University of Khartoum Faculty of Engineering Chemical Engineering Department

Report about:

Non-metallic Material as Material of Construction for Vessels

Prepared by : Osman M.Elbashir

Supervised by : Mr.Hussain Ayyoub

June 2012

Contents NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Topic Introduction

PLASTICS AS MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR CHEMICAL PLANT

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Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC) Polyolefines Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) Glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GRP) Rubber CERAMIC MATERIALS (SILICATE MATERIALS) GLASS Stoneware Acid-resistant bricks and tiles Refractory materials (refractories) CARBON PROTECTIVE COATINGS DESIGN FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE References

Introduction The chemical engineer will not usually be called on to undertake the detailed mechanical design of a pressure vessel. Vessel design is a specialized subject and will be carried out by mechanical engineers who are conversant with the current design codes and practices and methods of stress analysis. However, the chemical engineer will be responsible for developing and specifying the basic design information for a particular vessel, and therefore needs to have a general appreciation of pressure vessel design to work effectively with the specialist designer. Another reason the process engineer must have an appreciation of methods of fabrication, design codes, and other constraints on pressure vessel design is that these constraints often dictate limits on the process conditions. Mechanical constraints can cause significant cost thresholds in design, for example, when a costlier grade of alloy is required above a certain temperature. The basic data needed by the specialist designer will be : Vessel function; Process materials and services; Operating and design temperature and pressure; Materials of construction; Vessel dimensions and orientation; Types of vessel heads to be used; Openings and connections required; Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils; Type of agitator; Specification of internal fittings. An elementary understanding of pressure vessel design is needed in the preliminary stages of design, as most correlations for pressure vessel costs are based on the weight of metal required, and hence require an estimate of the vessel wall thickness as well as its volume. In many cases the required wall thickness will be determined by the combination of loads acting on the vessel rather than internal pressure alone. A data sheet for pressure vessel design is given in Appendix G. Pressure vessel
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information is also included in the data sheets for fixed-bed reactors, vaporliquid contactors, and heat exchangers. For the purposes of design and analysis, pressure vessels are subdivided into two classes depending on the ratio of the wall thickness to vessel diameter: thin-walled vessels, with a thickness ratio of less than 1:10; and thick-walled above this ratio.The principal stresses acting at a point in the wall of a vessel,due to a pressure load, are shown in Figure 13.1. If the wall is thin, the radial stress s3will be small and can be neglected in comparison with the other stresses, and thelongitudinal and circumferential stresses s1 and s2 can be taken as constant over the wall thickness. In a thick wall, the magnitude of the radial stress will be significant, and the circumferential stress will vary across the wall. The majority of the vessels used in the chemical and allied industries are classified as thin-walled vessels. Thickwalled vessels are used for high pressures .

PLASTICS AS MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR CHEMICAL PLANT Plastics are being increasingly used as corrosion-resistant materials for chemical plant construction. They can be divided into two broad classes: 1. Thermoplastic materials, which soften with increasing temperature; for example, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene. 2. Thermosetting materials, which have a rigid, cross-linked structure; for example, the polyester and epoxy resins. Details of the chemical composition and properties of the wide range of plastics used as Engineering material can be found in the books by Butt andWright (1980) and Evans (1974). The biggest use of plastics is for piping; sheets are also used for lining vessels and for fabricated ducting and fan casings. Mouldings are used for small items; such as, pump impellers, valve parts and pipe fittings. Themechanical strength and operating temperature of plastics are low compared with that of metals. The mechanical strength, and other properties, can be modified by the addition of fillers and plasticisers. When reinforced with glass or carbon fibres thermosetting plastics can have a strength equivalent to mild steel, and are used for pressure vessels and pressure piping. Unlike metals, plastics are flammable. Plastics can be considered to complement metals as corrosion-resistant materials of construction. They generally have good resistance to dilute acids and inorganic salts, but suffer degradation in organic solvents that would not attack metals. Unlike metals, plastics can absorb solvents, causing swelling and softening. The properties and typical areas of use of the main plastics used for chemical plant are reviewed briefly in the following sections. A comprehensive discussion of the use of plastics as corrosion-resistant materials is given in a book by Fontana (1986). The mechanical properties and relative cost of plastics are given in Table 7.9.

Approximate cost relative to polyethylene, volumetric basis.

7.9.1. Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC)

PVC is probably the most commonly used thermoplastic material in the chemical industry. Of the available grades, rigid (unplasticised) PVC is the most widely used. It is resistant to most inorganic acids, except strong sulphuric and nitric, and inorganic salt solutions. It is unsuitable, due to swelling, for use with most organic solvents. The maximum operating temperature for PVC is low, 60 C. The use of PVC as a material of construction in chemical engineering is discussed in a series of articles by Mottram and Lever (1957).

7.9.2. Polyolefines
Low-density polyethylene (polythene) is a relatively cheap, tough, flexible plastic. It has a low softening point and is not suitable for use above about 60C. The higher density polymer (950 kg/m3) is stiffer, and can be used at higher temperatures. Polypropylene is a stronger material than the polyethylenes and can be used at temperatures up to 120C. The chemical resistance of the polyolefines is similar to that of PVC.

7.9.3. Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE)

PTFE, known under the trade names Teflon and Fluon, is resistant to all chemicals, except molten alkalies and fluorine, and can be used at temperatures up to 250C. It is a relatively weak material, but its mechanical strength can be improved by the addition of fillers (glass and carbon fibres). It is expensive and difficult to fabricate. PTFE is used extensively for
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gaskets and gland packings. As a coating, it is used to confer non-stick properties to surfaces, such as filter plates. It can also be used as a liner for vessels.

7.9.4. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)

PVDF has properties similar to PTFE but is easier to fabricate. It has good resistance to inorganic acids and alkalis, and organic solvents. It is limited to a maximum operating temperature of 140C.

7.9.5. Glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GRP)

The polyester resins, reinforced with glass fibre, are the most common thermosetting plastics used for chemical plant. Complex shapes can be easily formed using the techniques developed for working with reinforced plastics. Glass-reinforced plastics are relatively MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 303 strong and have a good resistance to a wide range of chemicals. The mechanical strength depends on the resin used; the form of the reinforcement (chopped mat or cloth); and the ratio of resin to glass. By using special techniques, in which the reinforcing glass fibres are wound on in the form of a continuous filament, high strength can be obtained, and this method is used to produce pressure vessels. The polyester resins are resistant to dilute mineral acids, inorganic salts and many solvents. They are less resistant to alkalies. Glass-fibre-reinforced epoxy resins are also used for chemical plant but are more expensive than the polyester resins. In general they are resistant to the same range of chemicals as the polyesters, but are more resistant to alkalies. The chemical resistance of GRP is dependent on the amount of glass reinforcement used. High ratios of glass to resin give higher mechanical strength but generally lower resistance to some chemicals. The design of chemical plant equipment in GRP is the subject of a book by Malleson (1969); see also Shaddock (1971) and Baines (1984).

7.9.6. Rubber
Rubber, particularly in the form of linings for tanks and pipes, has been extensively used in the chemical industry for many years. Natural rubber is most commonly used, because of its good resistance to acids (except concentrated nitric) and alkalies. It is unsuitable for use with most organic solvents. Synthetic rubbers are also used for particular applications. Hypalon (trademark, E. I. du Pont de Nemours) has a good resistance to strongly oxidising chemicals and can be used with nitric acid. It is unsuitable for use with chlorinated solvents. Viton (trademark, E. I. du Pont de Nemours) has a better resistance to solvents, including chlorinated solvents, than other rubbers. Both Hypalon and Viton are expensive, compared with other synthetic, and natural, rubbers. The use of natural rubber lining is discussed by Saxman (1965), and the chemical resistance of synthetic rubbers by Evans (1963). Butt and Wright (1984) give an authoritative account of the application and uses of rubber and plastics linings and coatings.

7.10. CERAMIC MATERIALS (SILICATE MATERIALS)

Ceramics are compounds of non-metallic elements and include the following materials used for chemical plant: Glass, the borosilicate glasses (hard glass). Stoneware. Acid-resistant bricks and tiles. Refractory materials. Cements and concrete.
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Ceramic materials have a cross-linked structure and are therefore brittle.

Ceramics are materials with high resistance to thermal, mechanical and chemical influences and are therefore used as high temperature materials, as carriers of catalysts or friction materials in critical components. Ceramic materials are also used for their chemical, magnetic, optical or electrical properties in sensors and actuators. Activities within ceramics at Swerea IVF cover a wide field of materials including construction ceramics, bioceramics, electroceramics, refractory materials and porcelain. Activities within ceramics comprise manufacturing processes, prototype development, the characterisation of materials and powders, prototyping and design using ceramic materials.

Examples of activities: Characterisation of powders (ceramics, metal powders and hard metals) Characterisation of powder suspensions and powder-based pastes Methods of granulating powders (ceramics, metal powders and hard metals) Shaping processes for ceramic components Ceramic sintering methods The development of ceramic prototypes Characterisation of the material properties of ceramics

Swerea IVF works with a wide range of powder forming methods such as slip casting, gel casting, granulation and pressing, tape casting, extrusion and powder injection moulding. The development of powder handling and ceramic forming processes is carried out in a structured and systematic way, through a solid foundation in surface and colloid chemistry and rheology. The research team participates in international projects and is internationally recognized within the field of ceramic forming processes.

In the development of innovative new products, key components made from ceramics may be used to increase product performance and longevity. Swerea IVF can play an important role in this development through the potential to develop prototypes and small series of components using techniques that can be scaled up to efficient production.

Since ceramics are important materials for dental and orthopaedic applications, the development of bioceramic applications takes place within these areas. Ceramic packaging is developed in cooperation with electronic packaging, integrating ceramic and metallic conductors, both based upon two-dimensional multi-layer technology (LTCC) and three-dimensional computer-controlled freeform fabrication. In this way, ceramic packaging is developed for sensors being used in harsh environments and for cooling high-power electronics.

7.10.1. Glass
Borosilicate glass (known by several trade names, including Pyrex) is used for chemical plant as it is stronger than the soda glass used for general purposes; it is more resistant to thermal shock and chemical attack. Glass equipment is available from several specialist manufacturers. Pipes and fittings are produced in a range of sizes, up to 0.5 m. Special equipment, such as heat exchangers, is available and, together with the larger sizes of pipe, is used to construct distillation and absorption columns. Teflon gaskets are normally used for jointing glass equipment and pipe. Where failure of the glass could cause injury, pipes and equipment should be protected by external shielding or wrapping with plastic tape. Glass linings, also known as glass enamel, have been used on steel and iron vessels
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for many years. Borosilicate glass is used, and the thickness of the lining is about 1 mm. The techniques used for glass lining, and the precautions to be taken in the design and fabrication of vessels to ensure a satisfactory lining, are discussed by Landels and Stout (1970). Borosilicate glass is resistant to acids, salts and organic chemicals. It is attacked by the caustic alkalies and fluorine The great industrial revolution that began in Britain and subsequent urban development paved the way for wide use of quality glass. Two hundred years later, the use of glass will become unavoidable in buildings especially after 2010, as none of the other materials can equal the physical attributes of glass like transparency insulation and radiation levels in achieving the ECBC that will become mandatory then. Glass making was originally discovered by potters in Mesopotamia which is roughly the present geographical location of Iraq and Syria. Clay tablets bearing secret instructions for furnace building and glass making trace the beginnings to 1300 BC. Commercial production of glass is believed to have commenced only in 1680 AD after a new method of casting glass onto a table was invented making a drastic change from the earlier process. From industrial requirements to architectural designs, glass became a standard by itself. History was created in 1917 when the French Prime Minister Clemenceau was protected from an assassins bullet, stopped by a glass windshield of his car. The triplex glass that stopped the bullet was from Saint-Gobain. After hundreds of years of use as a decorative material, glass was finally recognised as a material for construction. Realising it could be also made in both translucent and transparent form, glass was also perceived as a warm friendly material superior and more cost effective than cement, concrete and steel. The twentieth century ushered in the modern era of glass, with skyscrapers redefining the skyline. Glass cladding of buildings is no longer just design-oriented it fulfils functional requirements of lighting, heat retention and energy saving. The nature of glass its visual appeal, interplay with light, a sense of openness and harmonious integration with the environment facilitates interesting and creative uses both in the interiors and exteriors of any building, big or small. Visual clarity is of utmost importance odd as it may sound, glass should never be seen. The best way to distinguish good quality glass is for it to be virtually invisible as in the Saint-Gobain television advertisements. The clarity of glass also made it the most suited material in the manufacture of mirrors. Even small defects in glass are exposed or highlighted by the silvering process. Today we cannot imagine a home without mirrors, be it for dressing tables, bathrooms or for shaving and make-up. Since humans do not tolerate an untrue representation (image) of oneself, the best mirrors originate from the best glass. .

7.10.2. Stoneware
Chemical stoneware is similar to the domestic variety, but of higher quality; stronger and with a better glaze. It is available in a variety of shapes for pipe runs and columns. As for glass, it is resistant to most chemicals, except alkalies and fluorine. The composition and properties of chemical stoneware are discussed by Holdridge (1961). Stoneware and porcelain shapes are used for packing absorption and distillation columns (see Chapter 11).

7.10.3. Acid-resistant bricks and tiles

High-quality bricks and tiles are used for lining vessels, ditches and to cover floors. The linings are usually backed with a corrosion-resistant membrane of rubber or plastic, placed behind the titles, and special acid-resistant cements are used for the joints. Brick and tile linings are covered in a book by Falcke and Lorentz (1985).

7.10.4. Refractory materials (refractories)

Refractory bricks and cements are needed for equipment operating at high temperatures; such as, fired heaters, high-temperature reactors and boilers. The refractory bricks in common use are composed of mixtures of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3). The quality of the bricks is largely determined by the relative amounts of these materials and the firing temperature. Mixtures of silica and alumina form a
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eutectic (94.5 per cent SiO2, 1545C) and for a high refractoriness under load (the ability to resist distortion at high temperature) the composition must be well removed from the eutectic composition. The highest quality refractory bricks, for use in load-bearing structures at high temperatures, contain high proportions of silica or alumina. Silica bricks, containing greater than 98 per cent SiO2, are used for general furnace construction. High alumina bricks, 60 per cent Al2O3, are used for special furnaces where resistance to attack by alkalies is important; such as lime and cement kilns. Fire bricks, typical MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 305 composition 50 per cent SiO2, 40 per cent Al2O3, balance CaO and Fe2O3, are used for general furnace construction. Silica can exist in a variety of allotropic forms, and bricks containing a high proportion of silica undergo reversible expansion when heated up to working temperature. The higher the silica content the greater the expansion, and this must be allowed for in furnace design and operation. Ordinary fire bricks, fire bricks with a high porosity, and special bricks composed of diatomaceous earths are used for insulating walls. Full details of the refractory materials used for process and metallurgical furnaces can be found in the books by Norton (1968) and Lyle (1947).

7.11. CARBON
Impervious carbon, impregnated with chemically resistant resins, is used for specialised equipment; particularly heat exchangers. It has a high conductivity and a good resistance to most chemicals, except oxidising acids, of concentrations greater than 30 per cent. Carbon tubes can be used in conventional shell and tube exchanger arrangements; or proprietary designs can be used, in which the fluid channels are formed in blocks of carbon; see Hilland (1960) and Denyer (1991).

7.12. PROTECTIVE COATINGS

A wide range of paints and other organic coatings is used for the protection of mild steel structures. Paints are used mainly for protection from atmospheric corrosion. Special chemically resistant paints have been developed for use on chemical process equipment. Chlorinated rubber paints and epoxy-based paints are used. In the application of paints and other coatings, good surface preparation is essential to ensure good adhesion of the paint film or coating. Brief reviews of the paints used to protect chemical plant are given by Ruff (1984) and Hullcoop (1984).

7.13. DESIGN FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE

The life of equipment subjected to corrosive environments can be increased by proper attention to design details. Equipment should be designed to drain freely and completely. The internal surfaces should be smooth and free from crevasses where corrosion products and other solids can accumulate. Butt joints should be used in preference to lap joints. The use of dissimilar metals in contact should be avoided, or care taken to ensure that they are effectively insulated to avoid galvanic corrosion. Fluid velocities and turbulence should be high enough to avoid the deposition of solids, but not so high as to cause erosion-corrosion.

References

1- Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6 . 2- Chemical Engineering Design Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design 3- http://www.swerea.se/en/Start2/Working-Areas/Ceramics/ date: 8 june 2012 5:30 pm 4- http://propertybytes.indiaproperty.com/index.php/city-scape/glass-in-construction date: 8 june 2012 6:00 pm