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he American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology,1,2 the European Society of Cardiology3,4 and others5 have developed comprehensive guidelines for the in-hospital management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI)2 and for unstable angina (UA) and nonST-elevation MI (NSTEMI).1 The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS)/Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI) Task Force reviewed the evidence specifically related to diagnosis and treatment of ACS/AMI in the out-of-hospital setting and the first hours of care in the in-hospital setting, typically in the emergency department (ED). Much of the research concerning the care of the patient with ACS has been conducted on in-hospital populations rather than in the ED or out-of-hospital settings. By definition, extending the conclusions from such research to the early ED management strategy or the out-of-hospital setting requires extrapolation classified as level of evidence 7.
symptom evaluated exceeded 92% sensitivity in the higher LOE studies (most reported sensitivity of 35% to 38%) or 91% specificity (range 28% to 91% in highest CEBM levels).7 Prognosis and clinical impact. In 3 CEBM level 1a systematic reviews,10,19,20 10 CEBM level 1b validating cohort studies6 9,2126 and 21 CEBM level 2a-4 studies,1113,15 18,27 40 a variety of signs and symptoms assisted in the diagnosis of ACS/AMI and had clinical impact (defined as triage and some treatment and investigational decisions) on the out-of-hospital emergency management and risk assessment for coronary atherosclerosis and unstable syndromes. Treatment Recommendation Signs and symptoms of ACS/AMI may be useful in combination with other important information (biomarkers, risk factors, ECG, and other diagnostic tests) in making triage and some treatment and investigational decisions in the out-ofhospital setting and the ED. Signs and symptoms are not independently diagnostic of ACS/AMI. Diagnostic and Prognostic Test Characteristics of Cardiac Biomarkers for ACS/AMIW222A,W222B Consensus on Science Diagnosis. All literature reviewed showed that biomarkers (creatine kinase [CK], creatine kinase myocardial band [CKMB], myoglobin, troponin I [TnI], troponin T [TnT]) were helpful in the diagnosis of ACS/AMI. But only 6 studies41 44 (CEBM level 445,46; ILCOR LOE 7) showed a sensitivity of 95% within the first 4 to 6 hours of the patients arrival in the ED. Multimarker strategies20,41 43,45 61 (CEBM level 1b; ILCOR/AHA LOE 7 [extrapolated from in-hospital setting]), and serial marker testing over time41 43,45 49,51,56,58,60 69 (CEBM level 1b; ILCOR/AHA LOE 7 [extrapolated from in-hospital setting]) improved test performance.Six out-ofhospital studies70 75 (CEBM level 1b) showed consistent lack of support for the use of cardiac biomarkers in diagnosing AMI in the out-of-hospital phase (sensitivity 10% to 25%; specificity 92% to 100%). Prognosis. Two systematic reviews (CEBM level 1a)76,77 and 21 additional studies78 98 (18 CEBM level 1b and 3 ILCOR/ AHA LOE 7) documented consistent ability of cardiac biomarker testing to identify patients at increased risk of adverse outcome. One systematic review (CEBM level 1a)76 suggested that risk assessment cannot be based exclusively on cardiac biomarker results (30-day mortality range for patients with suspected ACS and negative troponin results: 0.7% to 4.4%).
From the 2005 International Consensus Conference on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations, hosted by the American Heart Association in Dallas, Texas, January 2330, 2005. This article has been copublished in Resuscitation. (Circulation. 2005;112:III-55-III-72.) 2005 International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation, American Heart Association, and European Resuscitation Council. This special supplement to Circulation is freely available at http://www.circulationaha.org DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166475
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Treatment Recommendation Emergency physicians should obtain cardiac biomarkers for all patients with suspected ACS/AMI. Serial time points (increasing interval from onset of symptoms to testing), and multimarker strategies greatly improve sensitivity for detection of myocardial ischemia or infarction but are insensitive for ruling out these diagnoses in the out-of-hospital setting or within the first 4 to 6 hours of evaluation in the ED. ED Interpretation of 12-Lead ECG for STEMI Consensus on Science Diagnostic characteristics out-of-hospital. One meta-analysis plus 5 prospective nonrandomized consecutive case series of patients with chest pain (CEBM level 1b1c)99 104 and 5 review articles ILCOR/AHA LOE 711,20,105107 showed that trained out-of-hospital care providers (paramedics and nurses) could identify ST-segment elevation accurately in the resting out-of-hospital 12-lead ECG of patients with chest pain suspected of having STEMI. The out-of-hospital care providers achieved a specificity of 91% to 100% and sensitivity of 71% to 97% compared with emergency physicians or cardiologists. Of note, left bundle branch block paced rhythm and idioventricular rhythm may affect the diagnostic test accuracy because they were excluded in some studies and not mentioned in others. Prognostic characteristicsED. ST elevation (1 mV elevation in 2 or more adjacent limb leads or in 2 or more adjacent precordial leads with reciprocal depression) was the most discriminating single ECG feature for diagnosis of STEMI (likelihood ratio [LR] of 13.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], 8.28 20.6).11 Emergency physicians blinded to biomarker results established the diagnosis of STEMI using admission ECGs with a very high specificity of 99.7% (95% CI, 98%99.9%; LR 145; 95% CI, 20.21044), although sensitivity was low at 42% (95% CI, 32%52%)103,108,109 (CEBM 1b1c; ILCOR/AHA LOE 7).11 Treatment Recommendation Out-of-hospital. Trained out-of-hospital personnel can accurately identify acute STEMI in prehospital 12-lead ECGs obtained in patients with ACS. The ECG is used in combination with chest pain symptoms, assessment of risk factors, and other diagnostic tests to rule out alternative diagnoses. Out-of-hospital interpretation of a single 12-lead ECG with stringent inclusion criteria (ie, ST elevation 0.1 mV in 2 or more adjacent precordial leads or 2 or more adjacent limb leads and with reciprocal depression) has a high specificity for the diagnosis of STEMI. ED. In the ED the interpretation of a single 12-lead ECG with rigid inclusion criteria (see above) is discriminating for the diagnosis of STEMI with a relatively low sensitivity but a high specificity for this diagnosis.
Adjunctive Therapies
Oxygen TherapyW224 Consensus on Science One animal study (LOE 6)110 showed a reduction in infarct size when supplementary oxygen was provided during left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion. One human study (LOE 5)111 showed improvement in ECG findings, but one double-blind, randomized human trial (LOE 2)112 of supplementary oxygen versus room air failed to show a long-term benefit of oxygen therapy for patients with MI. Treatment Recommendation Supplementary oxygen should be given to patients with arterial oxygen desaturation (arterial oxygen saturation [SaO2] 90%). Given the safety profile of oxygen in this population and the potential benefit in the patient with unrecognized hypoxia, it is reasonable to give supplementary oxygen to all patients with uncomplicated STEMI during the first 6 hours of emergency management. Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic Acid)W225A,W225B Consensus on Science Eight randomized controlled trials (RCTs) (LOE 1)113120 showed decreased mortality rates when acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) (75 to 325 mg) was given to hospitalized patients with ACS. The International Study of Infarct Survival (ISIS)-2 trial used 160 mg/day orally (odds reduction0.23; 95% CI, 0.15 0.30).115 Four RCTs (LOE 1)115,116,120,121 and 3 additional studies (LOE 7)122124 indicated decreased mortality rates when ASA was given as early as possible. Two studies (LOE 1)125,126 addressed specific ASA dose, but the standard of 160 mg enteric-coated ASA has still been maintained from ISIS-2. Two studies showed that chewed (LOE 3)127 or soluble (LOE 6)128 ASA provides more rapid bioavailability than swallowed tablets. Two nonblinded studies (LOE 7)124,129 showed that 50 mg of intravenous (IV) ASA was 90% effective in inhibiting thromboxane A2 and inhibits platelets effectively. One post hoc study suggested decreased mortality rates with out-of-hospital administration of ASA (LOE 7).123 Seven hospital-based RCTs indicated that giving ASA to patients with suspected ACS is safe (LOE 1).113115,117,118,120,121 Treatment Recommendation It is reasonable for dispatchers to advise the patient with suspected ACS and without a true aspirin allergy to chew a single dose (160 to 325 mg) of ASA. It is also reasonable for EMS providers to administer ASA because there is good evidence that it is safe and that the earlier ASA is given, the greater the reduction in risk of mortality. Limited evidence from several very small studies suggests that the bioavailability and pharmacologic action of other formulations of ASA (soluble, IV) may be as effective as chewed tablets. HeparinsW226A Consensus on Science UA/NSTEMI. Six in-hospital RCTs (LOE 1130,131 and LOE 2121,132,133 24 hours; LOE 1134 36 hours) and additional
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Consensus on Science In 2 in-hospital, randomized, double-blind, controlled trials (LOE 1)149,150 and 4 post hoc analyses (LOE 7),151154 clopidogrel was effective in reducing the combined event rate (stroke, nonfatal infarction, deaths from cardiovascular causes, refractory ischemia, heart failure, and need for revascularization) in patients with suspected ACS with evidence of ischemia but no infarction. In these studies clopidogrel was given within the first 4 hours of presentation to the hospital in addition to standard care (ASA, heparin) to patients with ACS who had a rise in serum level of cardiac biomarkers or new ECG changes consistent with ischemia but no ST-segment elevation. One large randomized, double-blind, controlled trial (LOE 7)155 documented no significant increase in risk of bleeding with clopidogrel in comparison with ASA. One large multicenter RCT (LOE 1)156 documented a significant reduction in adverse ischemic events at 28 days after elective PCI when clopidogrel was given at least 6 hours before elective PCI. One multicenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial (LOE 1)157 documented a significant reduction in the composite end point of an occluded infarct-related artery (defined by a TIMI flow grade of 0 or 1) on angiography or death or recurrent MI before angiography when clopidogrel (300 mg oral loading dose) was given at the time of initial management (followed by a 75-mg daily dose for up to 8 days in hospital) to patients up to 75 years of age with STEMI who were treated with fibrinolysis, ASA, and heparin (LMWH or UFH). In one large prospective STEMI trial (the CURE [Clopidogrel in Unstable angina to prevent Recurrent Events] trial),152 preoperative clopidogrel administration was associated with a trend toward increased postoperative reoperation for bleeding in the 2072 patients who underwent coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. A second prospective trial (LOE 1)157 failed to show any increase in bleeding in the 136 patients who underwent CABG within 5 to 7 days of receiving clopidogrel. A subsequent risk-to-benefit ratio analysis concluded that the bleeding risk with clopidogrel in patients undergoing CABG was overestimated.154 Treatment Recommendation Give a 300-mg oral loading dose of clopidogrel in addition to standard care (ASA, heparin) to patients with ACS within 4 to 6 hours of contact if they have
A rise in serum cardiac biomarkers or new ECG changes consistent with ischemia when a medical approach or PCI is planned in the absence of ST-segment elevation STEMI in patients up to 75 years of age receiving fibrinolysis, ASA, and heparin
Although in one large trial152 preoperative clopidogrel administration was associated with increased postoperative reoperation for bleeding, the recent CLARITY TIMI 28 trial157 did not document increased bleeding in patients undergoing CABG within 5 to 7 days of receiving clopidogrel.
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Current ACC/AHA recommendations2 advise withholding clopidogrel for 5 to 7 days before planned CABG. It is reasonable to give clopidogrel 300 mg orally to patients with suspected ACS (without ECG or cardiac marker changes) who have hypersensitivity to or gastrointestinal intolerance of ASA. Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Inhibitors Consensus on Science UA/NSTEMI. Two studies (LOE 1158; LOE 2159) and 2 meta-analyses (LOE 1)158,160 showed a reduction in the combined end point of death or recurrent ischemia when glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors were added to standard therapy (including ASA and heparin) for patients with highrisk UA/NSTEMI treated with PCI. High-risk features include persistent ongoing pain due to ischemia, hemodynamic or rhythm instability due to ongoing ischemia, acute or dynamic ECG changes, and any elevation in cardiac troponins attributed to ACS. Two studies (LOE 1)158,161 and 3 meta-analyses (LOE 1)160,162,163 failed to show a reduction in the combined end point of death or recurrent ischemia in patients with UA/ NSTEMI treated with tirofiban or eptifibatide without PCI. Two studies (LOE 1)164,165 showed that abciximab given in addition to standard therapy but without PCI in patients with UA/NSTEMI did not reduce the combined end point of death or recurrent ischemia.No published studies evaluated the out-of-hospital use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors. Three studies (LOE 1)158,160,163 showed the safety (as defined by low incidence of major hemorrhagic complications) of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors when given to ACS patients within 24 to 48 hours of onset of symptoms. STEMI. In multiple studies (LOE 1166,167,168; LOE 2130,169 174; LOE 4175; LOE 7176) there was no reduction in the combined end point of death or recurrent ischemia when tirofiban or eptifibatide were given in combination with reduced-dose fibrinolytics to patients with STEMI in the absence of PCI. Two RCTs (LOE 1)165,177 in patients with STEMI treated with abciximab and fibrinolytics showed no reduction in the combined end point of death or recurrent ischemia. One meta-analysis (LOE 1)178 showed reduction in short-term reinfarction rate when abciximab was given with fibrinolytics or PCI, whereas the benefits in mortality-rate reduction were seen only in patients treated with PCI.One RCT failed to show a benefit with tirofiban in addition to standard therapy when given out-of-hospital (LOE 2).171 Another study demonstrated the feasibility of using abciximab in the out-ofhospital setting (LOE 7).175 A third study showed a trend toward improved patency of infarct-related artery with PCI (LOE 3).179 Treatment Recommendation High-risk UA/NSTEMI. If revascularization therapy (PCI or surgery) is planned, it is safe to give GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors in addition to standard therapy (including ASA and heparin) to patients with high-risk UA/NSTEMI in the ED. This therapy may reduce the risk of death or recurrent ischemia. High-risk features of UA/NSTEMI are defined in the consensus on science statement above.If revascularization therapy is not planned, the recommendation for use of GP IIb/IIIa varies by drug. Tirofiban and eptifibatide may be used in patients with high-risk UA/NSTEMI in conjunction with ASA and LMWH
Reperfusion Strategies
Out-of-Hospital Fibrinolytics for STEMIW227A Consensus on Science One meta-analysis (LOE 1)180 and multiple studies (LOE 1181,182; LOE 2183185; LOE 3147,186 188; LOE 4189 192; LOE 5193; LOE 7102,194 196) documented reduced time to injection of fibrinolytics when given by out-of-hospital providers (physicians, nurses, or paramedics) to patients with STEMI and no contraindications to fibrinolysis. In most studies the duration of symptoms was from 30 minutes to 6 hours. Using the same criteria, 1 meta analysis (LOE 1)180 and 8 additional studies (LOE 1181,197; LOE 2184,198; LOE 3187; LOE 4191,192; LOE 5199) documented reduced risk of mortality with out-ofhospital fibrinolysis. Treatment Recommendation Out-of-hospital administration of fibrinolytics by paramedics, nurses, or physicians using an established protocol is safe and feasible for patients with STEMI and no contraindications. This requires adequate provisions for the diagnosis and treatment of STEMI and its complications, including strict treatment directives, fibrinolytic checklist, ECG acquisition and interpretation, defibrillators, experience in ACLS protocols, and the ability to communicate with medical control. Physicians may give out-of-hospital fibrinolytics to patients with symptoms compatible with ACS and signs of true posterior infarctions (no ST elevation). Fibrinolytics in the ED Management of STEMIW227B Consensus on Science A prospective cohort study (LOE 3)200 and 11 additional studies (LOE 3201208; LOE 4209; LOE 5210,211) documented reduced delay to injection of fibrinolytics and some decrease in mortality (LOE 3)200,212 and improved left ventricular function (LOE 3)206 when fibrinolytics were given in the ED to selected patients with STEMI (defined in studies with variable ST-elevation criteria with or without new onset left bundle branch block [LBBB] posterior infarct) and no contraindications. Treatment Recommendation In the ED patients with symptoms of ACS and ECG evidence of either STEMI, (presumably) new LBBB, or true posterior infarction should be given fibrinolytics if fibrinolysis is the treatment of choice and there are no contraindications. The emergency physician should give fibrinolytics as early as possible according to a predetermined protocol.
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AntiarrhythmicsW230
Lidocaine Consensus on Science When lidocaine was given by physicians or paramedics for primary prophylaxis within the first 4 hours of a suspected STEMI in the out-of-hospital setting, 4 meta-analyses (LOE 1)248 251 and 2 RCTs (LOE 2)250,252 showed a trend toward increased mortality rates. In addition, 2 meta-analyses253,254 and 15 RCTs (LOE 1255; LOE 2256 269), 1 case series (LOE 5),270 and 1 retrospective trial (LOE 5)271 showed no effect of lidocaine on mortality in this setting. Only one small study (LOE 2)272 showed a decrease in mortality with prophylactic lidocaine. Several trials (LOE 2258,259,262,264,265; LOE 5270) reported more side effects (including paresthesias, tinnitus, confusion, bradycardia requiring treatment, seizures, coma, and respiratory arrest) in patients receiving prophylactic lidocaine. Magnesium Consensus on Science Giving magnesium prophylactically to patients with STEMI has produced mixed results. One study (LOE 2)273 showed a decrease in mortality and symptomatic arrhythmias. One meta-analysis (LOE 1)274 and 2 RCTs (LOE 1275; LOE 2276) showed a decrease in mortality but no reduction in ventricular arrhythmias. One small RCT (LOE 2)277 showed that magnesium reduced the incidence of ventricular tachycardia, but it was underpowered to assess mortality. The definitive study on the subject is the ISIS-4 study (LOE 1).278 ISIS-4 enrolled 58 000 patients and showed a trend toward increased mortality when magnesium was given in-hospital for primary arrhythmia prophylaxis to patients within the first 4 hours of known or suspected AMI. Disopyramide, Mexiletine, and Verapamil Consensus on Science One multi-antiarrhythmic meta-analysis (LOE 1)279 and 4 RCTs (LOE 2280 282; LOE 7283) showed no effect on mortality when a variety of antiarrhythmic drugs (disopyramide, mexiletine, and verapamil) were given for primary prophylaxis by paramedics or physicians to patients within the first 4 hours of known or suspected AMI. Treatment Recommendation for Antiarrhythmics There is insufficient evidence to support the routine use of any antiarrhythmic drug as primary prophylaxis within the first 4 hours of proven or suspected AMI. This conclusion does not take into account the potential effect of -blockers discussed below.
-BlockersW232
Consensus on Science Two in-hospital RCTs (LOE 1)284,285 and 2 supporting studies (LOE 2)286,287 completed before the advent of fibrinolytics documented decreased mortality, reinfarction, ventricular fibrillation, supraventricular arrhythmias, and cardiac rupture in patients treated with -blockers. In patients with AMI who received fibrinolytics, treatment with IV -blockade within
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24 hours of onset of symptoms reduced rates of reinfarction and cardiac rupture. IV -blockade may reduce mortality in patients undergoing primary PCI who are not on oral -blockers (LOE 7).288 -Blocker therapy was initiated in the ED for most of these trials; only one included out-of-hospital administration.289 One small trial (LOE 2)290 showed a trend toward decreased mortality when IV -blockers were given for unstable angina. Treatment Recommendation In the ED treat ACS patients promptly with IV -blockers followed by oral -blockers. -Blockers are given irrespective of the need for revascularization therapies. Contraindications to -blockers include hypotension, bradycardia, heart block, moderate to severe congestive heart failure, and reactive airway disease. ACE InhibitorsW231 Consensus on Science Seven large clinical trials (LOE 1),278,291296 2 meta-analyses (LOE 1),297,298 and 11 minor trials (LOE 1)296,299 308 documented consistent improvement in mortality when oral ACE inhibitors were given to patients with AMI with or without early reperfusion therapy. ACE inhibitors should not be given if hypotension (systolic blood pressure 100 mm Hg or more than 30 mm Hg below baseline) is present or a contraindication to these drugs exists. One large, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (LOE 1)309 and 2 small randomized trials (LOE 2)310,311 in adults documented a trend toward a higher mortality rate if an IV ACE inhibitor was started within the first 24 hours after onset of symptoms in the hospital setting. There is no literature evaluating the therapeutic role of ACE inhibitors in the out-of-hospital setting. Treatment Recommendation Start an oral ACE inhibitor within 24 hours after onset of symptoms in patients with MI whether or not early reperfusion therapy is planned. Do not give an ACE inhibitor if the patient has hypotension (systolic blood pressure 100 mm Hg or more than 30 mm Hg below baseline) or if the patient has a known contraindication to these drugs. ACE inhibitors are most effective in patients with anterior infarction, pulmonary congestion, or left ventricular ejection fraction 40%. There is no evidence to recommend for or against starting ACE inhibitors in the out-of-hospital setting. Avoid giving IV ACE inhibitors within the first 24 hours after onset of symptoms because they can cause significant hypotension during this phase. HMG CoA Reductase Inhibitors (Statins)W233 Consensus on Science Nine RCTs (LOE 7)312320 and additional small studies (LOE 37)321323 documented a consistent decrease in the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (reinfarction, stroke, necessary intervention for recurrent angina, and rehospitalization) when statins were given within a few days after onset
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high risk for complications during transfer (eg, cardiogenic shock). Treatment Recommendation There is some limited evidence to recommend out-of-hospital triage for primary PCI for patients with uncomplicated STEMI who are 60 minutes away from a PCI site in systems that use MICUs with physicians on board with the proviso that the delay from decision to treat to balloon inflation is 90 minutes. Further studies are required to define appropriate triage and transport criteria. Interfacility Transfer for Early PCIW237A,W237B Consensus on Science A strategy of fibrinolysis combined with transfer for early PCI (defined as PCI performed 24 hours after fibrinolysis) is supported by 6 randomized trials (LOE 1223,338,339 and LOE 2241,340,341). The efficacy of this strategy is also supported by a post hoc nonrandomized comparison (LOE 3).342 But this strategy is not supported by other RCTs (LOE 1343345; LOE 2223,240) and other nonrandomized studies or secondary analyses of the above trials (LOE 7).346 Several meta-analyses showed no benefit of early PCI (LOE 1).347349 All but one of these trials were carried out in the 1990s before the era of coronary stenting. These studies did not use modern drugs or contemporary PCI techniques. The feasibility of fibrinolysis combined with transfer for early PCI is supported by 3 low-level studies. One study is a small trial in which PCI was performed routinely (LOE 7),350 one is a randomized trial of low-dose fibrinolytics compared with placebo before immediate cardiac catheterization and PCI as necessary (LOE 7),351 and one is a retrospective analysis (LOE 7).352 The efficacy of early PCI for patients with cardiogenic shock was shown in an RCT that showed improved mortality at 6 months and 1 year with early revascularization (LOE 1),216 especially in patients 75 years of age. This was supported by a retrospective analysis (LOE 7).353 One RCT (LOE 2) showed improvement in secondary nonfatal outcomes when early PCI was used for patients who did not achieve reperfusion after fibrinolysis.354 All of the above studies involved in-hospital fibrinolysis. The use of prehospital fibrinolysis followed by early PCI has not been studied. Treatment Recommendation There is inadequate evidence to recommend the routine transfer of patients for early PCI after successful fibrinolysis in community hospital EDs or out of hospital. Transfer for early PCI is recommended as one strategy for early revascularization for patients with cardiogenic shock, especially patients 75 years of age; or with hemodynamic instability or persistent symptoms of ischemia after fibrinolysis.
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