346

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M otivation

only about 30% ccuracy. Kerri checks her work and says, "Rosetta, I'm so proud ofyou. you did 10 poblems and gof g ofthem completely correct, so you made your goal. See how much better you,re doing now than before? you're getting much better in mathl,,

1n the yer Rosetta avera.ged

'/e have seen thfoughout this text that much

Kerri Townsend, an elementary teacher, has been working with her students on subtraction with regrouping. In teaching the concept, she used everyday examples, cutouts, and manipulatives, to help spark students' interest. Now the students are solving problems at their desks, and Keri is walking around, tlking with students individually and checking their work. The rst student she checks on is Margaret, who feels she is not rrery good in math. Keri says to Margaret, "Margaret, you got them all correct. You're really getting good at this. That should make you feel good. I know that you'll keep doing well in math d-ris year." Next is Deick, who's having a had time concentrating and hasn't done much work, KeIi says to him, "Derrick, I know you can do much better. See how well Jason is working. Qason and Derrick are fiends.) I know that you cn wok just as well and do great on these problems. Let's try." Jared likes to do better than others. As Kefri approaches, Jared says to her, "Ms. Townsend, see how good I'm doing, better than most others." Keri says, 'Yes, you are doing very well. Bul instead of thinking about hos/ others are doing, think about how you're doing. See, you can do these problems now, and just a few weeks ago you couldn't. So you really have learned a lot." As Kei approaches Amy, she sees that Amy is wasting time. "Amy, why aren't you working better?" Amy replies, "l don't like these poblems, I'd rathe be working on the computer" Kerri replies, "You'll get your chance for that. I know that you can work better on these, so let's try to finish them before the end of the period. I think you'll like subtraction more when you see how well you can solve
the problems. "

human learning-regardless of content-has common features, Learning begins with the knowledge and skills that leanes brins to the siruation. which they expand and refine as a function of learning, Learning involyes the use of cognitive strtegies and processes such as. attention, perception, rehearsal, of ganizatio,
elaboration, storage, and fetieval. This chaprer discusses motivation-a toDic intimatey linked wirh lea-ning. Motiuctrioi LS the process of instigating and sustaining goaldiected behavior (Schunk et al,, 2008). This is a cogoitive definition because it postulates that

work on computer projects. In short, motivl tion engages students in activities that facilitatc
learning. Teachers understand the importan(,c

of motivation for leaming, and-as the opeo ing scenario shows--do many things to rais(.
student motivation. Ths chapter begins by discussing sorrr,,

learners set goals and employ cognitive processes (e.9., planning, monitoring) and behviors (e.9., persistence, effort) to attain their goals. Although behavioral views of motivation are reviewed, the bulk of this chapter is
devoted to cognitive perspectives.

histodcal views of motiyation; the remaindrt of the chapter co\/ers cognitiye perspectivcs, Key motivational processes are explained aml linked to leaming. Topics covered are achievcment motivation theory, attribution theory, so_ cial cognitiye theory, goal theory, perceptior.r of contol, self-concept, and inffinsic motivttion. The chapter concludes with some ecluctL..
tional pplications. \trhen you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

t I I I I I

Bfiefly discuss some important hislofical

theories of motivation: drive, conditioning, cognitive consistency, humanistic.
Sketch a model of motivated learning, and descibe its major components.

As v/ith learning, motivation is not ob_

ioral indexes such as yebalizations,

served direcdy, but ather infered from behav-

task

choices, and goal-directed activities. Motivation is an explanatory concept that helps us under_ stnd v/hy people behave as they do.

Matt enjoys learning and is a very hard worker. As Kerd comes up to his desk, Matt is working hardon the problems. Unfortunately he's also making some mistakes. Kerri gives him feedback, showing him what he's doing correctly and what he needs to colfect, Then she says, "Matt, you're a had worker. I know that if you keep working on these, you will lean how to do them. I'm sufe that soon you'll find that you can do them easier" Keffi has been working s/ith Rosetta on setting goals for completing her work accurately. Rosetta's goal is to complete her work with at least 80% accuracy. Eadier

Although some simple types of learning car occur yith little or no motivation, most learning is motiyated. Students molyareo to len attend to instuction and engage in such activities as rehearsing information, telting it
lo previously acquired knowledge, and asking

Explain the majof fetures ir a cuffent model of achievement motivtion.

Discuss the causal dimensions in Weingf,d

attfibution theory nd the effects they

haye in achievement situations.

Explair how the social cognitive procesgel

of goals and expectations can be formecl and interact to affect motivation. Distinguish befween learning (process) and performance (product) goals, l e, plain hovr' rhey can irfluence motivatiofl and learning.

questions. Rather than quit when they encounre difficult material, motivated students expend greater effort. They choose to work on tasks when they are not required to do so; in their spare time they read books on topics of inferest, solrre problems and pwzzles, and

34>

348

Chapter

Motivation
Explain the potential effects of perceived control on learning, behavior, and
emotions.

347

rewards may increase or decrease intrinsic motivation.

Define self-concept, and explain the major factors that ffect ils development. Distinguish ittrinsc fiom extrinsic motivation and the conditions under which

Discuss educational applications involving achievement molivation, attributions, and

Hull (1943) broadened rhe drive concept by posturating that physiologicar defrcits wee mary needs that hstigated drives to reduce the needs. ore was the motivational force that energlzed and prompted people and animals into action. Behavior that obtained rei[orcement to satisfy a need resulte, in drue reductiol. This process is as follows:

Need _+ Drive _+ Bebavior

goal orientations.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
ltfe begin by discussing historical perspectives on motivalion. Wtreleas some Yaliables in-

Hull (1943) de[1ned motiuatioz as the "initiation of learned, or habitual, patterns of movemenf o behavio" (p. 226). He beleved that innate behaviors usually stisfied pri_ mary needs and that learning occurred only when inna[e behaviors proved ineffective. Learning reprcsented one's adaptation to the environment to ensure survival. Hull also postulated the exsrence of secondary reinforcers because much behavio was nol oriented toward stisfying primary needs. Stimulus situations (e.g., work to earn money) acquired secondary reinforcing ,power by being paired with priLary reinforce, ment (e.9., money buys food)
Drive theory generated much reseach as a consequence of Hull,s writings (!einet 7992). As an explanatior for motiyated behyior, drive theory seems best appe to imme diate physiological neecis; for example, one lost in a deset is primarily cncerned

cluded in historical theoies are nof relevant to cuent theories, historical views helped set the stage for curent cognitiYe theolies, and several historical ideas have contemporary relevance. Some early views reflected the dea that motivation results primarily from in'stincts Ethologists, for example, based their ideas on Darwin's theory, which postulates that instincts have survival value for organisms. Energy builds wiin organisms and leleases itself in behaviors designed to help species survive Others have emphasized the individual's need fol bomeostasis, or optimal levels of physiological states. A third perspective involves hedonm, or the idea that humans seek pleasure and avoid pain. Although each of these views may explain some instances of human motiYation, they are inadequate to account for a wide range of motiYated actvities, especally those tht occur dudtg leaming. Readers interested in these viesr's should consult other souces (Petri, 1986; Schunk et al., 2008; \feine, 1992), FouI histoical petspectiYes on motivation with relevance to lealning are drive theory, conditioning theory, cogntive consistency theory, and humanistic theory.

hastily frnishing an overdue term paper may experience stuong symptoms of hunger, yet they may not stop to eat because the desie to complete an important iask o"too"ig-s ptysio'_ logical need. Conversely, drives can est in the absence ofiological needs. A sex " drive can lead to promiscuous behavior even though sex is not immediateiy needed for survival. Athough drive theory may explain some behavios diecte towad immediate goals, many human behaviors reflect long-term goals, such as frndng a job, obtaining a c;Ueg; degree, and sailing around the wodd. people are not in a cotinuo"sfy hh ri r. saie while pursuing these goals, They typicaly xperience periods of high, average, and low motivation. High drive is not conducive to performance over lengthy period nd especially on complex tasks (Broadhurst, 1957; yrkes & Dodson, 190gj. tn ihort, drive theory does not offe an adequate explanation fo academic motivaiion.

finding food, water, and shelter Drive theory is not an ideal exjanation fo much human Ioti]'alon: Needs do not always trigger drives oriented towa need reduction. Students

with

Drive Theory
Driue tbeoly or,eiated as a physiological theory; eventually, t was broadened to include psychological needs. 'Woodworth (1918) defined driues as lflfe],l forces that sought to maintain homeostatic body balance. Whefl a person or animal is deprived of an essential elemeflt (e.g., food, ai vater), this activates drive that causes the person or animal to respond. The drive subsides when the element is obtaied Much of the research rat tested pledictions of dxive theory was conducted vith laboratory nimals (Richter, 1927; Woodworth & Schlosberg, 1954). In these experiments, animals often were deprived of food or s/ater for some time, and their behaviors to get food or water were assessed. For example, rats might be deprived offood for varying amounts of time and placed in a maze. The time that it took them to run to the end to receive food vas measued. Not surprisingly, response strength (runnitg speed) normally varied directly with the number of prio einforcements and qith longer deprivation up to 2 to 3 days, after which it dropped off because the animals became progressively weaker'

Conditioning Theory
Conclitigning tbeory (Chapl 3) explains motivation in rerms of responses eticited by conditionin or emitted in the presence of stimuli (opeant conditioning) rn the classcal conditioning ruorel, the motivationar properties of an unconditionecr stimulus (UCS) are transmned ro the conditioned stimul;s (S) through repeated palr" ins. Conditioning occurs vr'hen the CS elicits a conditioned response (CR) in the absnce of e UCS. This is a passive view of motivaton, because it psmlarcs that once condl" tioning occurs, the cR is elicited when the cs is presented. ^As discussed in chpter 3,
stimu_li (classical

Ir\ oerant conditioning, mottyated behavior is an creased rate of esponcling or greate likelihood that a response wi[ occur in the presence of a srimurus. skinne ("i953 contended that internal processes accompanying responding are not necessary
to

pfocess, but rattrei depends on informarron :::lPillg "t T.aul:m.1]ic the individualf about the likelihood of the UCS occurring

conveyed ro

when the

CS is presented.

Chprer

Motivation

behavior Individuals' immediate environment and their history must be examined for the causes of behavior. Labeling a student "motivated" does not explain why the student works productively, The student is productive because of prior reinforcement for productive v/ork and because the cuent envionment offes effctive reirforcers. Ample evidence shows that feinforcers can influence what people do; however, what affects behavio is not reinforcement but rather are beliefs about reinforcement. People
engage in actiyities because they believe ttrey will be reinfoced and yalue that renforcement (Bandura, 1986). rhen reinforcement history conflicts with cuent beliefs, people act based on their beiefs (Blewe\ 7974). By omitting cognitive elements, conditiodng theories offer an incomplete ccount of human motivation.

Ashlev changes

lik""J";;.;ii; llTli, ft'example' Ashlev misht t'io' ,r',, il.inui chemistry is not so bad "h.
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Cognitive imbalance exists and two positive relations (Ashley likes Janice, Ashley does not like .hlll-o"".":quttv.e Ashl'ey believesJanice likes chemistry) and with three negative rela6or.r, 6"1"rrjlTlt^rypred'icts no tendenry to change.relatinships isrs when the triad is bul"rr..d't'-tory b]l people will try (cognitively rfid b"tr""ior"ttg't ex,.soye conflicrs *h., i-b"l".r.i

.-

Cognitive Consisbncy Theory

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:,'

That people seek to restore cognirive imbalance is intuitively plausible, but balance It predjcrs when people will atrempr ro 11._:T,.-:rol" |roblems_ resrore batance but not now they v,,ill do ir. Ashley mighr change hei attitud. towJ .h.mist y, bu she also could eslablish balance by disliking chemistry and Jani..,-rro n"ory ut.o cloes not ade_ quatety take into account the impodance of imbalnced ,.t.tion"irip". people care very much when imbalance exisrs among people and situations thl but rhey may make no
effor

ro,.rL rr"j"L *en

they care rittle

ab"r,,h. Jh:1i.

Cogniti?E constencl theory assumes tht motivation results from interactions of cognitions and behavios. Thi s lheory is homeostaJic because it predicts that v/hen tension occurs among

i:l
al

elements, the problem needs to be resolved by making cognitions and behaviors consistent with one another Tvr'o prominent perspectives are balance theory and dissonance theory.
Bolonce fheory. Heide (1946) poshrlated that individuals have a tendency to cognitively balance relations amog pesons, situations, and events. The basic situation involves three elements, and relations can be positive or negative. For example, assume the three elements are Janice (teache), -dshley (student), and chemistry (subject). Balance exists when relations among all elemenls are positiye; AsNey likes Janice, Ashley likes chemistry, Ashtey believes Janice likes chemistry. Balance also exists with one positive and two negative relations: Ashley does not like Jnice, Ashley does not like chemistry, Ashley believes Janice likes chemistry Gigure 8.1).
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. irreleyanr, or dissonant. Two cogntions ate consona.nt if one follows r._ r'?r, with the other; for ',I,,have ro give a speech in Los Angeles a_orro_'rnrnl ::-Tll.,. rhere roday". Many .erers re itrereuant to-o. is a hickorl tree in my yard,,. ot1rr"", ."gl*"i'.**, when one follows ror exampre' "t don'Irike Deboah' *nh drivelike properties leading ";J to t"dt';;; I)issonance

C1.n!tve Dissonnce. Fesringer (7957) formulated a theory of which postulares that ndividls atrempr to mainrain c liefs, attitudes, opinions, and behavios, Relations .r., l"r"".r,,

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Cognitive dissonance theorv also takes the importance of the cogmuons into accounf. Large discrepancies between tiral cog_nitions d;;;.;;;.;.h'ir"onur,.., ,,yellow not my fayorite color,' and ,,I dive ylo_ is a .^r, wilt .rJ o-ri".n Orssonance if car color is not impoftant to me. Dissonance can be educed in vaous ways:

"" boushr Deborah, 8;;, sonance thn.'Deborah and I re acquarntances.

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the importance of the cognitions (,,It,s no big deal at I gave Deborah a,gift; I grve gifrs to lots of people foirr*." Alter behavior (,,I,m never giving D.no.ufl urrotfr". grf;)

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Nole; J, Jo njce {chemlsty teocher}; A, Ash ey (stude ni); C, chern is try {sLr b ect). lhe symbols "+' o nd '-" sb nd for 'likes" ond 'does not like,' respecl veiy, so tholthe iop left boJoce con be reod os follows: Ashley likeslonice,
Ash ey likes chemistry, ond Ashley be ievesJon ce likes chernisky

bala'."' sha19 manv of the t^-. -;J' ri"-;-.-:.u::::-:'lsc rhe ctissoriance j" .." ^..t-o^11t:":ltlfes dis s onanc e no nri ':X ri on is ;#;:;;

ance theory. But dissonnce and

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Motivation

351

Chapter

whether cognitions will conJlict in a gil/et situadon is problematic because they must be clear and important. The theory does not predict hoql dissonance will be reduced by changing behavior or by alterirg thoughts. These problems suggest that additional processes are needed to explain human motivalion. Shultz and Lepper 11996) presented a model that reconciled discrepant fndings from dissonance esearch and integrated dissonarce bette with other motivational variables.

Self-actualization

Humonistic Theory
Humantic tbeory as applied to earning is largely constructivist (Chapter 6) and emphasizes cognitive and affective processes. It addresses people's capabilities and potentialities as they make choices and seek control over thet lives. Humanistic theorists make cefiain assrlmptions lschunk et al., 2008). Ooe is that the study of persons is bolistic: To understand people, we must study thek behaviors, thoughts, and feelings (\einer, 1992). Humanists disagree with behavioists who sludy individual responses to discrete stimuli. Humanists emphasize individuals' self-awaeness. A second assumption is that humn choices, creativity, ad self-z,clLr liz on ate important ares to study (\Veiner, 1.992). To undestand people, researchers should not study animals but rattrer people who are psychologically functioning and attempting to be creative nd to mximize their capabilites and potential. Motiyation is important for attaining basic needs, but greater choices are available when striving lo maximize one's
potential.

Beloniingness

'Vell-known humanisc theodes nclude those of Abraham Masow and Cad Rogers. Maslow's theory, which enphasizes motiyation lo develop one's full potentiI, is discussed next, followed by Rogers's theory, which addesses both leaming atd instruction.
Herorchy of Needs. Maslow (1968, 1,970) believed that human acions are unified by being directed towafd goal attainment. Behaviors can serye severl functiots simultaneously; for example, attending a party could satisfy needs fo self-esteem and social interction. Maslov felt that conditioning theories did not capture the complexitF of human behavior. To say that one so cializes at a party because one has previously been einfoced for doing so fails to take into account the current role tht socializtion plys for the person. Most human action represents a siving to stisfy needs. Needs are bierarcbical (Figure 8.2). Lower-order needs have to be salisfied adequately before higher-order needs can influence behaviot. Pbysiological nedg the lowest on the hierarchy, concern necessities such as food, air, and wate. These needs are satisfied fo most people most of the time, but they become potent when they are not satsfied. Safety needs, which involve environmenlzl security, dominate during emergenciesr People fleeing from rising walers will abandon valuable propefy to save their lives. Sfety eeds are also manifested in activities such as sving money, securing a job, and taking out an insurance policy. once physiological and safety needs are adequately meL belongingness (loue) needs become important. These needs involve having intimate relationships s/ith others, belonging to groups, and having close friends and acquaintnces, A sense of belonging is ttined thlough mr:Iiage, interpersonal commitments, volurteer groups, clubs,

Figure 8.2 Mosiows hierorchy of needs.

So.utce: Molvohan ond personoiiirT by Educotion, lnc , Upper Soddle River,

Moslow, @

920.

Repr nred by permission

ol peorson

self-actualiztion manifests itself in_the nee to become ev;rying thr one is capabre of becoming Behavior is not motivated by a deficiency but ratherty a esire

recognition from others. -ll-teir lack of satisfction produces defi. The frrst fou needs arc dE)riuation need.s.. ciencies that motivate people to satiss/ them. Seyere or prolonged deficiencies can leacl to mental problems; ,,Most neuroses involved, along wih odre'r complex determinants, ungratified-wishes for safqry, for belongingness and entifrcation, for crose love relationships and for respect and prestige,, (Maslow, 196g, p. 21). At the highesr level is the need for self-actuahztion, or tJte desire for seif_fulfillmenr,

churches, and the like. Esteem needs comDrise self-esteem and esteem fom others. These needs manifest themselves in high achivement, independence, competenf work, nd

'.

for personal gro*th, Healthy people have sufficiently gratified their basic needs for safery, belongingness, love, espect, and serf-esteem so that they ale motiyated p marily by tfends to self-ctuar ization :,1 ldefrned as ongoing actualizarior of porentials, capacities andiri";.,;ful.;, ; (or call, fate, destiny, or vocation), as a fulle " "r*. knwledge of, and *"."r""." ---' !... own intinsic rature, as an unceasing trend tov/aid unity, ' ".'rir"'"TlJ:,. urrty integratio rntegrairon or synergy within the personl. (Maslow. 196s. p. si
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MoLrvahon
354

chapter 8

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interest in the means for attaining theh goals. The outcome (righting a wrong or solvinlq a problem) is as impofiant as the means to the end (the acnral wok involved) Maslow's hierarchy is a useful general guide for uderstanding behavior' It demonstrates that it is uorealistic to expect students to learn well in school if they are sufferirr from physiological or safety deficiencies. The hierarchy provides educators vith clue concerning why students act as they do. Eductors stress intellectual achievement, bul many adolescents are preoccupied with belongingness and esteem At the same tme, the theory has problems. One is conceptual vagueness; what constitutes deficiency is not clear. V/hat one person considers a deciency in some arer' someone else rnay not. Another problem is that lower-order needs ae ot alwys strongef than hgher-orcler ones. Many people risk their safety to rescue othes fom clanger. Third, research on the qualities of self-actualized individuals has yielded mixed [esults (Pei, 1986). Apparently, self-actualization can tke maoy forms and be manifestecl atwork, school, home, and so forth. How it may appear and how it can be iofluenced arc unclear. Despite these problems, the idea that people striYe to feel competent ad lead self-fulfilling lives is a cenal notion in many theories of motivation (Schunk et al , 2008), Acfuolzing Tendency, cad Rogers was a renowned psychotherapist whose approach ttr counseling is known as client-centered tberatrt!, Accoldir'g to Rogers (1963),Iife rcprc" sents an ongong process of personal glowth or achieving wholeness. This process, ol ctuctlizing tend.enc!, is mofrvafiorf,l and presumably innate (Rogers, 1963) Rogers con' sideed this motive the only fundamental one from which all others (e g., hunger, thirst) derive. The actualizing tendency is oriented toward personal growth, autonomy, and free" dom from control by extemal forces,

;r

'$] igt

we are, in short, dealing with an organism which is alv/ays motivated, is always "lp to

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Athough most people go beyond the deficiency needs and strive toward self-aclualization, few people ever fully reach this level-perhaps 1% of the population (Goble,
1970). Self actualization can be manifested in vrious ways.
The specifrc form tha these needs wjll ake will of course vary greatly from persoo to person. In one indMdual jt ay take the form of the desire to be an ideal mothet in another it may be expressed aietically, and in stili aoother it may be expressed in paifltifg pictues or in iwertions. Al this level, ndividuai differences ae greatest. (Maslow, 1970, p.46)

something," always seekirg. So I would eaffrrm my belief that there is one cenlral sourcd of energy in the human organism; that it is a function of the /hole organism rather than sone potion of il; and that it is perhaps best conceptualized as a tendency toward fulfillment' lowzrd ac.j/,lization, toward the maintenance nd enhancemenl of the orga'ism. (Rogel"J, 1963. p. 6)

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A strong motive to achieve is another manifestation of self-actualization (Application 8,1). Maslow hformally studied personal acquaintances and historical fi8txes. Chracteristics of self-actualized individuls included an increased perception of reIi/, acceptance (of self, others, nature), spontaneity, problem-centedng, detachment and desire for privary, autonomy and resistance to enculturation, fteshness of appreciation and richness of emotional reaction, fiequency of peak experiences (loss of self-avareness), and identfication with the human species (Maslow, 1968). \{4ren self-actualized persons attempt to solye important Poblems, they look outside of themselves for a cause and dedicate heir effo s to solving it. They also display great

The environment can affecf fhe act lizir'9 tendency Our experiences and intel'' prettions of lhem foster or hinder attempts t gros'th. \trith development, individuals become more aware of their own being and functioning ( self-ex1erience) This aware" ness becomes elaborarcd into a self-concept through interactions with the environmen( nd significnt others (Rogers, 195. Tlne development of self-awareness produces l need fol posiriue regard, or feelings such as respect, liking, warmth, sympathy, nd acceptance. \e experience positive regard for others when we have these feelings about them. \e perceive ourselves as receiving positive regld when we believe tht other$ feel that way bout us. This elation is reciprocali \X/hen people perceive themselves al satisfying nother's need for positive regard, they expedence stisfction of their neeel for posit ive regard. People also have a need for positiue self-regard, or positive legard that derivel from self-experiences (Rogers, 1959). Positive self-regard develops when people expe" dence positive regard from others, which creates a positive attitude to$/ard oneself A

Motivation

355
l)iJ

Chapte 8

critical element is receiving uncondition1.l positiue regard, or attitudes of wofihiness and acceptance with no strings attached. Unconditional positive regard is what most parents feel for their childen. Parents value or accept ("prize") their children tl the time, even though they do not value or accept all of their childen's behaviors. People who experience unconditional positiye regard believe they are valued, even when their actions disappoint others. The actualizing tendency grows because people accept their own experiences, and their perceptions of themselves are consistent with the feedback they receive. Poblems occur when people experience conditiona.l regard, or regard contingent on certain actions. People act in accordance wilh these conditions of worth when they seek or avod experiences that they believe are more or less worthy of regard, Conditional regard creates tension because people feel accepted and valued only when they behave appropfiately. To protect themselves, people qray selectively perceive or distort experiences or block out awareness.
Rogers and Edvclon Rogers (1969; Rogers & Frieberg, 1994) discussed education in his

book Freed.om to Lea.rn. Mearl].r'gful, expeientil learning has relevance lo the whole person, has personal involvemeflt (involves learners' cognitons and feelings), is selfinitiated (impetus for learning comes from within), is pervasive (affec learners' behavior, attitudes, and personality), and is evaluated by the leamer (according to whether it is meetng needs or leading to goals). Meaningful learning contrasts v''ith meaningless learning, which does not lead to learners being invested in their learning, is initiated by others, does not affect diverse aspects of learners, and is not evaluated by learners according to whether it is satisfying their needs. Rogers (1969) believed people have a natural potentility for learning and are eager
to learn.

I become very irrilated with the notion that students mus! be "molivated." The young human being is intrinsically motivated to a high degree. Maty elemenls of his envionmenL constiLute challenges for him. He is curious, eager lo discover, eager to know, eager to solve problems.
A sad part of most education is that by the time the child has spenl a numbe of years this intrinsic motivation is pretty well dampened. (p. 131)

it

school

it will enhance self-citicism and pafcipation combined with personally, Leaming requires active them learnRogers felt that learning is important. self-evaluation by learnere and the belief that ing that can be taught to others was oflittle value. Rather than imparting learning, the prias acilitators who establish a classroom climate oriented mary job of teachers is to ^cl towrd significant leaming and help students clarify their gols. Facilitators a(ange resources so that learning can occuf and, because they are resources, share thef feelings and thoughts wilh students. Instead of spending a lot of time wrting lesson plans, facilitators should provide resouces for students to use to meef their needs. Indj.vidual contracts are preferable to lockstep sequences in which ll students work on the sme matedl at the sme time. Crtracts allow students considerable freedom (i.e., self-regulation) in deciding on goals and timelines. Freedom itself should not be imoosed: students who want more teachel
Students perceive meaningful learning as relevant because they believe

ing humanistic principles. Rogers's theory has seen wide psychotherapeutic application. The focus on helping people strive for challenges nd maximize their potentirs important for motivtion and leaming. The theory is developed only in general terms and th meanings of seveal con_ stfucts are unclear. Additionally, how one might assist students to deveop self_regard is not clear Still, the theory offers teachers many good pinciples to use to enhnce leafner motivation. Many ofthe ideas lhat Rogers discussed ae found in othe theories discussed in this and other chptes of this text.

direction should receive it. Rogers advocated greater use of inquiry, simulaions, and self-evaluation as ways to provide fteedom. Application g.2 offers suggestions for apply_

MODEI OF MOTIVATED TEARNING

The. central thesis of this chpter is that motivation is intimately linked v,,ith learning, Motivation and learning can affect one another, students, motivaiion can influence wht and how they learn. ln tum, as students leam and perceive that they re becoming more skillful, they are motivated to continue to leam. This close connection of motivation and leaming is portrayed in Table g.1 (Schunk et

al,, 2008; Schunk, 1995). The model is generic and is-noii.rt..r"d to r.fl..t;;i;;; th.;-, retical perspective. It is a cognitiye model because it views motvation arising largely from thoughts and beliefs. The model portrays three phases: petask, during tast , portt"rt . fni" rs a convenient way to think about the changing role of motivation during learning.

Motivtion

357

Chapte u

Toble 8.1

Model of molivoted leorning

Pretask
Goas Expectations

During Task
lnstructional variabes Teacher Feedback Materials Equpment Contextual varables Peers Environment
Persona varables

Posttask
Attrbutons Goals Expectatons Afiects Values Needs
Socal support

Self-etficacy Outcome
Values Affects Needs Socal support

and equipment. Although these variables typically ae viewed as infuencing learning, they also affect motivatior. Foi instance, t.".., f..J".t *i1r.o,.,."g. or discourage; inst-uction can clarif, or confuse; mateials can provide for many of few successes. contextual uariabres include sociar and envionmental .;;;..r. _uactors such s rocation, time of day, distractions, tempetature, o.rgoiarg ..ra.rtr, .rrd the like can enhance or-retard morivrion fo learning. Ma"y inv.stigat, n". *.i.r, Irow highly com_ petitive conditions can affecr motiyaio (Ame-s, "U"u, tlOza; Ueece,-iirl1, 2002). Students,so_ cial comparisons oI abiliry wirh peers directly link ro motivaon yersonal uariables include tho.se associated with learning. such as knov,leclge con_ struction nd skilr acquisition, serf-reguration variabres, and ovationar indexes (e.g., choice of actvitie.s, effort, persistence). Students, percep,i.", *.ll they are learn_ ing and of the effects of instrucrional, contextual, "i"* a"Jp.r""""i"rn"o.res infruence motivation fof continued learning.

Knowledge construction Skll acquiston Self-regulation Choice of activties Effort Persistence

Posttosk
Posttask denotes the time when thetask is completed, as wen as periods of serf-eflection when students pause duing re rask and rinr<'about','r*o rlirn. ,ame vaabres impofrant prior to t.sk engagement-are critical during self-reflection with the addition of att_ rbutions, o peceived causes of outcomes. All oi these variables, in cFclical fashion, af_ fect future motiyation and learnng. Students who believe tfrai ttr.y e progressing toward their leaming goals and who mke positi.,,e ario.,,io.r'iJ, are apt to sus_ tain their self-efficacy for learning, outcome ".r".."s expectalions, perceived value, and positive emotional climate. Factors associated with instruction, i.;.n* t.edback, provide ""1'^ progress and our"o-. ."p..ii"i". n rr, ,,r,r."rs who expecr to ::t,::l co well and l?:1.:soal receive positive outcomes from learning are apt to be movated to continue to leam, assuming they believe they are making prg.ers arrd can continue to do so by using effective learni ng stralegies.

Prelosk
Several vaiables inJluence students' incoming motivation fol lealning Students enter tasks with various goals, such as to learn the material, perform well, finish first, and so on, Not all goals are academic. -{s \entzel (1992, 1996) lnas shown, students have social goals that can integrate with their academic ones. Duing a group activity, Matt may want ro learn lhe material but also become friends with Amy. Students enter with various erpectatiotxs. As discussed n Chapter 4, expeclations my

involve capabilities for learning (self-effrcac and perceplions of the consequences of leardng (outcome expectations). Sn.rdents have differing perceptions of tt'e ualue, or per
ceived importance, of learning. !igfield and Eccles (1992) distinguished different values, vhich ae explained later Students diffe in theil .fects associated wilh learning. They may be excited, anxious, or feel no prticular emotion. These affects may rcIafe closely to students' zeedq which some theories postulate to be important. Finally, we expect that the social support in students'lives will Yary. SocilL supporl includes the types of ssistance available at school from teachers and peers, as well as help and encouragemen[ from parents and signiflcant others in students' lives. Lealning often requires that others provide time, money, effort, transportation, and so fonh

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
The study of achievement motivation is central to eduction ancl learning. Acljieement to srriving ro be competenr in effortful acrivities (Elliot :orio*i:?::F : & Church, 1997). Muay (1938) identified the achievementmotive, along vith other physiological and psy_ to personality developrient. lt"i_r"to" to act presumably *". ],.jr:it,1..0" :ontributing esults becuse of a desire to satis$r needs, over thi years achievement motiyation has ---been heavily researched, with results that bea on leain. Murray (1936) devised the They()tlc Aerception Fest (TA7) to study personlity is,a-projective rechnique in wtrich an indi\,iduat views a series of am_ liLllii*_ Dlguous

During Tosk
Instruclional, contextual (social/environmental), and personal variables come into play during learning. Inslactional uarables include teachers, forms of feedback, materials,

pictures and for each makes up a story or answers a seies of queslions. and his colleagues adapted the fer,o ,rr.."-iie Y:a]:tJ3"d. achie.,ement morive (McClelland, Atkinson, Clak, & Loweil, 1953), Reseache. o_.o .""porraents pictures of individuals in unclear situations and asked q".",io.r, "t ,,!hat ,u.i is happening?,, "tl(/hat led up to rhis situation?', ,,V'hat is wanted?,, ;lfrri *li "J frappen?,, They scored responses according to various citeria and ""J categoized participants on strength of

tl. H

Motivation
360

Chapter 8

achievement motive. Although many experimental studies have employed the TAI, it suffers from problems, including low reliability and low correlation with other achievement measures. To address these problems, researches haye devised other measures of achieyement motivation (Weiner, 1992), The next section discusses the historical foundations of achievement motivation theorv. followed by contemporary perspectives.

Expectoncy-Volue Theory
Joh Atkiruon (1957; Atkinson & Birch,
1974, L978) deveoped

1978; Atkinson & Feathe, 1966; Atkinson & Raynor, eryecta.ncJ)-ua.lue tbeory of a.chieuement motiaa.tion. The basic

idea of this and other expectancy-value theories is that behayior depends on one's e ecta.ncy of a particular outcome (q,9., goal, reinforcer) as a result of perform^lf^ining ing given behaviors and on how much one ua.lues tl'l outcome. People judge the likelihood of attaining various outcomes. They are not motivated to attempt te impossible, so
they clo not pursue outcomes perceived as unattirable, Even a positve outcome expecttion does not produce action if the outcome is not valued. ,A.n attractive outcome, coupled with the belief that it is attinable, motivates people to act. Atkinson postulated that achievement behaviors represent a conflict between approach (bope for success) an avoidance ear offa.ilure) tendencies. Achievement actions carry with ttrem the possibilities of success and failure. Key concepts are as follows: the tendenq) to aroa.ch an achieuernent-related goal (Tr), the tend.ency to auoid. failure (7"1, lhe resulta.nt acbieuem.ent motiuation (T. 4 is a function of the nxotie to suc^d ceed. (M), fhe subjectiue robability of success (P), and the incentiue ualue of success (I):

,ffi

#
ffi
ffi ffi
tr
F
1
l.

Ts=

Msx Psx

ls

Atkinson believed thal Ms (a.cbieuement motiuLltion) is a stable disposition, or chatacleristic trait of the individual, to strire for success, Pr (the individual's estimate of how likely gol ttinment is) is inversely related to .s: Individuals have geater incentiye to work hard at diffrcult tasks than at easy tasks. Greater pride is experienced in accom-

plishing diffi cult tasks. ln similar fashion, the tendency to auoid failure (Tal is a multiplicative function of the motiue 10 a.aoid. failure (M, lhe roba.bility olfLzilure (P), the inuerse otbe in^nd centiue ualue offailure (- Ill
Tol = MaJ.

The resultant abieement motiu.ttion

x P x (- I) (T) is represenled
To

as

follows:

To: Tr-

Notice that simply having a high hope for success does not guarantee achievement behavior because the strength of the motive to avoid filure must be considered. The best way lo promote achievement behavior is to combine a strong hope for success with a low fear of failure (epplcation 8.3).

This model predicts that students high in resultant achievement motivation will
choose tasks of intermediate difficu; that is, those they believe are atlainable and will produce a sense of accomplishment. These students should avod difcult tasks fowhich

successtul accomplishment is unlikely, as well as easy tasks fo whrcn success, althou{h guaranteed, produces little satisfaction. Students lo* _ ,.rrfrr,'. motrvatiol ae more apt to select either easy o difficult ".ruevemen tasks To accomplish the former, sfudents have to expend little effofi to succeed. Although accompfr"frrrrg',1r. f"u.r reems.nlikely, students have an excuse fo fairrre-the task is r" difn.iil-t'hJ;;one can s.cceed ar ir, This excuse gives these students a reason for not expendi"C'.f'o.rl "."rr. even great cl. lo is unikely Io produce .u,.cess.

362
Motivation
36L

Chprei 8

natue of familial influen

mated the strength of the achieyement monve. Classical achieveme motivation theory has generated much eseach, One problem with a global achievement motiye is that it rarely manifests itself uniforrny across ifferent achievement domains. students fypicarly show greater motiytion to peform wen in some content areas than in others. Because the achievement motive yades with the domain, how well such a global tmit predicts achievement behavior in specifrc situations is questionable, Some theorists (Elliot & Church, 7997;Elltot &Harackiewicz, 1996) have proosed an inte_ gration of classical theory with goal theory; the lattef is discussecl later in his chapter

Research on task difficulty preference as a ftlnction of level of achievement motiva_ tion has yielded conflicting results (Cooper, 1993; Ray,I9g2).In srudies of rask diffrculry by Kuhl and Blankenship Q979a, 1979b), individuals repearedly chose tasks, These researches assumed thal fear of failure would be reduced following task success, so they predicted the tendency to choose easy tasks would diminish over time. They expecte this change to be most appafent among subjects for whom Uo > Mr. Kuhl and Blankenship found a shift towad more difficult tasks for participant s1nwhom Mo> Mr, as well as for those in whom M, ) Mo Researchers found no support for the notin thaf this tendency would be greater in the ormer participants. These findings make sense r/hen inlerpreted differently. Repeated success builds perceptions of competence (self-efca. people then are more likely to choose dfficult tasks because they feel capable of accomplishing them. ln short, people choose to work on easy or difficult tasks for many reasons, and Atkinson,s theory may nal/e overesti_

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Contemporory Model of Achievemenl Motvofion The classical view of achievem,

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Fomiliol lnfluences
It is plausible tht achievement motivation depends strongly on factors in childen,s homes. An eady investigtion studied parents, interactions with their sons (Rosen & D,Andrade, 1959). childen were given tasks, and parents could interact in any fashion, paents of boys with high achievement molivation interacted more, gave moe rewards and punishmenl, and held higher expectations for their children than parents of boys with low achievement motir.ation. The autlos concluded that parental pressue to perfom well is a more impor_ tant influence on achievement motivation than parental desire for child independence. Other research, however, shows thal family influences are not automatlc. or examDle. Stipek and Ryan (7997) fqund that whereas economically disadvantaged preschoo'lers scored lower than advantaged children or cognitive measures, researches found virtualry no differences between these groups on motivation measures. ch dren's achievement motiyation suffers when pents show little involvement in childen,s academics (Ratelle. Guay, Larose, & Sencal, 2OO4). Children who form insecure attachmen with rhejr par_ ents are at greater risk for developing perfectionism (Neumeister & Finch. 2006), A.lthough families can influence childen's motivation, attempts to identi/ parental behviors that encourage achievement sivings are complicated bicause parents display many behaviors with their children. Derermining which behavios ae most influential ii difficult. Thus, parents may encourge their children to perfom well, convey high ex_ pectations, give rewards and punishments, respond with positive affect (wamth. prmis_ siveness), and encourage independence. These behaviors also ae displayed by tachers and other significant persons in a child,s life, which complicates determining rhe precise

rheory ro incorFigure 8.J shows the .orr._Tlo-r1ry model lEccles, 1,983, 2005; \Wjgfield, vigfreld, Byrnes, & Eccles. zo, igfreli 1994; a lcci*);;;;:;d;r:,i.02; rigfield, Eccles, 2oo4; \igfield, Tonts, ronfts, & & r<lada, oopl rii ."j;";.;,." only irs fetures most germane to te present discussion,will be descbe ...lirr.r.rr.O ..ades rerred

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Motvation

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366

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Morivarion

365

individuals must feel able aod demonstrate thal ability oflen to othes The key is to be perceived as able by oneself and by others. One means of avoiding failue is to pursue easy goals that guarntee success. Another means is to cheat, although cheating is problematic. Shannon might copy answers from Yvonne, but if Yvonne does poorly, then Shannon will too. Shannon also might get caught copying answers by her teacher. Another way to avoid failure is to escape from a negative siluation. Studen who belieYe they will fail a course are apt to drop it; those who are failing several courses may quit school. Strangely, students can avoid the perception of low ability through deliberare failure One can pursue a difficult goal, which increases the likelihood of failure (Covington, 1984). Setting high aspirations is valued, and failing to ttain them does not automalically imply low ability. A related tactic is to blame failure on low effort: One could have succeeded if circumsnces had allowed one to expend greater effof. Kay cannot be faulted for failing an exam for which she did not properly study, especially if she had a job and
had inadequate study time.

Tosk ond Ego lnvolvement

Achievement motivation theoies have shifted their focus away from generat achievement motives ro rask-specific beliefs. rrer.i" *u" g"i .'loii,, ou.""r.d, which srresses the roles of goars, conceorions "fr"pt..,
of abiri,v,
ris_

-,i""ri'Jtl"Jr t.r section we discuss task and eg,"""l*_..rr,*hii;".;'i ".t.".ment contexrs, tems rhat derive largtir";*"rt i" achievemenr morivao." ,r..P.i?lTltivational par T,sk inuoluement s[resses lernng as goat, a f""t_in.ro;eJJtud..rt, fo.u" on task de_ nands such as solving the problem, brl-.id,h;;q;,J",
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Expending effort caries risk, High effort that produces success maintains the perception of ability, but high effort that tesults in failure implies that one has low ability. Low effoft lso caries risk because teachers foutinely stress effoft and cliticize students fof not expending effort ($l'einer & Kukla, 1970). Effort is a "double-edged sword" (Covington &

j,l:?#.:ffi " -.urt" .raskandesoi;"r,.-.i :i:.jr"i;,*.":?"'j,L::a;; Nicholls, 1984, 1987). Eso-involvea rtua.nt, p.r..i,.atd ;; Abitity is a relativery " i""ry ""sessed by comparir""" *,* :",il:i?i: XS "#:iyr. of effort is limitedj effoft c; i-p1o.," perfcrrnan.. Jy r. ,. lr-,r ser by abiliry. success
dents pefceive ability as close in mca ig to rearning, such thafmore effoft can aise ability. studenrs feel more comperenr if rhey "p."a gi."?.

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Omelich, 1979). Excuses can help students maintain the perception of ability; for example, "I would have done bette had I been able to study more," "I didn't work hard enough" lwhen in fct the student worked very hard, or "I was unluc-I studied the
wrong material." Self-worth theory stesses percptions of abiliry as the primary influences on motiYation. Research shos/s lhat perceived ability bears a strong positiYe relationship to students' expectations for success, motivation, and chievement (Eccles & Wigfleld, 1985; 'Wigfield et al., 2009). That effect, however, seems most pronounced in r/estern societies' Cross-cultual research shows that effort is more highly valued s a contuibutor to success among students from China and Japan than it is among students from the United States (Schunk et al.. 2008). Another problem with self-worth theory is that perceived ability is only one of many influences on motivation. Self-worth pfedictions depend somewht on students' developmental levels. Older students perceiYe bility to be a more impofiant influence on achieyement than younger students (Harari & Covington, 1981; Schunk et al., 2008). Young children do not cleady differentiate belween effof and abilrty (Nicholls, 1978, 797. At approximately ge 8, they begin to distinguish the concepts and rcalize lh^l their performances do not necessarily reflect theh abilities, \vith development, students increasingly value ability while somewhat devaluing effort (Harari & covington, 1981) In the opening scenario, Matt is a hard worker, and effort does not yet seem to imply lower ability to him. Teachers and adolescents will wok at cross-purposes if teachers stress working harder while adolescents (believing tht hard work implies low ability) attempt to shy away from expending effofl. A mature conception eventually emerges in which successes are atfibuted to a combination of ability and effofi. Despite these limitations, self-worth theory captures the alltoo-common preoccupation with bilily and its negative
consequences.

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o-n prog,e"s volvement also is enhanced by cooperative leaming conjfio;s i;; r..u*ry -orr o. "r,j. .r,r,"se predictions, o-., uriii",LrJ:. placed grearer emphasis c;n aiis a determiant of u,."o', i compehtive context. ^s (t.e., in noncomperirive coop.rativ. oriviual ,trutions. Much reandsocial facro,, un ,*..,o,_otivationat involvemenr (Ames, 1987, t992a; Brophy, 1!8J; Meece, 1991, ,oz, ,i,i"u ?i]1iirll

;,.; Jiiiiil:ifl.::,':3'f *:r.s:;u:. '-'i::f ,fj:,of.i; ff;ij1'.":,r"r, ."-. iv." ivi've troubre rearning it;,j, rhei,
lent
(e s,,

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ATTRIBUTION THEORY

Aftribution theory has been widely applied to the study of motivation (craham & tilliams, 2009; schunk et al 2oog) Attributiorzs , are perceived causes of ourcomes . Aftribution tbeory explarns how people view the causes of treir behavios ,rrthor. of others (Veinet, 7985,7992,2000,
2004). The theory assumes that people are inclined to seek information to

Morivatior

367

368

chapter

form attributions. The process of assigning causes is presumably govemed by rules, and much attributional reseach has addessed how des ae used. Ffom a motivational per
spective, attributions are important because rhey influence beliefs, emotions, and behaviors.

Heider postulated rhat people attibute causes to inteml o external factors. He re_ fered to these factos, respectively, s Lhe effectiue pe.,sonal force a,'d the effectiue mu_
ronmenta,l force, as follows:

Before discussing attributions in achievement settings, some relevant background material will be described . F.otter's locus of conrol arld }leidel' s na.iue a.nalysis of action incorporate important attributional concepts.

Outcome

personal force + environmental force

Iocus of Control
A cenal tenet of most cognitive motivation theories s thal people seek to cootrol impoant aspects of their lives (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006). This tenet reflects the idea of
locus o control, or a generalized expectancy concening whether responses influence the attairment of outcomes such as successes and reqards (Rotter, 1966). People believe that outcomes occur independently of how they behave (externa.l locus of controD or lht outcomes are highly contirgent on their lehavlor (internal bcus o control). Other investigators, however, have noted that locus of contfol may vary depending on the situation (Phares, 7976). It is not unusual to find students who generally believe they have little control over academic successes nd failures but also believe they can exert much control in a prticular class becuse the teacher and peers are helpful and because they like the conent. Locus of control is important n achievement contexts becuse expectancy beliefs are hypothesized to ffect behavior. Students who beleve they have control over their successes and failures should be more inclined to engage in academic tasks, expend effort, and persist than students who believe thei behaviors have little impact on outcomes. In turn, effoft and persisfence promote achieyement (Lefcou,1976; Pltarcs, 7976). Regardless of whether locus of control is a genefal disposition of is situtionally specfiq it reflects oulcorne eq)eta.tioru (beliefs about the a,nticpaed outcomes of one's actions; Chapter 4). Outcome expectations fe importnt deteminants of achievement behaviors, but they alone are insufficient (Bandura, 1982b, 7997). Students may not work on tasks because
.!

Interna,l causes are within the individual: needs, wishes, emotions, abilties, intentions, and eflort. 'lhe personal force ts allocated to two factors: jro uer a d motiuaton. Powe efes to abililies and motivation (trying) to intenlion and exertion:
Outcome

try1ng

+ powef + envirorutent

Collectively, power and environment constitute the can factor, which, combined witl\ the try facto\ is used to explain outcomes. One,s power (or ability) reflects the en_ v''onment Nhether Beh can swim across a rake depens on Beth,s swimning ability rerative ro the forces of the lake (current, widrh, nd temperature). Similarly, asn,s success o failue on a test depends on his ability reltive to the difficulty of th test, along with his intentions and effons in studying. Assuming thar b'ity is sufficient to conquer"envionmental forces, then trying (effort) affects outcomes. Although Heider sketched a framev'ork for how people viev/ significant events in their lives, this framework provided esearchers with few empirica[y testable hypotheses. Investigarors subsequenrly clarifled his ideas and conductedfiriuuiro""t ,"r., Lrtirrg
refined hypotheses,

Atribution Theory of Achievemenf

In achievement settings, the seach fo causes elicits the following types of questions: "\(4ty did I do well (poo on my social studies tesr?,, and ,,why did t get an aio) in bi ology. ?" 4 series of studies by Weiner and his colleagues providd re mpncal base for 9:l?!t"g an anriburion rheory of achievement (leinei 7979, 19g5, 4tZ, 2OOO, 2004, 2005; Weiner et al., 1971; !eine, Graham, Taylor, a Ueyer, 19g; \Ieiner & Kukla, 1970),

rey do not expect competent performances to produce favofable tesults (negatiye outcome

expectation), as might happen if they believe the teacher dislikes them and will not reward tem no matter how well they do. Positive outcome expecttions do not guarantee high motivtion; students may beieve that hard wok will produce a high grade, but they will not work hard if they doubt their capability to put forth the effort (low self-efcary). These points notwithstanding, self-efficary and outcome expectations usually are related (Baodura, 1986, 1997). Students who believe they ae capabLe of performing well (high self-effrcacy) expect positive fections from their teachers following successful perfotmances (positive outcome expectation). Outcomes, in tum, validte self-effrcacy because they convey that one is capable of succeeding (Schunk & Pajares, 2005, 2009).

This section discusses those aspects of \einer,s theory ielevant to motlyated learning.

ability ("1'm good in social studies") and effort (,,I studied hard foi tne tesr,), somes,hat to task diffrculry ("The test wsn,t too hard,,), and very little to luck (,,1 guessed right on a couple of questions"; Table 8.2).
W'einer et al. (797I) did not imply rht ability, effort, rask difculry, and luck are the only attdbutions students use to explain thejr successes and failures, but rather that they are commonly given by students as causes of achievement outcomes. subsequent research identied other attributions, such as othe people (teaches, studen), mood, fatigue, illne-ss, personality, and physical appearance (Frieze, 19g0; Frieze, Fncis, & Hanusa, 19g3), Of the four attibutions identified by \eine et 1. e971), luck gets relatively less emphasis,

Ca-usal Faclorc, Guided by Heider,s work, W.einer et al. (1971) postutaced that studentJ at_ tribute their academic successes and failures laryely to abih, effott, task difficr.rlty, and luck, These authors assumed that these factors were given general weights, ancl that for any grven outcome one or two factors would be judged as primarily responsible. For example, if Kara receiyed n A on social shrdies test, she might aft;ibu it mostly !o

NoiVe Anolysis of Acfion

The origin of attribution theory generally is ascribed to Heider (1958), /ho refeed to his theory as a na,iue analys o action. Naue me,ns that the average individual is unawre ofthe objective determinants ofbehavior, Heider's theory examines what ordinary people belieye are the causes of important events in theh lives.

Chapre 8

Motivtion

369

Toble 8.2 SompLe otirbulions for grode on molhemotcs exor

Grade
Hgh

Attributon
Ability
Effort Ability + Etfort Task ease
LUCK

Example
I'm good in math.

studied hard for the exam. l'm good in math, and I studed hard for the exam'
I

It

was an easy test. was lucky: I studied the right material lor the exam'

Low

Ability
Etfort Ablity + Effort Task diffculty
LUCX

l'm no good in math.

I ddn't study hard enough.

attributional intervention progfar.1s. In foming attributions, people use situational cues, the meanings of which they have . learned via prior expeiences (Schunl<, 1994; \V.einer et al., 1971). Siient cues for abitity attributions are success altained easily or eady in lhe course of learning, as well as many successes. With motor skills, an important effolt cue is physical exertion. On cognitiye tasks, effort attributions are credible when we expend .*.rLl .ffort or persisr for rong time to succeed. Task difficulty cues include task features; for example, eading passagei with fewer or easier y/ords indicate easier tasks than those with more wods or more clifficult words. Task difficulty arso is judged from sociar norms. If everyone in crass tails a test, failure is moe likely to be attdbuted to high task difficulty; if evryone makes an A, then success may be attibuted to task ease. A prominent cue for luck is random out_ comes; how good students are (ability) o how hard they work (effort) has no obvious connectior to how well they do

rhe usefulness of including both immediate and typicar effon; the issue ofwhethe an ex ternal factor can be contollable), but it has seved as a famewok to guide research ancl

l'm no good in math, and I didn't study hard enough' The test was impossible; nobody could have done well' exam' I was unlucky; I studied the wrong material for the

et al (1983) although it is important in some situations (e.g., games of chance) Frieze pttems. Exms tend showe that task conditions are associated with pafticular attributional effort ln the to generate effort attributions, whereas art projects are ascribed to ability and low ability to opning vignette, we might speculate that Margaret attributes her difftculties
and Matt attributes his successes to high effort

the individual, an

work dilinal and relatively stable Effort is internal but unstable; one can alternatively task because stable relatively and externl is gently and lackadaisically. Task difficulty and unstableexternal luck is moment; to o.rditio.t, do not vary much from moment one can be lucky one moment and unluc the next
(imindividual (Table 8 3). Although effort is generally viewed as intemal and unstable may be People to exist (typical also seems effort) mediate effort), a. general effort lactor (to infactors mood conrollable; to be typically lazy o,r hltdworking. Effort is considered

(1958) and totter (196)' weiner et Causol Dimensons. Dras/ing on the work of Heider (a) internal or exlernal to two dimensions: along al. (1977) originally represented causes (b) elatively stable or unstable ove time (Table 8 3) Ability is inter-

leine(197'9)addedathirdcausaldimension:contfollableoruncontrollablebythe

.tua. itlgu ana

(e g ness) are not. The classification in Table 8 3 has some problems '

Tqble 8.3 Wener's mode of cousol oiTribution.

Allrbvlional Consequences. Attibutions affect expectations for sutrsequent successes, achievement behaviors, and emotional reactions (Graham &.Williams, 2i,}9;.weine:.,I97g, 7985' 7992',2000) The stctbiliry dimension is thought to influence exect(ncy of success. Assuming tht tsk conditions remin much the same, attributions of success ro stable causes (high ability, low task difficurty) should resurt in higher expectations of futue success than attributions to unstable causes (immediate effort, luck). Students may be uncer_ tain vr'hether they can sustain the effort needed to succeed o whether they will be luc in the future. Failure ascibed to lovr' biliry or high task difficulty is apt to esurt in lower expectations for futue success than failure attributed to insufflcient effot or bad ruck, students may believe that increased effort wil produce more favorabre outcomet or that their luck may change in Lhe future. The locus dimension is hypothesized to influence affectiue reactions. One exper ences grete pride (shame) after succeeding (failing) when outcomes are attribured to in_ temal causes rather than to extemal ones. Studenti experience greater ptide in their accomplishments when they believe they succeecled on thei own (ability, effort) than when they believe extetnal factors were responsible (teacher assistance, easy task). The controllability dimension has divese effects (Weiner, 1979). Feelinqs of control seem [o promote choosing to engage in academic tasks, effort and persisfene at difncult tsks, nd achievemnt (Bndura, Dweck & Bempechat, 1!gJ; Monty & perlmuter, _19g6; 1987; Schunk & Zimmerni^n,2006). Srudents who beleve they have little control over academic. oulcomes hold low expectations fo success and display low motivation lo suc. ceed (Licht & Kistner, 1986). Research shows that st,dent" *iro fairures to row "nribute abilily-wh.ich is not controllable-demonstate lower classroom engagemenr up to yer ater (Glsgow, Dornbusch, Troyer, Steinberg, & Ritter, 1997).

lnternal
Unstable
Controllable Uncontrollable Typical

External Unstable

effort

lmmediate

effort

lndvdwl Direrences. some reseach indicates that a*ributions may vary s a runction of gender and ethnic background (Graham &'Williams, 2009). With respect to gender, a .; common finding (although there ae exceptions) is tht in subjects ,rr.t : ,, and science, gids tend to hold lower expectancies fo success than do". -^"th"-"ri.* boys (Bong
&

Teacher bias Task diffculty

Help from others

LUCK

Ablty

Mood

Motivation
Chapter 8

Clark, 7999; Meece, 2O02; Meece & Courtney, 7992; Meece, Parsons, Kaczala, Goff, & Fntterman, 7982). Maryaret exemplifies this in the opening classroom scenario !ht is not clear is whether this difference is mediated by different attributions, as might be predicted by attributional theories. Some studies have found lhat women are more likely lo attibute success to external causes (e.g., good luck, low task difficulty) or unstable caus es (effot) and attribute failure to intenal causes (low ability; Eccles, 1983; W'olleat, Pedo, Becker, & Fennema, 1980); howeYe! othe research has not yielded differences (Diener & Dvr'eck, 1978; Dweck & Re pccl,7973). Eccles (1983) noted the difficulties of attempting to make sense of this esearch because of differences in participants, instruments, and
rnethodologies
.

Schunk, 2001, 2002; Pintrich, 2000a, 2000b, 200J; Schunk, 1995; Schunk & pajares, 2005, 2009; Schunk & Zimmerma'J 2006). In social cognitive theory, goak and execttions arc important leaming mechanisms. Motivtion is goal directed behavior instigared and sus tained by people's expectations concerning the anticipated outcomes of their actions an(l lheir self-efficacy for performing those actions (Bandura, 1996, 1991,1997). Atrdbutions and other cognitions (e.g., values, perceived similarity) influence motivation throuqh tleif effects on goals and expectatons.

::

#
H:
l$:l

With respect to ethnic differences, some early research suggested that African Americn students used infomation about effort less often and less systematically than did Anglo American students and were mofe likely to use external attliLrutions and hold an external locus of control (Friend & Neale, 1972; Ifeiner & Peter, 1973). G:zh:aj,i. (7991' 1994) eexamined these and other findings and concluded that although many studies show gfeatef externality among Africn Ameican students because esearches often did not contfol fof social class, Affican Americn students /efe oveffepfesented in lowel soc'hen the effect of social class is controlled, researchers find ioeconomic backgrounds. few, if any, ethnic differences (Graham, L994; Pajates & Schunk, 2001), and some reseach has shovn that A.frican American students place greater emphasis on low effot as a cause of failue-a more adaPtive attributional pattern (Graham & Long, 1986; Hall,
Howe, Merkel, & Lederman, 1986). lan Laar (2000) found a tendency tos'ard external attribulions in African American college students; however, these students also held high expectncies fol success and felt that their effofts might not be propedy rewarded (i.e., negative outcome expectations) This seeming paradox of high success expectancies amidst lower achievement outcomes has been reported by others (Graham & Hudley, 2005). In summary, research investigating ethnic differences in achieYement beliefs has not yielded reliable differences (Graham &Taylot,2OOZ), ar\d these inconsistent esults warrant fuher reseach before conclusions are drawn. Attribution theory has had a tremendous impct on motivation theory, research, and pactice. To ensure an optimal level of motivation, students need to make facilitative ttributions concerning the outcomes of achievement behviors Dysfunctional judgments about bilities, the importance of effot and stralegies, and the ole of significant others can lead to low levels of motivation and leaming Social cognitive theory rovides another important cognitive perspective on motivation, and much of Chapter 4 is lelevant to motivtion as well as to learning. The next sec-

Gools ond Expectolions

nisms (Bndura, 1.977b,1.986, 1991; Schunk & Ermer, 2000; Schunk & pajares, 2009; formance creates an inducement for change. s people work toward goals, they notc their progress and sustain theif motivation. ln the opening classroom scene, Rosetta,s goal progress should build her self-efcacy and sustain her motivation. Gol setting wofks in coniunclion with outcome expectations and self_efficacy. People acr in ways they believe will help attain their goals. A sense of self-effrcacy for p,eltorming actions to accomplish goals is necessary for goals to affect behavior (Chaptel 4). One of Keri's goals is to help build Margaet,s self-efficacy. Malgarct may wanl teacher praise (goal) and belleve she will earn it if she volunteers corect answers (Dos. tive q6-. expectation). But she may not volunteer answers if she doubts her capabil_ ities to give correct ones (low self-effrcacy). Urlike conditioning theorists who belieye that reinforcement ls a response sengrfi_ ene (chapter 3), Bandura (1986) contended that eiforcement infoms people abouthc
Zlfir]:'erman, 2000). The peceived negative discrepanry befween a goal ancl current per
Goal setting and self-eualuation ofgoal rogress

co

stitute important morivarional mecha-

ffin

ffi,

likely outcomes of behavios and motivates them to behave in ways they breve will result in posilive consequences. people form expectations based on thei exeriences. but another impofiant source of motivation is social comparison. Sociol Comporison
social comarison is the process of comparing ourselves with others (!&eeler & suls, 2005). Festinger (1954) hypoesized rhat when objecrive srandads of behavior are un,

ffi;

ffi
+.'

tion DroYides a brief recp,

il
i::

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Aithough different perspectiYes on motivtion are relevant to lening, social cognitive theorists have difected considerble attention to the felation between motiYation and learning (Bandura, 1'986, 1997; Pajarcs, 1'996; Pajares & MiIlel L994, 1))J; Pajares &

his classmates.

servers re to models, the greater the probability that similar actions by observers are $o. cilly appropriate and will produce comparable results (Schunk, L9g7). I the openlng classroom scene, Jared uses social compaison as he compares his pfogress wittrhat o]

clea or unavailable, people eyaluate thei abilities and opinions through compadsofi with others. He also hoted that the most ccurate self-evaluations deriv from comparisons with those similar in the abiliry or chaacteristic being evaluated.. The more alike ob,

Model-observe similarity

in

..'

Rijlaarsdam, & van den Bergh, 2002). This effect on leaming may result largely fromiths motivational effects ofvicarious consequences, whch depend on self-efficacy. observing similar othes succeed raises observers' self-efficary and motivates them to try the task be: cause they are apt to believe that if othes can succeed, they vr'ill too. By compariH

competence can improve learning (Braaksrd,

374
Motivtion

Chapre

silnilar Derrick to Jason, Kerri hopes that Derrick's behavior will improve Observing which to succeed' the compelencies lack also they o bcleve people ;thers fail Jan lead especially influential irl <lissuacles them ftom atten.IPtng the behaYior' Similrity may be possess self-doubts situations in which indiviuals have experiencecl difficulties and r' r 4 8 well ApPlication about per{orming comparaD;ueloffiental star&s is important in social comparison The ability to use on experience and development of cogntive levels on higher tive information depends may not apply in making .o-pur"i.,. evaluations (vcroff, 1969) Feslinger's hypothesis elements in io af'utt Vor"ger than 5 or 6, because they tencl not Lo relate two or more ,,self" dominates rheir cognitive focus (Higgins, rhought an are egocentric in rhat the r98li chapter 6). ihis does not mean that young children cannor evaluate themselves increasing relative to others, only thl they may nol utomatically clo so Childen show

n., overt teyel (e.q.. amount of reward). Other social comparisons -lr."ot.r" ".,iJ.lli,,*Orr. ", involve hw one is similar to and different from others and competition based o. ."r. ,. L.r.r than others (e.g., Jared) with_ out involying self-evaluation (e g., ,m " tt g..r.rul, iut,s higher than the captain,,; Mosatche & Brasioner, t?9]) o"iry]o:= " comparisons shifr to concern for how to perform a-task (Ruble, r9aa> ri.rig;ade." ."g";: i;;;;. r;; isons----often to obtain cofect answers from peers rrotirg comparative infornation young children increases motivation to for pracicar reaso.ra. rra., ,dul, .ualuation ,,you of chil_ (e.g., can do beiter,,) -"...r".ro*n,s self-evaluarions moe 1r^'::libltTies rnan comparative infomarion. Comparing one's currr performances (temporSl comparison) and noting progress enhances,.lf-.ffi ;ilil f i motivation evelopmentally this capabiliry is preseT in young children, o*.u.l"T1-lo

,T.rr3""1:" _ ularly use this informarion to fom self_evaluatns :l.mentary school, and by fourth grade they reg_ olcc (Ruble, Boggiano, Ferdman, & Loebl, 198; Rubre, Feldman, & Boggiano, ,n;:.,.".. The meaning and funcrion of compar",i". iri._ri change with developmenr, especialty afrer child-"

interest in comparative

.",::^*::l

bJ;;^;i;;r:r.cnr

otren artended only to theilast outcm".

*:"".;;#i;:.'LiiJ:ff1,:|.J,T.#l,9'|:fi f"
.""t ui

.r,ira*,, tr,.,, p.i_ _zuch ", meff. Keri does this wirh Jared, Man, anj nor.u". --'- '" ln surnmary, with its emphasis on goatr, ."p.|tiorr", urrd related cognitive processes, social cognitive theory offers ,r..fJ p..rp.ti...

;'::,ffi :X-'1ff :i.:t**i:::;i, 1*t1.f ::i.J,h,.' isons, byio-ins

" "f rr,,i,.1 _.iir

.friirr, tr.qu..r,ty.-ployed social

;i3,,:., j1

;i;.;;

*J;,:i1::i".:?Hi#l
;iiJ;i

.o-. .r""-,,oo-

fi:1,:"r:JJ:.::ffJspecrive

on morivtion that uses sciat cognitive principtes as we as

.di;;;;;;:U:i:

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GOAI THEORY
Goal tbeory reptesents a relatively new_conception of human movation, although it in_

t"'li,i.'i$?liLili!19lqa'

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zooob;rintrich-

i:,i,:i,:#ii?1:y.'.ffiiii!li,'f,:::i';,jt:::f..*:i;
*'zl"ioo',reineq
1ee),

":H.::, ;.:'f :l'lLi,:'.f_.,:::i:":trT!#;J*:_:f j:;di*fr I t

plines, including social psychology, management, and clinical and health psychology. A

;:i:J:'l i."#l;i::::,._,.J,ffff*ff

:::5:11;4;ili;';;;d;i;:,ii"ffi::,5t5"ff
r":

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:,h1*ifH:ri

Muti\ ation Chapre 8

APPIICATION 8,5
So

Gool Orientotions
A central featue of goal theory is its emphasis on how different types of goals can in flr ence behavior in achievement situations (Anderman & w'oltes, 2006; Ellit, 2005; Mar,lrr & zusho, 2009; Pintrich, 2003). Goar orentations rnay be thought of as students, reas()rr, for eogaging in academic tasks (Anderman, austin, Johnson] 2002). Rsq5 h ,, ,. identified different orientarions (Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Elliot & Thrash, 2001). One distinction is between learning and performance goals (Dweck, I99I, 19,,t 2002; Dweck & Leggerr, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1!gg; Schun-k, 1996; Schunk & Swrrrtz 7993a,7993b). A Learning goal refers to what knowledge, behavior, skill, or strali,rlr students re to acquie; a perorrnance goal denoles whaitask students are to complt,i,l other types of goals mentioned in the literature that are conceptuany similar to u r.rr inggoas include mastery, task-inuolued, and task_focused goati (lmes & Archer, 19i.,, Butler, 1992; Meece, 1991; Nicholls, 19g4); synonyms for performance goals inch(li, ego-inuoluecr and abiry-focused go^rs. r^ tlre opening scenario, Matt seems to horrr learning goal orientation, whereas Jared is rnore perfoimance_goal oriented. _ Allhough these goal oientations at times my be related'(e.g., learning procluc.<,r faster p_erfomance), the imporrance of these goals fr achievement behavio. l.a,.ni,, stems from the effects they can have on leanes'beliefs ancl cognitive "i p.o."rr,:o
r

ci a.l Cognitu e Tb e orY

6e proteqst
"exampLe,.
I

9l

on shoitem,

t$

rea!:1.ro

a ctltii:u] cr{lfoue. ft . ttr"it uii i''3' the m4tg4a.t.R

selfieffic. instill .::: '1.. .

(Pintrich, 2000a) Learning goals focus students' attention on processes and strategies trrrrr help them acquire capabilities and improve their skills (Am.i, tggZu). The task focu n tr, tivates behvor and directs and sustains attention on task spects critical for learnirr' sh'dents who pursue a learning goal are apt to feel efficacious ior ataining ir and be ,r(r tivated to engage in task-appopriate activifies (e.g., expend effon, persist, and use eflc(,, tiye Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 1995). Self-effiacy is subsntiared as rhey wofli _strategies; on the task-and-assess their progress (wenrzel, 1992). perceived progress in skin acq.lsrtion and self-efcacy for continued rearning sustain motivatron and enhance sk rful per fomance (Schunk, 1996; Figure 8,4a). From a related perspective, students who puisrttr learning goals are apt to hold a growtb nndset, which eflcts the beltef that one qulJ. ities and abiliries can be developed through effort (Dweck, 2006). contrast, performance goals focus attention on completing tasks (Figure g,4h), - -In Such goals may not higlIight tle importnce of the processs and stategies undedylng task completion or raise self-efcacy for acquiring skills (Schunk & Swartz, I993a, i.B]1i,

'i$i"

serr-erncacy

alterecl and sih the role of their more concernecl with how goals are estblished and and directing behavin ;.s., tpecificiry, ifficulrv, and proximitv) trcltilF ;;*r in explaining goal-directed beior. Goal theory also conslders a wie aray of variables (e g comparisons with others) havior, sorne of which may not directly tnvolve goals ' set of infllrences on behavio Goal-setting theory typically considers a more lesicted

Fgure 8.4o Effecls of leorning gools on moiivotio.

-,---> rj::;n1""

o"n;;Tuo'

ii'J.1

------> Socal comparisons

-__>

Performance coal +
Figure 8.4b

Trsk

engalent

Eec-s or pe/ornorce goo,s on no-ivoriol.

Chaprer 8

Vlotivatio

As students

work on fasks, they may not compare their present and past pedomances to determine progress. Pedormance goals can lead to social comparisons of one's work with that of othrs to determine progress. Social comprisons can result in low perceptions of ability among studenls who experience difficulties, which adversely affect task motivation (Schunk, 1996). Studetts who pursue performance goals may hol<1 a fxed mindset, rcflecting the idea that one's qualities and abilities are limited and cnnot change very
much (Dweck, 2006). Research supports these ideas. I)uring science lessons, Nleece, Blumenfeld, and Hoyle (1988) found that students who emphasized task-mstery goals reported mole active cognitive engagement characterized by self-regulatory activities (e g., rviewing matedal not unde$tood). Intrinsic motivation (discussed later in this chapter) related positively to goals stressirg lea rning and understandi n8. Elliott and Dweck (1988) gave children feedback indicaling they had high or low ability, along with instructions highlighting a leaming goal of developing comPetence or a performance goal of appearilg competent, Learning-goal children sought to inclese competence by choosing challenging tasks and using problem-solYing strategies' performance-goal childen who received high-ability feedback persisted at the task but also avoided challenging tasks that might hve entailed public errors. Performance-goal children given low-ability feedback selected easief tasks, did not pefsist to oYelcome mistakes, and displayed negative affect. During reading comprehension instlxction, Schunk and Rice (1989) found that with childen deficient in reading skills, a process goal (e g , leaming to use a comprehension strategy) and a product (e.g., performance) goal (e g., answering questions) led to higher self-efficacy than did a general goal of working productively; however, the process and pfoduct conditions did not differ. schunk and Rice (1991) found that combining a pfocess goal with feedback on progress toward the goal of learning to use a strategy promoted self-efcacy and skill bettef than pfocess and product goal conditions. These two studies suggest thal s/ithout progress feedback, learning goals may not be moe effective ttran performance goals among students with reading problems Schunk and Swartz (7993a,1993b) provided children in regular and Sifted classes with a process goal of learning to use a pargraph-writing strtegy or a product (performance) goal of writing patagraphs Half of the process-goal students periodically received feedback on their progress in leaming the strategy, Schunk and Swrtz found that the process goal with feedback was the most effective and that the process goal with or without feedback led to higher achievement outcomes than did the product goal' Schunk (1996) provided fourth graders with instruction and practice on fractions, along with either a lerning goal (e g , learning how to solve problems) or a performance goal (e.g., solving problems). In the firsl study, half of the students in each go1 condition eyaluated their problem-solving capabilities. The learning goal with or without self-evaluation and the petformance goal with self-evaluation led to higher selfefficacy, skill, motivation, nd task o entation, than did the performance goal wilhout self-eyalution. In the second study, all students n ech Soal condition evaluated their progress in skill acquisition. The learning goal led to hiSher motivation and achievement outcomes than did the performance goal These findings were replicated with college studerts by Schunk nd Erlmer (1999), who found that self-efficacy for applying

-a .lassifyins mastery and performance goi, _i19.91)^l:t"r:O votve approach o avoidance and.hypothesized that gals ij_ql-.ll.i types of avoidance
Opt-ach
masrery goals re predicred to

Investigatofs have examined addltiona"l distinctions in the msrery-peftomance cri, il;J, 2001; Maehr & Zusho, 2009). Drawins on rhe

computer skills s/as enhanced when students received opportunify to evaluate thei leaning pfogress.

a process

(learning) goal ancl an

chotomy (Ellior, 2005; Ellior & Mccrego, 2001; Ellioi &

wok of carv

s.fr.*r'frqj]ir,"."rrr"L

and pinrrich

"d goals are expecte.d to fesult in negatve afect. Linnenbrink aacl Pintrich reported support for these predictions. the role Jf affeci rn goal choice and o.G yet th emodonl .o*.ql,..,.., r :-".1:.^ l: "::.r-ddr*:.9, -orivarion fo school lng are ?1 rmportant (Meyer o1o"l".r.ns play a key role in self-regulation (chapter g), because they provicle ._-9:1 ^ tfamework a within which lean
for success, grearer perceived contr over learnmg, and moe intrin_TT1^.Tf":tes s1c lnterest in learning (Covington, & Tumer, 2002).

,o _hether rhey in_ ".-irrg have diffe"rent to poriti.,,e affect, whereas borh

em;;;;i;

Meece,Tee4)sd.";;;;;i,:'i"fi .#,i,,f
7992; Eccles,

,.,i:?itrif

,'J"r,:';tr;

,oopr u task/leaninggoal orientation v/hen they believe they improve their abity rrough expending el, fot (Dweck & Leggett, tgBB; Meece, 1994;. ^can cirols a rller'e_t purdie, Harlie, and t amons Austmliu., ,tu;;; ,hit u .o"".ption of lern,ynd lng as understanding ".,1"p",,.r. vas related to greater us of learning strategres. In contrast to lhis rncrementl.conception of ability, students sith a fixed corr.ptori b.rieve that effort wjlr rmprove ability only to a ser limir. Effort becomes less mf";;;;., abiliry is fixed. goal pafterns also can motivare self_regulatory efforts (Zimmerman \ cteary, ^, 1.:T:* 2O09). providinq sudenrs with feedback ,,.."ri.rgl';r.;i.rg_goal orientarion cn enhance self-efflcacy, otivarion, self_regularory ,J.t.'.-.rr, more rhan feedback emphasizing perforance ".ri;i;:; s.t wanz, 1.993a, 7993b), i.rf" fl?ltue Achievement goals affect students, task persisience and""r. effot expenditure (Elliott & Dweck, 1988; stipek & Kowalski, 19g9). under pefor-^.r"._n.rro children with low perceived abiritv exoeience performnce "onditions, deteriorJon-wen they begin

79gZ; tliner & Connell, 19g4). Ha.ucl<rewicz, Barron, Tauer, Carter, and Elliot (2000) fountha;mastery goals predicred t"rg..erm inreresr m rhedir.iptin. aong r*o..r,., whereas pcr_ rormance goals predicted grades bette1l19..""

::!r:^t. i"i

_. -? lik.tfto

.i

:l*i:q??j

regardless of perceived abitiry .,d-"mong

l!:.;f:"1::!):^::y.:l:.1.*j;

pafte'ris nor round

:H:ffillj:::ostiyery

tr.,iJ,,,,",Ti,y rreamine) eoaro" i.iji*?'jli:11r::flj,.:t t':_r:; repored ro srudents, .in!.,r,"%,,iili

r.ia

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"".

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goars can arrect how students studv and what thev

:'ff :;ffi :,,}?:lli::fi ti:,:.:i3x",::lt*:"li:*;*;iffi stratesies as ehearsal and memorization (Gaham

ffiiii:.':.ltt;iirlocessins

;n..**i:i:.::,:^*";:-"1_l'4l,":.i:,,!,ffrJJ"#': i:1'*.,1*,.j;::1

a colani

Motivatior

Chaprc

Factors in the home and school can affecl the role of learning-goal orientation in self-regulation. Learning situations that emphasize self-improvement, discovery of new informalion, and usefulness of leaming material can promote a learning-goal orientation (Ames & Archer, 1988; Graham & Golan, 199L; Ja.gactski & Nicholls, 1984). In contrast, interpersonal competition, tesls of intellectual skills, and notmative evalua lions can enhance performance goals. Murdock and Andefmn (2006) found that performance goals related to cheating, whereas students who pursued mastery goals were less likely to cheat. In sum, evidence demonstrates tht a learning-gol orienttion facilitates achievement motiyation, beliefs, and skill acquisition better ttan a performance-goal orientation, although perfomance goals bear a relation to grdes. We now consider a mechanism that may exolain such effecrs.

sho$'ed incfeased self-efcacv. oositive self-eactions to thet performance, and greater skill acquisition and task inrersq tho." r. ro n.rr.,r" ttr i.'roirin.. ,.n"cred inherenl aptitude showed no gain in self-efficacy, little increase i., .ti'lrrJ irrt.r..t, and negarive self-reactions. Bempechat, London, & weck (1991) fo"" np.tr", relrions between theories of intelligence and achievement beliefs ancl behavios in kind.egarten through fifth-grade children.

PERCEIVED CONTROT

Conceptions of Ablfy
Several investigators have hypothesized that goal orientation is intimately related to one's

theory about the nature of inrelligence or abiliry (Dweck,1986,7997,1999,2006; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Dweck & Molden, 2005; Nicholls, 1983, 1984). Dweck (1991, 2006) proposed two theories ofintelligence: entity and incemental. People who hold. an enTitlt tbeory (or fi.xed. mirulsef) believe that intelligence is relatively fixed, stable, and unchanging over time and task conditions. Effort helps to reach one's limit, not for progressing much beyond it. Difculties ae viewed as obstacles and ca lower self-efficacy and lead students to display ineffective stfategies and give up or work halfheartedly. In contrast, people who hold. an incremental tbeory (or growfh mindset) rcughly equate intelligence with learning. Students believe that intelligence can change and increase with experience, effort, and learning. An upper limit of intellgence-if it exists-

ways, they ae unifie<t in over task engagement and ourcomes is a critical influence on motiyation (Schunk & Zinmerman, ZO."O> p....irreJ.ontrol also forms the core ofthe beliefsystem of leaned.hetpl.sr.re"", which irul.y.t ofogi.ut perspective on behavior relevant ro academic motivation. Larer in rhis .h;;;;;; wi see how peceptions of contol re important determinants of intrinsic motivation.
erceiueal

-.t"tltJ. conceprions of morivarion differ in many ;ll_.lgn their espousing that control

Conlrol Beliefs
Peope,mighl believe that they have greater or lesser amounts of conol over many types ot situations and cicumstances. Recall that Bandu (19g6; ru Chaptet 4) distinguished sell.efficacy from outcome expecrrions; tn ro.-.r r.i.i" i p...t'i."p"ntues ro leam o. perform behaviors and the lttef to beliefs about the .""".q*n.-.a of actions. perceiverl control is central to both ofthese expectations, people q/ho eleve they can control wht they learn and perform, as well as th. corrs"qu.rrc.,

is sufficiently high and does not preclude one from v/ofking hafder to improve,
Difculties are viewed as challenges and can raise self-efficacy if students mobilize effort, persist at the tzsk, and use effective strategies. With some exceptions, students who hold a gro.th mindset, or an incremental view of intelligence, afe more likely to believe that learning will rise ther overall abilty and thus should be more likely to adopt learning goals. Conversely, students holding fixed mindset, or an entity vievr', may be less likely to dopt lefning goals because they believe that leaming will not raise thef overall level of ability. These predictions have eceived reseach support (Dv,'eck, 1997, 7999,2006; Dweck & Molden, 2005). Research also shows important reltions among conceptiors of ability, motiytion, and achievement outcomes. Wood and Bandura (1989) had adults engage in a managerial decision-making tzsk and told them that decision-making abilty was fixed (reflecting thei basic cognitiye capabilities) of incrementl (developed through practice). These ability conceptios often are associated with ego and task orientations, respectively (Dweck & Lggett, 1988; Jagacinski & Nicholls, 1984; Nicholls, 1983). Incremental decision makers maintained high self-efficacy, set challenging goals, applied des efficiendy, nd performed better; entity prticipnts showed a decline in self-efficacy. Jourden, Bandura, and Baneld (1991) obtained similr results among college students on a motor tsk, Participants who were led to belieye that pedormance was an acquirable skill

onsistenr guidetines an rebacr) and nuotuemeit (interrs$i,i ::::St:::!::llll in and dedication of resouces to students). Evidence also indicates that when people think they have control over heir envi,on. ment, they tolefate aversive stimuli b.tte. nd p.rform t a nigrrr tevet. Glass and singl.

o-r decreasins cri.,,..,,gug.-..,t in reamrs ;.:",.:3:t":1."':1:,:.?Lo:lrn::ins and thar reachers contributej to studnts, p.r..pti"or, .f .j;;;#i'i,i,,

or trr.i.l.iiorrr, haye a sense of) morc apr to initiate and sustin behavios diected towad those endfi lg.y ",r. than are individuals who hold a lcw sense of contol over their capabilities and outcome$ of their actions. Skinner, ivellborn, and Connell (1990) distinguished _ three types of beliefs that con" tribute to perceived contro' strateg)) ar; expectation, Oort factos that influ,beliefs ece success (e.g, abirity, effort, othe p.rso.rs, iu.k, unknown factos ). ;p;;;;y beliefs rcfet to personal capabilities v/ith respect to abili, .ffoa, oa".r, nd luck. Fo example, a sraregy belief miehr be_, ,,The best *"y f.. ;"';. ;;;good grades is ro worlc haTd"; a capacify belief coulJbe, ,T cannot seem to *o.t .\,.fi fr.O t school.,, Contral beliefs arc expectations about one's chances of.oing wen iri'schoor without feferencs to specific means (e.g.,',1 can do well in school if t oiarrt toj). Similar to Bandura's social cognjtive theory in which seli_efficacy and outcome er{, pectations contribute to an individual,s sense of ik;;.. et al. descdbed t .'ree-part system of perceived control. Their researJh "g.rr.y, shwed that these beliefs influ.

Th:I

Motivator (1g72) had adults work on tasks and periodically exposecl them to a loud, ifritating noise. No-control participants could nol control the sound. Researchers lold perceived directcontrol participants they could tefminate the noise by pushing a button, but advised them not to do so unless they needed to. Researchers told perceived indifect-control palticipants that pushing a butron would send a signal to a confederate who could terminate

Chapter

ihe noise; the expeimentr also advised these participants not to Push unless they needed to. Pefceived control (direct of indirect) led to signifrcantly lorgel pefsistence and fewer euors compared with no perceived conol Perceived-control individuals judged the noise as less aversive than did no-control participants. These results suggest that students holding a sense of agency or control are better able to recover from setbacks and
eventually achieve.

the future and may acquife helplessness than is one who makes attributions to unstallle causes (e.g., "I arfived lte when the weather was bad"). Causes can affect many areas o1' one's life (global) or only one area (specific). Students may believe they lack ability in all school subjects or only in one subject, Globl attributions are more likely to produce helplessness. Causes for negtive events may be internal to the person (low intelligence) or extemal (the teacher gives unfat tests). Internal attdbutions are apt to result in helplessness. Collectively, people most prone to helplessness are those who typically explain negative events with internal, global, and stable attributions (e.g., "I do poor in school because I'm not yerv smart").

Students

with leorning Problems

leorned Helplessness
Leamed helplessness s a psychological Phenomenon that higllights perceptions ot conl|fol. Ielrned bellessness rcfers to a psychological state involYing a distulbnce in motivalion, cognitive processes, and emotions due to previously experienced uncontrollabiity (Maier & Seligman, 1976; Peterson, 2000; Seligman, l'975,1'991) The key to producing leamed helplessness is perceived independence be[ween responses and outcomes' Helplessness was identified in laboratory studies in which dogs given inescapable jumping a shocks were moved to another location, where they could avoid shocks by to esattempt made litde hurdle. The prior inescapable shocks conditioned the do8s; they

Leamed helplessness characterizes many shrdents with learning problems who enter a vicious cycle in which negative beliefs reciprocally intemcl with academic failures (Licht &. Kistner, 198). For various reasons, students fail in school, and they begin to doubt their learning capabilities and view academic successes as uncontrollable. These beliefs produce frustration and giving up readily on tasks. Lack of effort and persistence con[ribute

to further failures, which reinforce negative beliefs. Eventually, students interpret their successes as externally caused; for example, the task ws easy, they were lucky, or thc teacher helped them. They attribute failues to low ability, which is internal, global, and stabe, and /hich negatiyely affects self-effrcacy, motivation, and achievement (NolenHoeksema, cirgus, & Seligman, 1986), In the opening scene, Margaret may be a candidatc
for learned helplessness. Compared with normal leamers, students with learning problems hold lower expectations for success, judge themselves lowe in ability, and emphasize lack of ability as a cause of failure (Boersma & Chapman, 1981; Butkowsky & tVillows, 1980; Chapman, 1988; Haris et aL.,2006; Palmer, Drummond, Tollison, & Zinkgraff , 1982). Such students often do not tibute failure to low effon (Andrews & Debus, 1978; Dweck, 7975;Pearl, Bryan, & Donohue, 1980). They give up readily when they encounter difficulties, cite uncontrollable causes for successes and failues, and hold low perceptions of internal contuol over outcomes (Johnson, 1981; Licht & Kistnea 1986). Students may even generalize these negtive beliefs to situations in which they previously have not failed, Dweck integrated learned helplessness into a model of achievement motivation (Dweck, 1986, 1999; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Ego involvement characterizes helpless students. Theif school goalg are to complete tasks and avoid negative judgmens of their competence. They may hold a fixed mindset and believe that intelligence is a stable quantity (Dweck, 2006). They avoid challenges, display low persistence in the face of difficulty, hold low perceptions of their capabilities, and may expedence anxiety while engaged in tasks (Diene & Dweck, 1978, 7980). In contrast, mastery-oriented students re more likely to hold a growth aindset and display a task-involved achievement pttem, They believe intelligence can improlre, and their school goals are to leatn and become

cape in the new settitg but, rather, passively endured the shock. Dogs not previously exposed to inescapable shock easily learned to escape one manifesttion of helplessness is passivity People may do nothing when they believe they have no control over a situation. Helplessness also etads leaning People and animals exposed to uncontrollable situations may never learn adaptive resporrses or may learn them more slowly than those not exposed to uncontrollability. Helplessness has emotional manifestations. Pfior unconffollble situations my initially make one respond more aggressively, but eventually behavior becomes less assertive Leamed helplessness has been applied in diverse clinical contexts (Ficham & Cain, 1986). Seligmn (1975) poposed helplessness as an explanation for reactiue dE)ression' brought abour by sudden, dramatic changes in one's life (e g., death of loved one, di1,or.., ot loss of job). This explanation is intuitively plausible becuse people typically lel helpless in these situations. At the same time, many depressed people blame themselves f the negative eYents in their lives AIex may believe, for example, that he s/as fired because he continually ws late to work and could have avoided being fired had he arrived a few minutes eadier each day. Feeling personally responsible for negative events is incornpatible with the notion that helplessness results from perceived lack of control seligman,s original model oflearned helplessness was reformulated to incofpofafe aftributio;s (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978), The eformulated model postulates lhat explanations (attributions) for outcomes influence future expectancies of outcomes

more competent. They hold high pefceptiors of their learning capabilities, fiequently
seek challenges, and persist at difficult tasks.

and rections to thern. Explanations vary along three dimensions: sta.ble-unsta.ble, gtobal_Eecifi.c, ad internaexternal. one who attributes negtive outcomes to stable causes (e.g., "I alwys aive late for evert'thing") is more likely to expect bad events in

Mstery-oriented and helpless students often do not diffe in intellectual ability, Although helpless students may possess cognitive skill deficits, these alone do no[ cause

Motivarion

ChaDte 8

to feel failure. Not all students with learning problems enter this cycle; some continue is important be may that confident and display positive attributionl pattems One factor susceptible' especially are .q.re.t.y off"il"te, Students who fail in many school subjects irl many neang eficits are prticulady influential; poor reading skills affect learning inYoLve tht in areas even conteniareas. Reading deflcits can Promote negative beliefs 1986) little or no reading (e.g., mathematics; Licht & Kistner, with Variables assciatd with the instructional environment can prevent students (Friedman & it ovecome leaming problems from entering this rycle and can help them beachievement maladaptive l.*":V, fqg Attributional feedback can alter sNdents' accomplish and liefs an behaviors. Teachers also need to give stuclents tasks they can 2002) Stipek (Schunk, Stipek' 1995; feedback hightighting progress toward learning goals de-emphasized who to children and Kowalski (r9g9) found that teaching tsk strtegies he role of effort raised thei academic performance which has !(/e will now examine an importnt influence on motivation-self-concept' to understnd attempt as they received much attention by researchers and practitioners student motivation and achieYement,

SETF.CONCEPT

Psychologistsandeducatorshavestudiedself-conceptforyears,stimulatedinlalSepart many believed by attempts to understand human personality and functioning Although research evand tiat sef_oncept related positively io academic achievement, theoretical idence to support this claim was missmS' self-concept This situation has been dramatically altered as theory and research on with issues such have unclergone resurgence (tsra\e, 1992)' Teachers ate concetned can be imas how selflconcept reltes to motivation and learning, hos/ self-concept section This proved, and how iocial nd instructional factofs influence self-concept. motrin academic provides an ovewiew of the makeup of the self-concept and its role
vtion and leardng,

Dimensions ond DeveloPment

(a) formed through experiences with' Self-concept rcfels o one's collective self-perceptions and " t .tf*",i""s of, the environment nd ( heavily influenced by reinforcements is multidievaluatio'ns by significant other persons (Shavelson & Bolus, 1982) Self-concept as self-confidence, self-esteem, self-concept stabil-"rsional a.r .rnprises elements such 1982i ity, and self-crystaization (Paares & Schunk, 2007,2002; Rosenberg & Kplan' one whether or sunk & faarls, 2oo9). setf-esteem is one's perceived sense of self-worth' Sef u" t"tp*o onese. Self-esteem is the eYluatiYe component of self-concept results' accomplish "..-.* conjdnnce d.iotes the extent to which one believes one can ptoduce and selfSelf-esteem (analogous self-efficacy) to comPetently goa'lr, o, p.rfo.rr. tasks can raise selfonfiden e are related The belief that one is capable of performing a task and subsequent success esteem. High self-esteem might led one to attemPt difficult tasks,
enhances self-confi dence.

hypothesized that the serf-concept is made up of self-schems or generalizatio'' formed through experiences. These schemas pcess personal and social informatlr nuch as academic schemas process cognitive informatin, The multidimensional ntur* of self-concept is captured by the notion of uorking self_cocqpr, or se._schemas drnt

and moe complex. Dvelopment also produces a differentiated self-concept. Although most investigators postulate the existence of a general self-concept, evidence indicates that it is hieachically organized (Marsh & Shavelson, 1985; pjares & Schunk, 2O07,2002; Schunk & P4afes, 2005,2009; Shavelson & Bolus, 19g2). A general self_concept tops the hierarchy and specific subarea self-concepts fa' berow. selerceptions oispecifrc behaviors infruence subaea.self-conc-epts (e.g., mathematics, ,o.lal which in turn combine to rorm_ me acdemic selt_corcept. For example, "tudies), Chapman and Tunme (1995) found fhat children's reading_ self-concept comptised perceiv competence 1n feading, perceivecl difficulty vr'ith reading, and attitudes towardreading. G..reial s"lf-co.rcept comprises selr; perceptions in tlle academic, social emotional, and physical domains. Vispoel (1995) ex_ amined atistic domans and found evidence for th murtifaceted nature of self-concep( but less support for the hierarchical famework. Experiences that help form the self_concept emanate from personal actions and v!, caious (modeled) experiences (Schunk & pajres, 2005, 2009). The role of social cofll. parison is important, especially in school (see discussion eadier in this chapter). This kle is,reflected- i.the big-isb-lite-pond effect (Marsh & Hau, 2003): srud.ents in selective schools (who have intelligent pees) may have love se_concepts than those in lesflselective schools Marsh and Hau found evidence for this .rr.li'u-o.g students in 26 countries Reseach also shows that being placed in a high-achieving group ls associatccr s/ith lower self-concepr (Ttutwein, fdtl, arsh, & N;gy, 2009). Evidence indicates that self-concept is not passively'ff,rmed but ather is a dynmlc s_tructure that mediates significant intrapersona and interpersonal processes (Cnfor & Kihlstom, 1987). Markus and colleagues (Markus & Nuius, 1986; Makus & Vurl 19g7)

uals have relatively well stmchlred perceptions of hemselves rn aeas such s intell gence, sociability, and spos. Brief experiences providing eyi<.lence that conflicts witlr personal beliefs may not have much effec. Conversely, ilf_concept is modified morc easily.w1ren people have poorly formed ideas about tir.-s.l,r.s, usualry because they have litrle or no experience. The development of self concept proceeds from a concrete view of oneself to more abstract one (Monlemayor & Eisel', 1977). young children perceive themselvcs concretely; tl'rey define themselves in tetms of their ., actions, name, posses^ppur^n sions, and so forth. children do not.distinguish among behaviors and uncrerrying bilitics or personal characteristics. They also do nof have a sense of enduring peisoahty ltc,. cause their self-concepts are diffuse and loosely organized. They acquife a moe abstracf view with development and as a function of scholing. As th develop separate co_ ceptions of undering trairs and abiriries, rher serf-co=ncepts b."o-. b.tt.. orga.nizecr

crystallzed with development and repeated similar experiences. tsy adolescence, indivicl.

Self-concept sta.bilit! telers to the ease or diffculty of changing . the self_concepr. Stability depends in part on how crystallized o sructured beliefi aie. Beliefs beco'r:

Chapte Motivation

INTRINSIC MOTIVION (presently accessible self knowledge) Thus' a stable are mentlly active at any time V omain-specific self-concepts capable core (general) self-concept existti"ttt""" of being altered Self-ConcePt ond Leorning to school-leaming is intuitively plausible The idea that self-concept n positively related self-worthv display greater confident of thtit le"'ni"g abilities and feel ;;;;;;;h; Higher achievement' rn "t" in school which enhances achievement ;;;;;;;*ation high self-esteem' t"lf-confidence lo learning and maintains ;;il;;;
tntnnsi motiuttion efes to a desire to engage in an activity for no oDvlous rewad except task engagement itself (Deci, I97. The ipn"n." li'_t r"rion b{ *search showing.rha _,.r.r, _ r."rrrirrg rJnr"*,uu"rr,o for leaming is .ognitive pro cessrng and achieyement (A_texa1!e1 & Murqfry rgS8;"S;i"i.t:l'i,tyu, ZOOS). Some per spectlves on intrinsic motiyalion are examined .

i::::.-*9

irrJ.ti

below.

Theoreticql Perspeclives
Efeclance Motivtion

ln a semnal paper, \hite (1959) defined etfctance motiytion.rs

capacirv.ercienq,proncienc) an,r

Unfotunately, ttt"st ie^'

tle

ny'19;;t;";**ecl

and measures of self-concept was demic achievement measures \grde point averages) anipositive relation suggesting a direct

manY,research

bt"tt consistently supported- by research "t studies The general correlation belween aca-

IlJiiliiilflllt:H;",:i::1..yi*vmscapabiriry
envionmeni rhe behavio

r = I.3l,which is a moderate ..r". ""*.an ,tte two. Coffelation

achieYement influences self-concept' whether self-concept influences achievement' ittn"""ced by other variables (e g ' factors in the each influences the other, or.uinl, measures of home). !ylie found somewhafhigher correlatio"t Yh,t",::1:d"tdized meacorelations with researcher-developed self-concept wele employed and lwer between achievement nd academic sures. That higher correlations were obtained self-concepl suppofts the hierafoverall beween u.t]r.-r.r*r,t and ;";.;;;i"" with. chievement have been chical orgnization notion fnt ttigttt"t colrelations (e g in areas such as English or mathemat;:;;i;;;t"-rp."rt' ' '"lil'"Z'pt" ics; Schunk & Pajares, 2009)

determined does not imply causalify' so it cannot be

:".t-to:;

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i'-'j-:"ffiil''*:li:x-";;x1:

because it serves pimav drives, *ich inded ii can-n* because ft satisfres an itisic oedd ro d*t *li

:ji::H :.iff,fi:;i:::,,i:::i;
"ir,,, " " ",most perfececl, )Lrr lr-.#.iio. ,rrrr

ltiSreasonabletoassumematself-conceptandleamingaffectonenother.Giventhe o"tig""d to alter it may not have much general nature of s"r-.o.,."pt, t i*-"tottt domains may alter domain-speciflc selfeffect, Rather, inteffetions ,"ra.-io-rp..n. influence hiSher-level self-concepts ."i.pro *ru.f. -"v efiend up the hier;hy and The moderate relation between selfThe research literatt* *pp;; ;i;;rosition studies may rezult because general self-concoflcept nd achievement found in resech self-concept measures are were used conversely, when domain-specific ;;;;;;;t.t positive (Pajares & that dmain' the relation is strong and

firture need srisfacrion. Takins theaT but in so doing rhe chird leans that cokies lt.fi;;;;i, a ,n trr. r. future to stisfy hunger

\th devel.. opment, motivation becomes increasingly speci"fi'r.. On.. .iifOren enter school, thcy manifest effecrance motivarion in ach*""'-t l.n""lt" i-, subjecrs. Effecrance motivation aises.when Oiofogicaf ".rl"ol o,r.s

,h"t ."t.h;l;i;;;;;i:i::'11iijT]?J,"i:i:1'1".;::l lt o,,er' and push ir away in an ef'or to coniror i, nir..i".. ,tvation is undifferemi ated in young children; it is directed owad uU,"p..,, of '. i rironment,
rar fearures

Effectance motivation is seel

rrrr'tio*redge

ir also facilirate$ "..'rli"n., ii ,n. **crance morive

is used

in (he

Maslery Molvalion, The notion of effectance motivation is intuitively appealing, but lte generalicy rimits the seach fof its causes and its effectiveness as an expanation for ac!,

i:;:":l'J:I"jitnrluence

such a

gl""r.o"'t u.i, ,'/i-p,o'.

ucademic mo(i,

i""rtt;.ttlvement.in
Schunk, 2001, 2002; Schunk

defined more fa;ares, ZO: 2009),As slf. concePt is showing evidence much is thee and specically, it increasingty resembles self-efficacy' 1995; Schunk' 1996; Paiares' (Bandura' 7997; that self-efficacy predicts acnievement

Schunk & Pajares, 2009; ChaPter 4)

have relevance for influencing selfMany of the suggestlons rn' i" tfti' chapter self-concept inteNentions' O'Mra' Marsh' concept. In their review of "startr on had stronger ef(2006) t"J irt"t domain-speciiic interventions ;;;;'r;;;;us

dsigned to raise global self-concept' fec on self-concept thn did int"r""ntion" cdemic iney are capable of iearning and have mad Teachers who show effectively' models use "tuOe.rts positive. feedback' progress in specitic content artas' pto"idt help devetop students' self-concepts and minimize .r"g",r,r" ,oat"r-.opari"onr,'.a.t(see Chapter 4 foi ways to enhance self-efficacy)'

challenging tasks. successes prod"* competence and contol, which in tum strengthen effecbn..

O.grt., 1991) attempted to specify rle antecedenrs and consequences of cf, ,^^,:1:.: recrance motivation in a develoomental mo.del.of mastery *o;;;ro". thereas trhite f,o" cused on success, Harter took success and failure lrr,o a"rr,. fr"ne also stessed thE roles of socializing agents and rewardr, th. ,"r..rrarize msrelv goas and develop a self-reward system, and the important of effectance mo" perceived competence and conrrol: flgu* a.:1. !., rhe left side of the model oftrys suc.e$ a.rd is ,om."rhat similar to .White,s fomt!$, tion Effectance modvation can tfisgef frastery aftemp. hite consideed the motve genelq, but Harrer diffeendared it accordig to o__ <".lioor, Mosr behavior,-{ to volve optimally

*,,oj

t;

pr";; ;;;olli,." .oi.J,", p

_,i*,ior.

"iJ*, and perceptions ;ire *f

Molivation

Chapter

lncreases

Decreases

ftti'-l I Pleasure
Porceved comPetence

+
lnternal PercePtion
of control

lnternalization o'f
(a) seff-reward system

(b) mastery goals Mastery attempts

Cognitive
t.

Social Physical

rhar children from homes in which learnng opportunities and activities are emphasizccl display higher intrinsic motivation for learning (Gottfried, Fleming, & cottftied, i998). On the left side ofthe model are positive outcomes thal result when socil environ ments satisfy children's natural desires. The right side portmys negative outcomes, or th(. development of extrinsically oriented individuals. Unsuccessful mastery attempts, cou pled with a nonresponsive environment, can lead to low perceptions of competence, arl extemal locus of control, and anxiety. Effectance moivtion ebbs if children increasingly depend on others to set goals and reward actions. Research supporls many of rhe propositions of the model. For example, intrinsic motivation relates positively to perceived competence and internal control (Hafief 1981 Harter & Connell, 1984), Social models are important sources of mastery behavior anrl learning (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Schunk, 1987). Perceived competence relates posilively k) intrinsic motivation (Gotdried, 7985,1990), At the same time, the model relies heavily on socializing agents, They are important, but research has identifred other ways to fostct mastery behayior, including settig leaming goals, providing ttfibutional feedback, anel teaching self-regulatory strtegies (Ames, 1992a; Pintrich & Schrauben, 1992; Schunk, 1995; Zirtrnerman, 1989, 2000; Zimmerman & Cle ary, 2009). Relatiyely little atrention ha$ been paid to educational implications of the theory-for example, how students can be taught to adopt an intrinsic orientation towad school. The theory must be broadenecl t() addess these points.
;

j i

lncongruily and Arousor. Some investigators postulate that intrinsic motivation reflecLs an

i
t,
!".

Positv reinforcemefi or

approval f or independent mastery attemPts

Lack of reinforcement and / or disapproval for independent mastery attempts

ii.'

+
modelng of approval

+
modelng of disapproval

iii

ll'
r

+
lack of reinforcement for dependence positive outcomes Fioure 8.5

+
reinforcement for dependency tor adulls negative outcomes

i
::

;
i

Mdel of moslery moiivoilon.

Source:AModelofMosieryMolivotioninchildren:|dividuolDiffeencesondDevelopmentochonge,byS'Hoflef,l98l'lnW.A' 14, pp. 21 5-255) ., Deuelopnent al conpeence: The Minnesato synposio on .child Psychology lt/ol .j,i, fi i Used by permtssion-

oi*gill

PublLshed

Froncs Group LLGBooks by lowrence Erlboum Associoles Copyrighi loylor &

forcement for mstery attempts

"ttt"ary oi thi, ,ai.rfo.."-..rt .o-., from primary cIegivers, -r"

to develop and maintin motivation Much and eveftllally a self-reward systhemselves fol mastery attempts' tem is internalized, which allows childen to reinforce (social learning)' and internalization observation Ctrlfr"n -astery gols through ".q,rir" complet;;ift develo'pment ln support of these points' research shows O".o-."

agents Some positive reinThe bottom part highlights the role played by socializing

i'

inherent need for a moderate amount of environmental stimulation. Hunt (1963) arguecl lhat exploratory behaviors and curiosity ae intrinsically motiyated and result from ln, congruity betweer prior experiences and new information. People extract informatioft from the envifonment and compare it to internal reptesenttions. When incongrulty exists betvr'een the input and intenal knowledge or expectation, people become intritrsically motivated to reduce the incongruity. Hunt postulted that people require an op" timal level of incongruity. \hen deprived of that level, they seek situations that provld it. Too much incongruity proves frustrating and triggers a ddve to reduce frustration, Although Hunt's views have intuitive merit, they have been criticized because "optiml level of incongruity" is vague and how much incongruity is required to trigger morivtion is not clear (Deci,7975). Berne (1960, 1963) sinilady hypothesized that an optimal level of physiological ln" congruity (stimulation to the nervous system) is necessary and adaptive. If it becomes too lovv, people re intinsically motivated to increase it; conversely, they are motivated to fe" duce it if it becomes too great. Bedyne's "arousal potential" may be interpreted as belng approximately equivalent on a physiological level to Hunt's psychological incongruity, Properties of stimuli involvng their noyelty, ambiguity, incongruity, and surprise affecl aousl and motivate people to explore ttre objecfs, Although the notions of arousal and incongruity seem intuitively sensible, the idea of an optimal level of arousal or incongruity is vague, and it is unclear how nuch is needecl to stimulte motivation. Practically speaking, we know novelty nd surprise raise stuclent interest, but how much of either is optimal? Too much may lead to frustration, attempts tt) escape from the situation, and Iover inleresl in learning.

Molivatio

Chaptei
389

(Deci' 1980; Deci & Moller' 2005; Deci & Ryan' Sell'Deermnoon. Deci ancl colleagues Ryan' 2004; Ryan' itt""t cey' 2002'; Re.eTe' ?:ci' & motivation 199L; Golnick, Gurland,.lttoo, is an mzooo' zoogj postg3ted P1:inlinsic connell, & Deci, 1985; Ryan & ueJ and competence for 'i;;^tt as anndifferentiated need (e'g adrnate human need ata otigittuttt areas tfftrentiates into specifrc if-tt ' selfetermindtion s children aeieiJp' ""t i''flt-tence the diection of differentiation' letics, academics), utt t"t"'ottln"tt"iittractiott" of social values and This self-<letermit^tion t'it# 3*i"Jt" 'rtt i"*t1"li1u:l:" and controls'that may not fit with chilmores. Society contins many to'i-""ii "*"at produce good behavor and social functiondren's quest for s.lf-dettr-ittatto-n'f"irnuy tut b"tott an intemalized prt of the ins. with development, these ""iuit""ti"u'"" se-lf regulatory sysl:T fli^15:.?, a continuum: Ininsic and extrisic modvatiot anchor but thar orisiralrywere xrrinsicarlv motivated want *" ':ffi:iiXir""n",* may tt1f-dtt"ttittt! nor-1111nce' students have become internalized and rlt rewards and avoid tf'e *:tk 1" lo avoid some academic actit'itt"'i 'tt1:-"--ohtain

able to work on anorher actiyity. Students are e,1insically motivacecl if rhey try to pedolm wel in school primarily to please their parents, eam high grades, or recerve teacher apDroval. Intrinsic reasons for working on a task are intemal to it. The swad comes from workins on the task; the task is both the means and the end. The ewads for intrinsic modvation mai be feelings of competence and contlol, self-satisfaction, task success, or pride in one,s work. \x/e engage in many activiries for both intrinsic and extrinsic reasons. Maov students like to feel competent in school and experience pride for a job done well, bui they also desire teacher praise and good grades. Rewards are not inherently extrinsically mtivar_ ing. Deci (1975) contended that rev/ards haye an informaional and a controllng aspec. Reward systems may be primarily structured to convey infomafion about one,s apbit_ tie.s or to control one's behavior, and the elatiye salience of each (hib,rmation or cntrol) influences subsequent behavior. A saliert irformational aspect indicating successful per fomance should promote feelings of competence, wheres a salient cntrolling asiect can lead to perceptions of the eward as the cause of the behayior. For example, suppose tht in a classroom rewad system the more work students ac_ gcmplish, the more points they eam. AJthough students will want to work to earn points (because the points can be exchanged for privileges), the points convey information bout thet capabilitiesr The more points students earn, the more capable they re. In contrast, if points are given simply for time spent on a task regardless f leaning or outpt, the task may be vie.wed pdmarily as a means to an end. The points conveyothing about capabilities; studerts are more likely ro viev/ the rewards as contollins their rasi< engagement. Expected, tangible rewards offered to students for simply doing a task diminish ntrinsic motivation (Cameron & piefce, I9g4,2OO2). Leppe (1983; Lepper & Greene, 1978; Lepper et al., 7999) postulated that the per_ ception of reward influences students' intrinsic motivtion. Motivation is largely a func_ tion of one's perceptoas for engaging in the tzsk. V,llen extemal constraints afe salient, unambiguous, and sufficient to explain the behavior, individuals attrbute their behaviors to those consrtaints. If external constraints are viewed as weak, unclear, or psychologi_ cally insufficient to account for theh behavior, people are more likely to attribute therr a'ctions to their desires or personal dispostions. In_ a classic experiment (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973), preschooles were ob_ sewed during free play. Those who spent a lot of time drawing were selected for the study and assigned to one of tbee conditions. In the expected-award group, children were offered a good playei certificate if they drew a picture. unexpected-award children were not offered the certificate, but unexpectedly eceived it after they drew a picture, No-award children were not offered the av/ard and dicr not receiye it, Two weeks later children were again observed during free play. The expected-award children engaged in drawing for a significantly shorter time following the experiment than they had prior to the stuJy, whees the other two conditions showed no significant change. Expected-award children spent ress time drawing followi^g the study compared with the othe conditions, Ir v/as not the reward itself that was impori ,

;;'"*h*;;;;*if

*i1:"",iT#:'.:#; ^.,.;*"''T,."::*i.l*ffi p",,"" sociar reinrorcers (e g , praise, reedi::.*y;ti.'ffi11',1,iffi::,;:., *'?:is"i,iilno..,rnuo'o./oking and.has t:":'1:1.l'h research It arso has of self-determination in
ftutttt il
sesses the^

implictions for educatiotal p'tit"t conti1ues to are not clearly speciied' but research leaminq some points irl *t *Jti test its ideas (Reeve et al , 2004)

ro

Overiustificolion ond Reword

intrinsic ized lh,tlt1ere rc four sources oJ Lepper and Hodell (1989) hypothes on intrinsic motivalion disperspec-tives The challenge, cudosity, tottoo'' uttJiu"tasy tdt lrnp";1ai::-"1*:irst three sources Fartasv cussed earlier in this chaPter heighten ifltrinsimultions) seem well designed to conteds (e.g., invotvl"g tott-pi'yitg' contend tht intrinsic

motiutionl

"";;; sic motivadon, Despite their #t;"t'

motivation

in people's livtf --,^- , but it also cat diminish rntit'tion increasing' \e typically think of itttti"'it itteresting activity to obtain an exlnsrc Research shows th at erryaging'i-aiinffinsically (Dci' Koestner' & Ryan' 1999' 2001; Lepper'

the various pepectives

i,

a strong, positiv force

reward can

;"e;;:,

.trv:"c11ry,-1":fit"::,":#:l*::l;:,ili"'"'il';i.""'1,'.i1.'i,?" *-Si:Ti$'TZili'i,;;';';"d'r''e! ;?r1::n activitv as an end in itself . csikszentmih

undet*i"t tttt"""tt 'iJt'tion

activities and found that

from "n"ttta p"'oit" and reflects emergent^motiuatio?z stemming activities Floxt) is envr^ptt'o""t t*"" as a consequence of interacting with the the discovery of nesr' gols a

in intrinsically motivating a\yi Qgl>isted persons who.engaged iolvement or flow with the

the";;;;;tt'

totul

nde' 1993; Meyel & Tumer 2002)' to ronmett (Csikszentmihalyi a Rathu tt'gugttg in-at activity for reasons extemal It const, "'t'n'' *on'lin ittt'oL"' praise, or being an ;biect, a grade, feedback or is a meansio some end:
the task. This activity

tantbulfatherthecontingency,Lepperetal.(1973)postulatedtheouelust(ficationblpoh-:,:, es,s Engaging in an irrinsically interesting ctivity under conditions that make it sat.nt s
tion hypothesis has been supported n experimentl investigations vr'ith diffeent tasks ancl participants of all ages (Lepper & creene, 1978; Lepper et al., 1999; Lepper & Hodell, 19g9),
means to an end (reward) decreases subsequent intetest in that activity. The ove4ustifica-

Chapter 8

Movlion de Rewards need not have detimental effects on performance Rewards can help performance acrual to one's linked are they when velop skills, self-efficacy, atd interest on and convey that one is making progress in learning Offering children rewards based mo self-ef8cacy' increases activities learning during the amount of work they accomplish participtivation, and skill acquisition compared with offering rewards merely for tsk plosram, instruction (schunk, a subtfaction Dudng 1983e). tion or not offefing rewards to the positively related self-efficacy (1981) higher that found Bandura and Schunk problems' arithmetc in solving showed amount of intrinsic interest children subsequently and Thus, when rewards conYey that one has learned, they can incrase self-efficacy grade A way same in the function can grades intdnsic ;otivation. As a form of reward, promotes self efthat impoves shows that one is performing better n the subject, which shows that children's research Unfortunately, learnng ficacy nd motiYation for further

INSTRUCTIONAT APPI.ICATIONS The material in this chprer suggesrs many educational applications. Three applications that are linked closely with lerning involve achievement motivation training, attfibutioo change programs, and goal orientations.

Achievement Mof ivotion Troining

intrinsic motivation in lerdng declines with development (Leppef Sethi' Dialdin' & relaled Drake, 1997), although other reselch shows tht interest nd self-efficacy are 8 (Tracey, Application 20o2) students posit;ely in elemeniary and middle-grades motivation intrinsic demonstrtes ways to enhace and sustain

tr'tining aims to help students develop thoughts ancl behavi<rs typical of leaners high in achievement motivtion (de Charms, 1969, 1gg4). De Chanrs (1976) rnlljra,lly preparecl teachers, who then woked with students. The goal was to hcllr students deyelop pefsonal responsibility for thek learning outcomes. The teacher preparation included self-study ofacademic motivation, realistic goal set. ing, development ofconcrete plans to accomplish goals, and evaluation ofgoal progress. student motivation was integrated with academic content. classroom actiyities incluced self-study of academic motives, achieyement motivation thinking, development of selfconcept, fealistic goal setting, and promotion of personal responsibility. During a spelling activiy designed to each goal setting, students could choose to leam easy, moderafe, of difficult words. To teach personal responsibility, teachers had students v/rite stories about achieyemenc, which wee then used in a classroom essay contest. The results showed thaI the progrm raised teachers' and students' motivation, halted the tfend among low achieves to fall increasingly behind their peers in achievement, and educed student ab.
ActJieoement motiu.4tion senteeism nd tardiness.

Integrating instmction on achievement motiyation with academic content, rather thn including it as an dd-on activity with special contenr, seems imperarive. The danger Of dre latter approach is that students my not understand how to apply achievement motl" vation principles to other coffenl. Ademan (1985, 1999) recommended seveal usefrrl components ofachieyement motivation instruction. one is having teachers assist students to set fealistic goals and pf" vide feedback conceming theif gol ptogfess, Another aspect is self-study to examin one's motives for learning nd to develop personal responsibility. The distinction bE" tween task and ego involvement seems useful. A series of questions helps students ex" amine how they feel about tasks and what they see as their goals (e.g,, leaming vetsu8 pleasing others). Attibutional training (discussed next) also is relevant. One means of leaching personal responsjbility is to help students place greater emphasis on effort as fl cause of outcomes rther than blaming others when they fail or believing they were luclqr when they succeed. As students experience successes, they should develop increased self-efcacy for continued learning and ssume greter control of their learning. Alderman (1985) applied these ideas to a senior high gids'physical education clas$, On the frrst day of class, students completed a self-evaluation of their health, physical fit"
ness status, and competence nd intefest in various activities, and they set fitness goal$, They took weekly self-tests in different activities (e.g,, aerobics, flexibility, stfength, ncl posture). At the ed of the first grading period, students set goals for the final exam. They had various ways to accomplish the aeobic goal (running, walking, and jumping rope), The teacher met with individual students to assess goals and made suggestions if these

'

Chapre 8

Motivation

393

practice schedules^of t least three tlmes a did not seem realistic. Students established Following the final exam' students comweek for 9 weeks and kept a recorcl of practices the instructor' the oi *tttt ttt"v had learned lderman noted: "To ;;;;lf;;;tio.t '1 learned to set was' th" final self-evaluation most striking coflunent maoe oy 'iui"ttt' o" l' a goal and accompllsh it 'lp 51

Attribution Chonge Progroms

stude s' aftribumoiivation bV Attribution change programs altempt to enhance +::ti"g when learning difficulties have some tions for successes and failues. St r.rrts .ommonly to 1ow ability (e'g Margaret in the p'oble*'ttte" anbute ' new mterial. Some tearners lack the lequisite ability to perform well p"t"! r.."--l students wtro lelleve they skill.development. Researchers mavwofk at tsks halackaaiscalrashion, which retards to atfit this attributional panern and have trained them ;#.'#fi; il;;;;" to thanrather use) strategy (e g , low effort' improper tribute failure to controllable tactors fail thev that belieYe ffi;;il ty. ;f* has received special attention; .tttiti': 1T much effort to-succeed Because effort is largely because of low abitity may not expend that pdor difflculties resulted from lovr' under one's control, teching 'tttents to tttt'e outh^'d"r with the expectation that itwill prodce better

-otf, ""1-"v comes (Application 8.7).

L.,ft"

to

"'^';;;;it

low expectations fof studv, Dweck (1975) identifred children- who hd detedorated after they experienced failure success and whos. u.tti.,'"*"tt Javiors presented the children with arithmetc probi"., n* .ff"n, f"ck of persistence) Dweck the extent-of performance decline follems (some of which were i"'o-tt") to assess

;;;t*

low ability Duritg training' Children largely attributed thei falures to (s"ccessset for ech tril For some children solved problems wth a criterion number by the determined capabilities as only) ch)Idten, the critenon v/a; ;t at or below their b]uf ch\ldte' fol attribution reaining pretest. A similar criteflon applied on most trials failed' children tup"bilities $lhen these on some ils the criteon was s "yo"a 'ftto ttre posttest' success-only children conon enough ifr.y... ,ota ,n"y did not try hard failure' whereas attributiontitued to show deterioration in perforance following children continued to stress ;;;"t-g children showecl less-impairment luc:es:,only low enoft low abili!; aibuon-reraining srudents emphasized tol success, so the effect of atiexPectancies ol Dweck did not assess self-efficacy

Feedback is credtble when itudr

Other investigations hve shown that butions on expectancies cout nt b" dttttfnit'"d effofi attributions' expectani.".fr"g1*J"" a attribute failures lo Iow effort enhances (Adrews & Debus, 1978; Chapin & Dyck' 1976; Horner cies, and achievement beha\'lors 200{ i Robertson. 20001' & -- Gaither, promotes feedback to students for their successes also froviOing & Schunk "ffort-.ntibutiott"l (Schunk' 1982a; Schunk & Cox' 1986; achievement expe.tu.t.i., utt btf'-iors linking schunk (1982a) found that il, 1. r" it. .o.t "", or "'uit"tion instruction' (e been- working hard") enhanced g "You've children's prior achievemen" *i1il tf" ' acauisrtic-n better than linking thef futask motivation, perceived tttp;;";, andikill hard") or not providing effort feedture achievement witn.fo't t"i.l'vott'nt"d to -o'k must believe that it is credible' back. Fo effort fee<lback to effective' students

;:,.t*m":m;::;..;i:i"ix?,H:;:ff.ll,*;:...3i,,#:;
be esoecially useful for students with learning problems. Schunlc nd Cox (1986) providecl sutrz schoor srudents _,,h ("You've been working hard') dluring rhe frst half of a multi.ri-r rrrr,-.,io.rur prograrrr, ornes eceived ir during the second h"t ana r."rners^inrr."ont." otd nor eceiv erton teedback Each type of feedback p--.,. r.r-.r

Effon feedback may

r.,;;;,;i::liii:.qii"i::::*:":;: *i;ill;
and skl ac, r*on.t arr,"g. r*iii ii,n. o-gram enhanc*l

quisrrion beuer rhan no fee<lback.

ri.u,io.r,

;'lilj:.:Ti#ll::::j,'.."::,:i:'J:::f;;i,r"i*,',..,.ff;;ili

396

Chapte

Motivalion

to form a distinct Young children attibute successes to effort, but by age I they begin to about age 12 up .o.r."p,lJn of ability and continue to differentiate the concepts inceasingly become iNt.noftr, 1978, :l)7; Nicholls & Miller, 1984) Ability attdbutions (Harari & Covington' ponq *tt.t us ttre influence of effort as a causal fctor declines (1983a) found that providing r9f). ouring arithmetic instruction and practice, Schunk at this") enhanced "Yox're.good (e .l."" -itfiuUifity feedback for prior successes 8 ' ability-plus-effort or feedback p..J"a .o-p"tence and skill better thn providing effon greater expenditure effot tcombined) fedback. Children in the latter condition iudged in information ability th.ean abilrty-only children and apparently discounted :om:.of abthty (Schunk' 1984b) ' fa.ror of eftn. i.t a follow-up smy using a similar methodology of learning enhanced feedback given when chilren succeeed early in the course tha eady effort feedback regardless of whether the ability achievement outcomes better

feedbackwascontinuedofdiscontinuedduringthelaterstagesoflearning' (Ames' 1992a' information The structure of classroom activities conveys attributional to compare likely more are 1992b), students who compete for grades and other rewards Stridents who succeed under cofltpetiliue codiotrs are, tn"ir nil y.-o.tg on. "nth"r. successes; those who fil ore like to emf,hasize their abilities as conffibuting to their an ego-involved l"ti.rr. tny U.t ttte requisite ability to succeed Thes conditions.create (Ames' 1985)' state students begin to ask themselves, "Am I smart?" motivational "" ability minimize hand' Co.p"rotir", or indiuidualistic, reward stmctures , on the other s responsible student differences. Coope.rative structures stress student effon when each gloup members on-that io, .o-pt.ti.tg some aspect of the task and fo instructing other performance ln individualistic aspect, ;nd when the group is rewarded for its collective Students in ,dr.tot.r, ,t.tda.tt" copare their current work with their prior performances and on leanenough?") individuastic structr.rres focus on thet efforts ("An I trying hard this?")' iflg strategies for enhancing their achieYement ("Ho$/ can I do students with hiSh-incithat means inclusion on emphasis The current educational (e g , severe) disabilities are grouped alence (e.g., learning) disabilities and low-incidence classrooms *i h oth. i"ut t"rsn the regular classoom as much as possible ln inclusive on research much has not been learnes often work on tasks cooperatively To date, there erelated but 1998)' the effectiveness of inclusive-claisroo-' {Mtc"go' & Vogelsberg' group succeeds (Ames' the as long as practi beneficial ts a grouping sarch shows that performers CooperatlYe 1984). Group su.c.rs .lhan.es the self-evaluations of poor if they are g"rt ..-titl"g students with and vr'ithout leaming disabilities function well group \\tlen P,ead' 1982) .rt ial,ght iro- t -ork in small groups (Bryan, Cosden' & of students members do not work well togeth;r the pttio't'nttt and self-evaluations suffer (Licht & Kistner' 1986) Fufhemore' if the -iif, u.r without lerning disabilitiei g;p fails, students mayllame the slower learners (often unfair' which negatively afiects self-efficacv and motivalion of group members

learning, cete a gro/th mindset, raise self,effi'cacy, urr _can -ourr"r. students to irr prove skills further Another suggestion is to use moe collaborative student activities. Ducla and Nicholfr (1992) found fo both spof ancl schoolv/ork that task orie"t"tiorrlgwl, _indset) relalccl rr high school students' beliefs that success depends on effort and collaboration with pc(,rs, whereas ego orientation (fuxed mindset) was associated with beriefs tht success is chr(, r(, high ability and anempting to perform beer than others. coar orientations and beriefs arr.rrr su,ccess were rot strongly related to perceived ability. perceived ability related belter t(J sirl isfaction in_ sport than il school; tle opposite pattem was obtained fo task orientarion. A third way to promote a leafning_g_oal orientation is to help students adopt learoi0 goals. Teachers_ can stfess acquiring skills, learning new strateges, developing proJrlcrrr solr.ing methods, and so forth. They also can deimphasize !oui" ,r.t, as conple(inll work, finishing ealier than othe students, and echeci<ing wori. assignments shoulcl irr volve leaming; when students practice skills, teachers .".i"t es, the ,.a"ons for the pt.i* tice (e g, to retard forgettin and inform students that skillfur practice shows skiLls rrrv. been retained (i.e,, recast prctice in terms of skill acquisitiJn). Application g.g givt,R some other suggestions for instillitg a task orientation, incremental abilily conceplior, and focus on leaming goals in students,
I

students progress feedback showing how their skills have improved (i.e., how mrrr lr they have learned), along with information showing that effori has helped ro proctrr<.t.

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cn foster a productive Goal theory and research suggest several ways that [eachers beliefs about limits to their alter students help f."t"tg g.rf -*ntation. Teaes might their motivation GiYing their a lies and the usefulness of effo.t u. u -"^.tt to impfove

Motivatoo

39s

Chaprer

SUMMARY
goal-directed behavior' Some Motivation refers to the process of instigating and sustaining cogitive consrstency theofy, conditioning theory, ea y views on motilation were drive of motivaunderstading the to contributed. these th.ry, and hu*aolstic theory' Each of view theories Cuenl behavior' motivated tion, ut none was a,lequate io explain human impofin the differ theories these although motivation as reflecting cognitive processes, motivated learning assume that motivation tance ascribd to various cgnitioni' Models of operates before, dudng, and after learning for achievement is a Atkinson's achievement motiYation theory postulates that need

lff-:3".#,',:::',:i;l;'i-"cept are erevant ro motiv se,r-view ,.'f-."iii{'"X':"f,'JX'rgi'.1f*f.':iki:J,.j ;:.#.'J;?f;:

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in chievement contexts' general motive leading individuals to perfbrm their best hope for success and beNveen conflict Achievement behavior ttftt'"tt* an emtional of achievement theo-ry expectancy-vlue an fear of failure. Eccles and Vlgfield developed theory ot The self-worth views of older motivtion that surmounts any problms of is function behavior his .olletgue' t'yp*ttti"t !l1t .utli::ttt"t Covington otheff' and "na themselves biliry.among high of students' efforts to p,","tit tht itt"ption as task and ego involvement Other researchers have focused n m;dvational states such and many elements of control of locus Attribution ttt.oty i".tpotutes Rotter's is relevant to actriev-ewhich theory' Heider's naive anatysis oi actn weiner's attribution internal-externar' dimensions: three ment settlngs, caregorlzes attributions along because they importnt are Attributions stable-unstable, an<l controllable-unconollable
affect chievement beliefs, emotions, and behaviors

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goals and expectatlons' Social cognitive theory views motivation as 1eulting from their goals By comattain them help People set gols and act in ways they believe will experienc sense people progress' pu.g p."..t p.formance to the goal and noting one will achieve that believing on of self-efficacy for improvement Mtivation depends and that one.is expectation (positive outcome desired outcomes trom given behaviors Social (high self-efficacy) behavors capable of performing oi learning to perform tho-se effiand outcome form to of information comparisons with otners are imprta"'
cacY expectations.

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FURTHER READING

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people's goals' expectations' attribuGoal theory postulates important links between ancl self comparisons' and tions, conceptions of ability, motivational orientations' social may possess leaming (mastery) achievement behauiorr. m hle,r"-ent contexts, learners that learning goals focus atot performance (ability-focused) goals The eory-predicts and that as students peftentior bettef on skills and comptencies needed for leafning ln conast' performance ceive progress, their self-efficacy and motivation are enhancecl in social compaisons' result i""a to the same focus on Progress' but rther go"l, with concePtions of ability my not rtr. -otiuu'io" Goal orientations are linked which^"inot (Srowth mindset) perspectrve that eflect an entity (fixed mindset) or incremental p"oplt'' desire to exert c-onol over important asPects of-their Many theories at "a, settings $lhen lives Control belieis na especially powerful effects in achievement learned helplessness people perceive independenc between responses and outcomes' deficits. Learned helplessness is manifests itself in motivational, learning, and emotional display negative attributional applicabte to many sN;;; *lttt t"uttTl"g problems who ptt.ms and low tH-efcacy in their learning capabilities'

*il.kili-';"i;,:,lni,:*j:i:*:;!T;:^:;::i?;;Y^ffiIL".,, :it"'io:1:n':t,-lt"x"t*-"|iita,:;;i,T;;;,;;;;:;;";::i;[ rrameworkror i;:::;,i:;tr:":Jl;i,;)l*":i;ffi ,;;;t ,1 #i::i:i i,i.ff i, 'JJ';' c. Roce,s, iR., i' & {i# Fiebes,if i l*;:ii:;,:*i1",.i1,;^i:ffii;il,,: A. r i,bgZ ii"ii,i;i:ii*ffJTilil,u,n*.u.*
\leinet B. (2005). Motivaton from an atuibutional pespective and the social psychology of per.

-"* """""-ttut' (pp. \pP )-72) 52-72). New Nes' York; Pinrrich, vok, Guilford pess, rch, p P R. (2003). A morivtioi curord pes6, morivaio ;, "",:::y_?:!':tion oJtudent ,ns and achios co n.o". ,o,,,,.,')ll2l,:-"i:p-i*-: ^i;-.*:," l.'.,]e

"'f,J;.i3lir',i::r:::;:Iii:i;i:;*::::.".'J,';:,::k1io,'n"i;., suat construct. In A. J. El.liot & Dweck (Eds.), Handbooi of competei *. C. s ,

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il,?i,?,' " :il:i::i-;1, wrgneld, .\., & Eccies, S. (2002).

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