity VIII) and Seismic Zone V (Intensity IX or higher). These three zones cover 59% of the total land area of the country which include most of the mega cities, medium cities as well as the rural areas some time or the other in future, Now to avoid or minimize such disastrous impact, the only remedial measures will be, firstly, to construct all new buildings with earthquake resisting elements in the very first instance and secondly, to assess the existing buildings for seismic deficiencies, if any, and to take actions for upgrading the seismic strength to the desired extent by retrofitting. The main aim of this book is to provide relevant information on both these issues. The book has been planned so as to include the authors published papers as chapters, placed in a logical way. Wherever some Codal provisions have undergone changes in time reference to that has been given in a footnote. The first six chapters cover the earthquake hazard mapping in India, the principles of earthquake resistant design of structures, rational seismic coefficients, understanding the behavior of objects which are subjected to sliding and overturning under earthquakes, concepts and techniques for seismic base isolation of structures and deciding the parameters for design of isolators. Thus the basics of earthquake resistant design are explained in these chapters. The vulnerability and risk of damage to masonry buildings in India is covered in chapter 7. The behavior of buildings and foundations during earthquakes is discussed in chapters 8 & 9 and the basic analysis and design for earthquake forces is explained in chapter 10. These basic procedures were actually used in developing the IS: 4326 1967 mentioned before. These are still as relevant and can be used for designing seismic elements, namely, seismic bands and vertical reinforcement at critical points in those buildings whose dimensions may be beyond those covered in the tables of IS: 4326. The construction of small buildings of masonry or wood or tubular frames is explained in chapter 11.

Chapters 12 to 19 present a number of experimental studies conducted by the author and his associates at University of Roorkee, which not only show the adequacy of the Codal provisions but also give data on the actual behavior of tested half size specimens of 1 to 3 stories in which various parameters were varied to study there effects on seismic performance. The new principles of base isolation applied to masonry buildings through sliding joint have also been tested. Also, an economical brick building system but with desired earthquake resistance also was developed. Simplified design details of masonry buildings in different seismic zones are presented in chapter 15 for ready use by people as these can be easily understood by an educated house holder and utilized for construction of his new house. The problem of safety of existing buildings has been attended to in chapters 20 to 24. Chapter 20 covers a very simple procedure for Rapid Visual Seismic Screening of masonry buildings using visual observations and data collection. A rational seismic assessment system for masonry buildings is covered in chapter 21. Using such data along with the details given in MSK seismic Intensity scale, the damage scenario that could result in a hypothetical earthquake, if repeated in the Kangra region of Himachal Pradesh, has been included in chapter 22. This procedure could be repeated in other earthquake affected areas to generate earthquake damage scenarios as the author has developed such damage scenarios in the States of Uttaranchal & Bihar using the same methodology. Chapter 23 is devoted to the procedures to be followed for repair, restoration and retrofitting of masonry buildings damaged during earthquakes or as existing with unsafe design. The example covered is that of the Kachchh earthquake. Guidelines on similar lines were provided to be used after the J & K earthquake of 2005. Chapter 24 presents the case study of a damaged stone building in Dhamar in North Yemen after the earthquake of December, 1982, which was rehabilitated and retrofitted under the guidance of the author. It is sincerely hoped that the information and guidance provided in the book will help the readers including senior and junior engineering personnel, disaster managers as well as the general public to learn about the weaknesses in common masonry buildings and how to safeguard against damage in future probable earthquakes by incorporating earthquake resisting elements in the new constructions or by taking retrofitting action in the post-construction life of the buildings. The author would like to acknowledge the collaboration and assistance of his colleagues and students he received at the stage of the preparation and publication of the original papers. He is indebted to Ankush Agarwal, Technical Officer, GoI UNDP, DRM Programme for his untiring effort in putting the old papers in good presentable shape as chapters of the books. The author is extremely grateful to Shri. P. G. Dhar Chakraborty, Executive Director, NIDM who not only keenly encouraged the author for writing such a book but also took necessary action for its publication in a very short time through NIDM sponsorship. Anand S. Arya New Delhi November 15th, 2006