BigBangNucleosynthesis

Theemergenceofelementsintheuniverse
BenjaminTopper

Abstract.
Inthispaper,Iwillfirstgiveabriefoverviewofwhatgeneralrelativityhastosayabout
cosmology,gettinganexpandinguniverseasasolutiontoEinstein'sequation,i.e.auniverse
witha[thermal]history.Wewillgothroughthedifferentstepsofthebigbangnucleosynthesis,
brieflyjustifyingtheparticleantiparticleasymmetry(otherwisenonucleosynthesiswould
happen)andthenevaluatinganddiscussingindetailstheabundancesofthefirstelements.
IwillthendiscusstheconsequencesoftheBigBangBnucleosynthesisonmodernphysics:the
constraintsitgivesonthestandardmodel,ondarkmatter...

Contents

1. Introductiontostandardcosmology
.TheFriedmannLemaitreRobertsonWalkermodels
.Thermalhistoryoftheuniverse

2. BigBangNucleosynthesis
.Nuclearequilibrium
.Weakinteractionfreezeout
.Elementsynthesis:Primordialabundancesof , E ,Deuterium, . Ec
4
c
3
Ii
7
.Uncertainties

3. Constraintsonnewphysics
.Numberofneutrinogenerations
.Neutrinomasses
.Darkmatter

4. Conclusion

Disclaimer.
ThislectureismainlybasedonJeanPhilippeUzanandPatrickPetersbookCosmologie
Primordiale(chapter4),MarkTroddenandSeanCarrollsTASILectures:Introductionto
Cosmology,andthereviewarticleBigBangnucleosynthesisandphysicsbeyondthe
StandardModel.
Thecompletelistofreferencesusedcanbefoundonthelastpageofthisdocument.

Introductiontostandardcosmology
ThefirstcosmologicalsolutionstoEinsteinsequationsweregivenbyEinsteinhimselfinthe
early1917.HoweverthegeneralsolutionswereindependentlyfoundbyAlexandreFriedmann
andGeorgesLemaitreonlyin1922and1927.
ThestandardBigBangcosmologicalmodelisbasedonwhatisnowcalledtheCosmological
Principle,whichassumesthattheuniverseisspatiallyhomogeneousandisotropic.This
principleenforcesthegeometryoftheuniversetobeonethatisdescribedbyFriedmannand
LemaitresolutionstoEinsteinsequations.
a) TheFriedmannLemaitreRobertsonWalkermodels
Thesymmetriesinducedbyhomogeneityandisotropyofspaceallowustowritethemetricina
verysimpleandelegantform:
Js
2
= g
u
Jx

Jx
v
= Jt
2
-R
2
(t)|
Jr
2
1 -kr
2
+r
2
(J0
2
+sin0
2
J
2
) ]
E =
R

R
HereR(t)isthecosmicscalefactorwhichevolvesintimeanddescribestheexpansionor
contractionoftheuniverseandkisthescaled3spacecurvaturesignature(+1=elliptic,
0=euclidean,1=hyperbolicspace;itisaninformationonthelocalgeometryoftheuniverse).
AnotherusefulquantitytodefinefromthecosmicscalefactoristheHubbleparametergivenby:

] = I
-1
= EJ
R
v
-
1
2
TheHubbleparameteristhemeasureoftheexpansionrateoftheuniverse(itisanexpansion
ratebecauseitishomogenoustoaninversetime: |E )whichlinkstherecessionspeed
ofagalaxyvtoitsdistancedthroughthefollowinglaw,knownastheHubblelaw, : .
ComingbacktoEinsteinsfullfieldequation g
v
R +g
v
= -8n0I
v
firstneedtoaskourselvesiswhatkindofenergymomentumtensorcanbeconsistentwith

I
v
= pg
00
+pg

Withptheenergydensityintherestframeofthefluidandpitspressureinthesameframe,
,thequestionwe
observationsandthecosmologicalprinciple.Itturnsoutthatitisoftenuseful(andsimpler)to
considerthematteroftheuniverseasaperfectfluid:
g
]
beingthespatialmetric(includingthe R
2
).
PluggingitintoEinsteinsequations,wegetthetwofollowingequations,thefirstonebeingan
evolutionequationandthesecondoneaconstrainttoit:
R

R
+
1
2
E
2
= -4n0p -
k
2R
2
+

E
2
=
8n0
S
p -
k
R
2
+

Wethereforegetadynamicaluniverse,towhichwecangiveanage:
~
1
H
= 14.2 0yr

(E, I) =
g

c
|
L-
i
k1
i
(t)

andwecannowturnourselvestounderstandingits[thermal]evolution,orinotherwordsits
thermodynamics.
b) Thermalhistoryoftheuniverse
Fromverybasicarguments,wecanunderstandthatthecompositionoftheuniversehasgreatly
evolved;letscallreactionrateforagivenparticleinteraction.Ifthatreactionrateismuch
higherthantheexpansionrateH,thentheinvolvedinteractioncanmaintainthoseparticlesin
athermodynamicequilibriumatatemperatureT;theycanthenbetreatedasFermiDiracor
BoseEinsteingases,obeyingthefollowingdistributionfunction:
]
_1

Withg

thedegeneracyfactor,p

isthechemicalpotential, E
2
= p
2
+m
2
,andI

(t)isthe
ofthephoton call
However,if < E theparticleissaidtobedecoupled;theinteractioncanmaintainthe
miceq
interactionisnot
Theparticledensityequationcanbecomputedfromthedistributionfunction:
n

(t) = _
E
2
-m
2
temperatureofthekindofparticlestudied.Thetemperature s,T,is ed
temperatureoftheuniverse.
thermodyna uilibriumbetweentheparticleandtheotherconstituents.
Fromthisweunderstandthattherealwaysexistsatemperatureforwhichthe
effectiveanymore;itissaidtobefrozen.
c
L-
i
k1
i
(t)
_1

m
EJE

Thisequation,appliedtobosonsandfermionsatdifferenttemperatures,givesthefollowing
table:
Limit Typeofparticle n
T >> m,

Bosons
g(S)

2
T
3

Fermions
Sg(S)
4
2
T
3

T < m

Bosons
g _
mT
2
]
3
2
e
-
(E-)
T

g _
mT
2

Fermions
]
3
2
e
-
(E-)
T

Table1:Thermodynamics
Thephotonsareknowntohavezerochemicalpotential(asthenumberofphotonsisnot
conserved),thereforetheparticleantiparticleannihilationprocess:A + mustsatisfy
thefollowingconservationlaw: p .
Pluggingthisintheparticledensityequation,wefindanasymmetryinthenumberofparticles
andantiparticles:
A

- y +y
A
+p
A

= u
n
A
-n
A

g
A
1
3
6n
2
_n
2
[

A
1
+[

A
1

3
_
I >> m
A

Note:atlowtemperature(I << m
A
)weget,asexpected,anexponentialsuppressionofthisasymmetrythatgoes
c
T

with .
like
-
m
A
.
Thisasymmetryexplainsthedominationofmatteroverantimatterandthereforeallowsthe
Theearlyuniversebeingdominatedbyradiation,wecanrewrite,using[table1]theexpansionrateof
E
2
=
8n0
S
formationofnuclei.
expansionoftheuniverse:
n
2
Su
g
-
I
4

Hbeinghomogenoustoaninversetime,wecanrewriteitas:
t(I) =
2.42
I
2

g
-

-
withTinMeV,g beingthenumberofrelativisticdegreesoffreedomatagiventemperature.
ThesynopsisoftheBigBangnucleosynthesiscanbesplitintothreemajorphases:
T>>1MeV Thermodynamicequilibriumbetweenallthecomponentsoftheuniverse;
Universesdominatedbyradiation;
#neutrunx
#prutunx
~1
Photodissociationpreventsanycomplexnucleitoform.
1>T>0.7Mev Weakinteractioncannotmaintainequilibriumbetweenallparticles;neutrons
decouple:neutronfreezeout:
#neutrunx
#prutunx
~

1
.Freeneutronsdecayinto
protons;atomicnucleistayatthermodynamicequilibrium.Freezeout
temperature I .
]
0.7>T>0.05Mev Nuclearthermodynamicequilibriumcannotbemaintained.Electronpositron
annihilationhasheatedthephotonbath.Atomicnucleiformthrough2body
collisions: p +n - +y (onlyonewaybecauseradiationdensityislow
enough).
Table2:Thermalevolutionoftheuniverse

BigBangNucleosynthesis
a) Nuclearequilibrium

Fortemperaturesgreateroroftheorderof100Mev,theuniverseisdominatedbyrelativistic
particlesinequilibrium:electrons,positrons,neutrinosandphotons.Thecontributionfrom
nonrelativisticparticlecanbeneglected;theweakinteractionsbetweenneutrons,protonsand
leptons:
v
c
+n - p +c
c
+
+n - p +u
c

n - p +c +u
c

c +c
+
- y +y
keepalltheparticles(aswellasthenonrelativisticbaryons)inthermodynamicequilibrium.
Attemperatureslargerthan1Mev,thenuclearinteractionsstillmaintaintheveryfirstnuclei in
foregivenby:
n
A
= g
A
_
m
A
T
2

andtheelectromagneticinteractionbetweenelectronsandpositrons:
thermodynamicequilibriumtheirfractioncanthereforebecomputedonlyusing
thermodynamicconsiderations,asshownbelow.
Thedensityofthosenonrelativisticnucleiisthere
]
2
3
e
-
(m
A
-
A
)
T

= g
A
_
m
A
T
2
]
2
3
e
-
m
A
T
(e

T
)
Z
(e

n
T
)
A-Z

with
p
,
n
thechemicalpotentialofprotonsandneutrons.
gast echemicalequilibriumimposes

A
= Z
p
+(A -Z)
n

eglectingthedifferenceinmassbetweenprotonsandneutronsintheprefactor,wecan
n
pn
= 2 _
(
2
Aslon hereactionratesarehighertheexpansionrate,th
thechemicalpotentialtobe:
N
extractfromthisformulathedensityratioofprotonsandneutrons:
m
p
+m
n
) I
2n
_ c
-
(m
pn
-
pn
)
1
32

Rewritingtheexponentialinthenucleardensity,weget:
n
A
= g
A
_
m
A
T
2
]
2
3
e
-
m
A
T
= g
A
_
m
A
T
2
]
2
3
2
-A
n
p
Z
n
n
A-Z
_

m
N
T
]
32
e
B
A
T

ithB
A
= Zm
p
+(A -Z)m
n
-m
A
isthebindingenergyofthenucleon. W
Defining p =
n
b
n
y
,X
A
=
An
A
n
N
,n
b
= n
n
abundancesof
ucleiin ermodynamicequilibrium:
X
A
= g
A
A
52
_
n
+n
p
+An
A
,wefinallyobtainthe
atomicn th
(S)
2
(2A-2)
(3A-5)
_
1
_
I
m
N
A-
]
3(A-1)2
p
A-1
X
p
z
X
n
A-z
c
B
A
1

with p =
n
b
n
y
thebaryontophotonratio.
Wecanusethisformulato ebindi ndthetemperatureat
H
3
He
3
He
4

getth ngenergyofthelightnucleia
whichtheirabundancewillbeatamaximum:

H
2

B
A
(MeF) 2.22 6.92 7.72 28.3
T
A
(MeF) 0.066 0.1 0.11 0.28

Inparticular,itgivestheexactgoodprimordialevolutionfortheDeuteriumabundanceuptoits
leweunderstandthatevenatthermalequilibrium,nucleosynthesiscannotstart
b) Weakinteractionfreezeoutandneutronabundance
tsomestage t = t
]
,Xcanbesaidtofreezeoutifitsabundancestopsevolvinggreatly.
onrea rium:
wcak
=
7
6u
peak,andfortheotherlightuntilelementsuntiltheydepartfromequilibrium(welldiscussthis
pointlater).
Fromthistab
beforeT=0.3MeV.Thermalphotonspreventformationoflargequantityofdeuteriumuntil
T>0.3MeV(photodissociation)eventhoughthecrosssectionforn +p - J +y ishigh.

A
Weakinteracti ctionrateforp +c - u
c
+nkeepsprotonsandneutronsinequilib
(1 +
A F

utwhenthisreactionratebecomesoftheorderoftheexpansionrate,thethermal
B
Sg
2
)u
2
T
5

B
equilibriumisbroken:

= (
T
u.8
)
3
= T
Ircczc
= u.8Nev oi t
Ircczc
= 1.1Ss
Therefore,whentheweakinteraction(i.e.theneutronabundance)freezesout,theneutronto
X
ncutons
(T
Ircczc
) =
1
1 +c
m
n
-m
p
T
protonrationis:
= 16
Justconsideringtheexpansiontoget eneutronabundanceatthebeginningof
icleitwill
e
ncutons nuc
6
th
nucleosynthesisisabittoonavethough,),asthefreeneutronisnotastablepart
decaywithalifetimeof887sfromthetimeweakinteractionfreezesouttoI
nuc
,temperatur
thatallowsDeuteriumtoform(T=0.086MeV,t=180sec).Wethereforeget:
X (I ) =
1
c
-t:
= u.1S6
c) Elementsynthesis:Primordialabundancesof He
4
, He
3
,Deuterium, L|
7

utronsarelockedupandnoheavier
any
ore
e
synthesisisthatno elementsexistwith
Letsstartouranalysiswithqualitativearguments:
TheformationofdeuteriumisacrucialfactorforthecontinuationoftheBigBang
nucleosynthesis:iftoomuch E
2
isformed,thenne
elementscanbecreated.Howeveriftoolittleisformed,thenanimportantfactorin
furtherfusionismissing;especially,whendeuteriumcanform,helium4canformmuchm
easilybecausethefollowingreactionsJ +J - E
3
+pandJ +J - Ec
3
+nenableth
creationoflargeamountsforHeliumthrough E
3
+J - Ec
4
+nand Ec
3
+J - Ec
4
+p.

AveryimportantfactorintheBigBangnucleo stable
A=5andA=8(figure4).Thereforewewouldexpect togreatly thisanomaly decreaseany
lium
ndancethanHelium4(tritiumis
t

Figure1:Nuclearreactionshttp://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/30680/1/PWfea4_0807
nucleationprocessatA=4andA=7(itisalotlesslikelyforA=4togotoA=6thantoA=5).
Fromthis,weunderstandthat:
Theabundanceof E
2
shouldatfirstincreasethendecreasewhenHelium4canbe
onsumedinthereactions). produced(asitisbeingc
3
Theabundancesof E and Ec
3
shouldincreasethenlevelupordecreasewhenhe
isgettingcreated.Theyshouldhavealowerfinalabu
esh dec radioactivetherefor ould reaseoverlongperiodslongerthantheonestudied
here)
Helium4,whichisstable,andattheendofthefirstchain(beforeA=5)shouldbe
presentinlargequantitiesattheendoftheBigBangnucleosynthesis.Alltheprevious
elementscanfusetoformHelium4,andHelium4isveryunlikely(butnot0)toreac
withprotonsorneutronstojumptoA=6
AbundancesofLithiumandBerylliumshouldbeverylowcomparedtotheother.We
canexpect Bc
7
and Ii
7
tobetheendoftheBigBangnucleosynthesisbecauseofthe
A=8barrier(alsohelpedbythefactthatBe7isradioactiveandthereforedecaysto
lighterelements).
Lithiumvalley:destroyedbyprotonsbutBe7contribution.
Nowletsgetintosomelittlecomputations:
TheeasiestestimationisforHelium4:wenowthatallfreeneutronsleftafterfreezeoutwill
getbounduptoHe4becauseofnucleistability.EstimationsonHe4abundancesdepend
mostlyontheneutrontoprotonrate,thusmostoftheuncertaintiesarebasedonthe
uncertaintiesofthefreeneutronlifetime(=887seconds)
X
Hc4
~
2 - X
ncutons
(I
nuc
)
1 +X
ncutons
(I
nuc
)
= u.24
ForDeuterium,wecangetitscreationslopewiththethermalequilibriumequationgiven
previously(simplyusingMathematica,itworkperfectly);howevergettingitsfinalabundanceis
muchmoredifficultaswehavetocomputeallitssinkterms.Thesameproblemappearsfor
alltheotherelements.
Itishoweverdoablewithoutacomputer,startingwiththeverygeneralstatement:
JX
Jt
= [(t) -(t)X
whereJ(t)and(t)aretimedependantsourceandsinkterms.
Thesolutiontothisequationis
X(t) = c
-] dt
|
(t
|
)
t
t

)
t
i
c
-] dt
||
(t
||
)
t
t
i
]
Thisrequires,asexpected,carefulexaminationofallthedifferentreactionnetworksand
keepingtrackoftheirreactionrateastemperaturedecreases,thereforeitisaverytedious
(t )
i
|X(t ) +_ Jt
i
[(t
i
t
computation(figure2)
1
.
Generallyfreezeoutoccurswhen~E.ItispossibletoshowthatXapproachesthisequilibrium
valueforX
t-
=X
cq
(t
]
) =
](t
]
)
]

Figure2:Analyticcomputation
http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/hepph/pdf/9602/9602260v2.pdf

1
Esmailzadethetal(1991);Dimopoulosetal(1988)
TheanalyticalresultsshownheregivethegoodpredictionsforD,Helium3andLithium7
withinafactorof3,andHelium4within5%!
Moreover,thisanalyticcalculationhelpsinunderstandingthedepartofHelium4fromits
nuclearstatisticalequilibrium(thedashedlinearound0.6Mev).
Thisbehaviorisexplainedbythedeuteriumbottleneck(figure1):thecreationofHelium4is
delayeduntilenoughtritiumandhelium3areformed(itthenmimicstheevolutionofTand
Helium3).
Thentheytoodepartfromnuclearstatisticalequilibriumatabout0.2MeVduetothe
deuteriumbottleneck.AtthispointHelium4,Helium3andTritiumallmimictheevolutionof
Deuteriumuntilitfinallydeviatesfromequilibriumat0.07MeV.

Wecannowcomparetheoryandtheobservation(figure4)onthefinalabundancesofthelight
elements:
Theory Observation

S.6 - 1u
-5_0.06
[
p
S.S - 1u
-10

-1.6

2.78 _u.44 - 1u
-5
> 1.S _u.1 - 1u
-5
< 6.7 - 1u
-5
Ec
3

1.2 - 1u
-5_0.06
[
p
S.S - 1u
-10

- 1u
-5

-0.63
1.S _u.S

Ec
4

0.245_u.u14(N
v
-S) _u.uuu2(
n
-887) _u.uu9 ln[
5.5-10
-10
q

_u.uu1S
u.2S91 _u.uu2u
u4
u.244S
u.249 _u.u
Ii
7

1.2 - 1u
-10_0.06
[
p
S.S - 1u
-10

-2.38

1.2S
-0.32
+0.68
- 1u
-10

Figure3:Abundances Figure4:Elementgap
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/BBNS.html BigBangNucleosynthesisC.Ciemniak14.05.2004
d) Uncertainties
Asnucleosynthesisinvolvesmanydifferentreactions,therearemanysourcesofuncertainty.
Themajoruncertaintiesin Ec
4
aredueto
Theexperimentaluncertaintyontheneutronlifetime.Thecurrentvalueisconsidered
tobe
2

u
= 887 _2 s.Achangeof2ointheneutronlifetimecausesachangein
Helium4predictionofabout0.4%.
Thenumberofneutrinogenerations;ifthenumberofgenerationsismorethan3,say
3.3(aswewillthisthatseemstobethecurrentboundonthenumberofneutrino
generations)thenwegetachangeofabout1.5%intheabundanceprediction.

Fortheotherelements,uncertaintiesinthenuclearcrosssectionscandramaticallymodifythe
abundancepredictions.TheycanalterDand Ec
3
byupto15%and Ii
7
byabout50%!
Andallofthisbeingachainreactionachangeinthereactionrateofoneelementwillaffect
alltheothers.
TheseeffectscanbeneglectedfortheHelium4abundance( u.S%)becauseaswehaveseen
itispossibletocalculateitsabundanceonlyusingtheneutronsabundanceatnucleationtime;
alreadygot
veryprecis
Big an nucleosynthesisalsoallowstocalculatethebaryontophotonratio p.
_1.7S - 1u
-10

e,
cedHubble
toputconstraintsonotherobservableslikethe
wedidnothavetoconsideranyofthenuclearreactionstodothiscalculationsand
a eresult.

B g
Fromspectroscopicmeasurements,andtaking N
v
= S,onegetsthefollowingvalue:
p = S.1S
Whichcorrespondsto
B
h
2
= u.u18 _u.uu6where
B
isthebaryoniccontentoftheunivers
andbtheredu constant.
Aswewillseelaterthoseparametersallowus
numberofneutrinosgenerations,theirmasses,butalsototestthevalueofthefundamental
constantslikeGandthefinestructureconstant o(constraintgivenbyBBNis

< S%.)

BigBangnucleosynthesisisthereforeatestforthehotBigBangmodel,nuclearphysics,and

astrophysicsingeneral.

2
ParticleDataGroup
Constraints
to nrateof e
niverse,thereforemoreneutronswillsurviveuntilnucleosynthesiswhichleadstoanincrease
NumberofNeutrino
Flavors
Modelpredictionsfor
He4
onnewphysics
a) Numberofneutrinogenerations
AnincreaseinthenumberofneutrinoN
v
leads anincreaseintheexpansio th
u
intheHelium4abundance.
N
v
= 2 ~ u.227
N
v
= S ~ u.242
N
v
= 4 ~ u.2S4

ConstraintsfromBigBangnucleosynthesisarestillverydifficulttoestimate(manydifferent
aluescanbefoundintheliterature).Itseemslikethebestfit N
v
~S _u.S v .

Credits:arXiv:astroph/9706069

b) Neutrinomasses
AlthoughinthenaveversionoftheStandardModelneutrinosaremassless,recent
experimentshavetendedtoshowthatneutrinoswereactuallymassive(fromneutrino
oscillationexperimentsmainly
3
).
Eventhoughtheirmassisthoughttobeextremelysmall,thelargequantityofneutrinosimplies
thatanynonzeromasshaveanobservableimpactoncosmology.
Fromnucleosynthesis,wecangetanupperlimittothemassofalltheneutrinos,bycombining
therelicneutrinoabundancewithobservationalboundsonpresentenergydensity(thanksto
WMAP):
m
u
i

[
g
u
i
2
94 cI
summingoverallneutrinospeciesthatarerelativisticatdecoupling(i.e.m
u
i
1HcI).
Ifweconsiderthatneutrinosaremoremassiveandthereforewherenotrelativistic(!),then
ticdecoupling,thewegetalowerlimit
ontheirmass: m
u
i
20cI.
Thereforenostableneutrinocanhaveamassinthe100eVto2GeVrange.
urrentneutrinomassestimationsare:
u
c
I , m
u

16ukcI , m
u

24HcI
nregion.

E
h
2
theyfalloutofchemicalequilibriumbeforetherelativis
C
m 2.1c
Thatisfornow,onlytheelectronneutrinoisknowntohaveamassoutoftheforbidde
c) Darkmatter
Directobservationsofluminousmattergivethefollowingresulttowardthecontentofthe
universe:
( h )
vIs
~ u.uuS
Comparingthistothepreviousvalueof
B
h
2
,wequicklyunderstandthatthereisaproblem:
(h
2
)
vs
=
n
Su%!Wherearetheother70%?
Baryonic=>no nucleonicdarkmatter,planetarymassblackholes,strangequark
nuggets(shouldhaveenhancedproductionofheavyelementsduringBBN).

Nonbaryonic=>Relicparticles?Newparticles?

3
SuperKamiokande,1998
Conclusion
Foralongtime,primordialnucleosynthesisandspectroscopicmeasurementswheretheonlywayto
predictandtestthelightelementsabundances,andtogetavalueforthebaryoniccontentofthe
B)haveallowedto
ccontentoftheuniverse:

b
h
2
= u.u224 _u.uuu9
whichcorrespondstoabaryontophotonratio:
universe.Howeverrecentcalculations
4
oftheCosmicMicrowaveBackground(CM
measurewithextremeaccuracythebaryoni
p = 6.14 _u.2S - 1u
-10

Ifweredoallthepreviouscalculationswiththosevalues,wegetthefollowingabundances:
predictionusing
CMBvalues
Element Theoretical
2.6u
-u.17
+u.19
- 1u
-5
Ec
3
1.u4
+u.u4
- 1u
-S

-u.u4
Ec
4
u.247 _u.uuu4
Ii
7
4.1S
-u.4S
+u.49
- 1u
-1u

photonratio.

TheverticallinerepresentsWMAP

ThecurvesaretheBBNpredictions.
Uzan&Peter
Onthisgraphareshownthe
theoreticalpredictionsfor
Deuterium,Helium3,Helium4and
Lithium7withrespecttothebaryon
valuefor p,thehorizontalones
indicatethespectroscopic
measurementsforeachelement,the
widthrepresentingtheuncertainties.
Credits:CosmologiePirmordiale
Tho arein theoreticalpredictions.Nuclearreactionratesarebeing
reanalyzedbecause, ,aslightchangeinoneofthemcouldgreatlyaffectallthe
predictions.

seresults conflictwiththe
aswehaveseen

4
WMAPresultsontheCMB
References
Books
CosmologiePrimordialeJeanPhilippeUzan&PatrickPeter
Princ P.J.EPeebles iplesofphysicalcosmology
ArXiV
Xiv:astroph/9706069:BigbangNucle
astroph/0009506:LightElem
arXiv:astroph/9905211:PrimordialLithiu
rXiv:astroph/0008495:WhatIsTheBBN
rXiv:astroph/9905320:PrimordialNucl
arXiv:hepph/9602260:BigBangnucleosynthesisandphysicsbeyondtheStandardModel
ar osynthesisEntersthePrecisionEra
arXiv: entNucleosynthesis
mandBigBangNucleosynthesis
a PredictionfortheBaryonDensityandHowReliableIsIt?
a eosynthesis:TheoryandObservations
OtherInternetresources
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/BBNS.html
http://wwwthphys.physics.ox.ac.uk/users/SubirSarkar/mytalks/groningen05.pdf
http://www.astro.uu.se/~bg/cosmology
http://www.mpia.de/homes/rix/BBN_Lect.pdf
roddenandSeanCarrollTASILectures:IntroductiontoCosmology
.pdf
MarkT