Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Svetlana Katok
Department of Mathematics
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A.
Preface
These notes are a result of the MASS course of the same title that I
gave in the MASS program in the Fall of 2000. The choice of the topic
was modivated by the internal beauty of the subject of p-adic analysis, an
unusual one in the undergraduate curriculum, and abundant opportunities
to compare it with its much more familiar real counterpart.
There are several pedagogical advantages of this approach. Both real
and p-adic numbers are obtained from the rationals by a procedure called
completion, which can be applied to any metric space by using different dis-
tances on the rationals: the usual Euclidean distance for the reals and a new
p-adic distance for each prime p, for the p-adics. The p-adic distance satisfies
the “strong triangle inequality” that causes surprising properties of p-adic
numbers and leads to interesting deviations from the classical real analysis
much like the renunciation of the fifth postulate of Euclid’s Elements, the
axiom of parallels, leads to non-Euclidean geometry. Similarities, on the
other hand, arise when the fact does not depend on the “strong triangle
inequality”, and in these cases the same proof works in the real and p-adic
cases. Analysis of the differences and similarities helps the students to better
understand the proofs in both contexts.
The material of these notes appears in several classical texts [1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 9], but either remains on an elementary level with more emphasis
on number theory than on analysis, or quickly leads to matters way too
sophisticated for the undergraduate students. My only contribution was to
choose the appropriate material, to simplify the proofs in some cases, and
to present it in the proper context.
I included several topics from real analysis and elementary topology
which are not usually covered in undergraduate courses (totally disconnec-
ted spaces and Cantor sets, points of discontinuity of maps and the Baire
category theorem, surjectiveness of isometries of compact metric spaces).
They enhanced the students’ understanding of real analysis and intertwined
the real and p-adic contexts of the course.
The course entailed a large number of homework problems (with empha-
sis on proofs) which appear in these notes. Besides solving the homework
problems, the students were asked to give presentations on additional topics.
1
2 PREFACE
The final presentations, some of which were quite advanced, included the
following of: Finite extensions of p-adic numbers and p-adic circles; Isome-
tries on the p-adic integers; The p-adic solenoid; The X-adic norm of power
series; The Signum function; Equireal triangulations; Euclidean models of
the p-adic integers; Graphical model of the Peano curve via Cantor set;
Revised harmonic series; On diagonal cubic equations.
CHAPTER 1
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
This representation is unique unless ak = 0 for all k > n, in which case a
has a second representation with a0n = an − 1, a0k = 9 for k > n, and a0i = ai
for i < n − 1.
It is easy to construct a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers which has
no limit in Q:
where the coefficients ak take values in the set {0, 1, . . . , g − 1}. Note that
the exponents −k of g are descending and tend to −∞.
Practically, completion is often obtained by a different construction:
Theorem 1.1.1. Let M be a complete metric space and let X be a subset
of M . Then X is complete if and only if it is closed in M . In particular,
the closure of X in M can be taken as its completion.
Example 1.1.2. The completion of an interval (a, b) with respect to the
usual Euclidean distance is the segment [a, b], the closure of (a, b) in R.
For other examples, see Exercise 4.
Exercises
1. Prove that a number is rational if and only if its representation by an
infinite decimal fraction is eventually periodic.
2. Prove that any Cauchy sequence of rational numbers with respect to the
Euclidean distance has a representative which is a sequence of partial sums
of a series of the form (1.1.2).
3. Use the representation of real numbers as infinite decimal fractions to
prove that the set of real numbers is complete with respect to the Euclidean
distance, i.e., that any Cauchy sequence of real numbers has a limit.
4. Prove that the following metric spaces are not complete, and construct
their completions:
(a) R with the distance d(x, y) = | arctan x − arctan y|;
(b) R with the distance d(x, y) = |ex − ey |.
5. Prove that a metric space is complete if and only if the intersection of
every nested sequence of closed balls {Bn }, B1 ⊃ B2 ⊃ B3 ⊃ . . . whose radii
approach zero consists of a single point.
• a null sequence if
lim kan k = 0,
n→∞
i.e., for any ε > 0 there is a N such that for all n > N kan k < ε;
• a Cauchy sequence if
lim kan − am k = 0,
n,m→∞
i.e., for any ε > 0 there is an N such that for all n, m > N we have
kan − am k < ε;
• convergent to a ∈ F (we write a = limn→∞ an ) if
lim kan − ak = 0,
n→∞
i.e. for any ε > 0 there is an N such that for all n > N kan − ak < ε.
It follows from the definition that any null sequence converges to 0, and
it follows from the triangle inequality that any converging sequence is a
Cauchy sequence: suppose limn→∞ an = a, then
ε ε
kan − am k = kan − a + a − am k ≤ kan − ak + ka − am k < + = ε
2 2
1.2. NORMED FIELDS 7
for n, m > N chosen for ε/2 in the definition of limit. In particular, every
null sequence is a Cauchy sequence. Further properties are listed below and
are obtained by the same standard technique (Exercise 7).
(a) Every Cauchy sequence is bounded.
(b) Let {an } be a Cauchy sequence and {n1 , n2 , . . . } be an increasing
sequence of positive integers. If the subsequence an1 , an2 , . . . is a
null sequence, then {an } itself is a null sequence.
(c) If {an } and {bn } are null sequences, so is {an ± bn }, and if {an } is
a null sequence and {bn } is a bounded sequence, then {an bn } is a
null sequence.
The following is a simple but very useful result.
Proposition 1.2.4. kxk < 1 if and only if limn→∞ xn = 0.
Proof. Let kxk < 1. Since kxn k = kxkn , we obtain
lim kxn k = 0,
n→∞
i.e., limn→∞ xn = 0. Conversely, if kxk ≥ 1, then for all positive n we have
kxn k ≥ 1, and therefore 0 6= limn→∞ xn .
Definition 1.2.5. We say that two metrics d1 and d2 on F are equivalent
if a sequence is Cauchy with respect to d1 if and only if it is Cauchy with
respect to d2 . We say two norms ||·||1 and ||·||2 are equivalent (||·||1 ∼ ||·||2 )
if they induce equivalent metrics.
Proposition 1.2.6. Let || · ||1 and || · ||2 be two norms on a field F .
Then || · ||1 ∼ || · ||2 if and only if there exists a positive real number α such
that
||x||2 = ||x||α1 , ∀x ∈ F. (1.2.1)
Proof. Suppose || · ||1 ∼ || · ||2 . If k · k1 is trivial, then by Exercise 8
k · k2 is also trivial, and hence (1.2.1) is satisfied for any α.
If k · k1 is nontrivial, then we can choose an element a ∈ F such that
kak1 6= 1. Replacing a by 1/a if necessary, we can assume that kak1 < 1.
Define
log kak2
α= .
log kak1
Notice that since the norms are equivalent, by Exercise 9 we have kak2 < 1
as well, hence both logarithms are negative and α > 0.
We will show that this α satisfies (1.2.1). First take x ∈ F with kxk1 < 1;
the cases kxk1 > 1 and kxk1 = 1 then follow from Exercise 9. Consider the
set
m
S= r= | m, n ∈ N, kxkr1 < kak1 . (1.2.2)
n
For any r ∈ S we ave
m
x
kxkm < kakn1 , . Fd so
1 an < 1.
1
8 1. CONSTRUCTION OF p-ADIC NUMBERS
Exercises
6. From the triangle inequality for the norm on a field F (Definition 1.2.1(3))
deduce that
11. Prove that if k · k is non-Archimedian, then any point of the closed ball
B a,r = {x : ||x − a|| ≤ r} in F is its center (and the same is true for the
open ball Ba,r = {x : ||x − a|| < r}).
12. Prove that if k · k is a non-Archimedian norm, then k · kα is also a
non-Archimedian norm for any α > 0. (Compare with Proposition 1.2.7 for
the Euclidean absolute value on Q.)
where the Cauchy sequence on the right differs from 1̄ by the null sequence
{−1, . . . , −1, 0, 0, 0 . . . }.
| {z }
N −1 (−1)0 s
1
kAn − (an )k < . (1.3.2)
n
Therefore {An − (an )} is null sequence, hence a Cauchy sequence in F . We
have
{(an )} = {An } − {An − (an )},
hence {(an )} is a Cauchy sequence in F , but since all its elements belong
to F , {an } itself is a Cauchy sequence in F . Let us denote the equivalence
class of {an } by A (in our notations, (an ) ∈ F ). From (1.3.1) and (1.3.2) it
follows that {A − (an )} and {An − (an )} are null sequences in F , and hence
their difference
{A − An } = {A − (an )} − {An − (an )}
then
A + B = lim (an + bn ), A · B = lim (an · bn ).
n→∞ n→∞
Exercises
13. Prove that if {an } and {bn } are Cauchy sequences, then so are
{an + bn }, {an − bn }, and {an bn }.
14. Prove that if {an } ∼ {a0n } and {bn } ∼ {b0n } are two pairs of equivalent
Cauchy sequences, then {an ± bn } ∼ {a0n ± b0n } and {an · bn } ∼ {a0n · b0n }.
15. Prove Proposition 1.3.5.
1.4. THE FIELD OF p-ADIC NUMBERS Qp 15
ai = d0 + d1 p + . . . + di−1 pi−1 ,
where all the di ’s are integers in {0, 1, . . . , p−1}. Our condition (b) precisely
means that
a = . . . dn . . . d2 d1 d0
and call this the canonical p-adic expansion or canonical form of a.
If |a|p > 1, then we can multiply a by a power of p (namely by pm = |a|p )
so as to get a p-adic number a0 = apm that does satisfy |a0 |p ≤ 1.
Then we can write
∞
X
a= dn pn , (1.4.2)
n=−m
where d−m 6= 0 and bi ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1}, and represent the given p-adic
number a as a fraction in the base p with infinitely many p-adic digits before
the point and finitely many digits after:
...............
such that each sequence is a subsequence of the preceeding one, and such
that each element of the nth row ends with bn . . . b1 b0 . For each j = 0, 1, . . .
we have
Exercises
16. What is the cardinality of Zp ? Justify your answer.
17. Prove that Zp = {a ∈ Qp | |a|p ≤ 1}.
18. Find the p-adic norm and the p-adic expansion of:
(a) 15, −1, −3 in Q5
(b) 6! in Q3
(c) 1/3! in Q3
19. Find the p-adic expansion of 1/p. What about 1/pk ?
20. Find the p-adic expansion of 1/2 if p is an odd prime.
∞
X
ab = un p n ,
n=−m−k
where
u−m−k = a−m b−k ,
u−m−k+1 = a−m+1 b−k + a−m b−k+1 ,
............
This series again in general is not in canonical form, but the method of
Theorem 1.4.3 allows us to reduce it to such a form. Again, this corresponds
to the standard multiplication procedure performed on p-adic numbers given
in the canonical form (1.4.3).
To illustrate division, suppose we have a, b ∈ Qp and b 6= 0. Without
loss of generality we may assume that b ∈ Zp , b = . . . b2 b1 b0 with b0 6= 0,
while
a = . . . a3 a2 a1 a0 .a−1 . . . a−k
is an arbitrary p-adic number. Since b0 6= 0 and since the ring of residues
Z/pZ for a prime p is a field, we can always find a c−k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}
such that c−k b0 ≡ a−k (mod p). Continuing the usual division procedure
(carrying, if necessary, 1 to the left), we obtain the quotient a/b in canonical
form.
It follows that if a = . . . a2 a1 a0 is a p-adic integer with a0 6= 0, then
its multiplicative inverse 1/a is also ... a p-adic integer! (This property of
p-adic integers may seem weird at first glance, but it is admittedly a nice
one to have.) On the other hand, since
∞
X
p· ai pi = a0 p + a1 p2 + · · · =
6 1 + 0p + 0p2 + . . . ,
i=0
it follows that p has no multiplicative inverse in Zp (of course, p has a
multiplicative inverse in Qp (Exercise 19)!). A similar argument shows that
a p-adic integer whose last digit a0 is zero has no multiplicative inverse in
Zp . We summarize this in the following proposition.
Proposition 1.5.1. A p-adic integer
a = . . . a1 a0 ∈ Zp
has a multiplicative inverse in Zp if and only if a0 6= 0.
We will denote the group of invertible elements in Zp by Z×
p,
(∞ )
X
Z×
p = ai p | a0 6= 0 .
i
i=1
This group is also called the group of p-adic units. By Exercise 21,
Z×
p = {x ∈ Zp | |x|p = 1}.
22 1. CONSTRUCTION OF p-ADIC NUMBERS
The following proposition follows at once from the definition of the p-adic
norm and Exercise 21.
Proposition 1.5.2. Let x be a p-adic number of norm p−n . Then x can
be written as the product x = pn u, where u ∈ Z×
p.
Exercises
21. Prove that Z×p = {x ∈ Zp | |x|p = 1}.
22. If a ∈ Qp has the canonical p-adic expansion
. . . an . . . a2 a1 a0 .a−1 . . . a−m ,
what is the canonical p-adic expansion of −a?
23. The integers 2,3,4 are invertible in Z5 . Find the 5-adic expansions of
their inverses. Find the expansion of 1/3 in Z7 .
24. Find the canonical p-adic expansion of:
(a) . . . 1246 × . . . 6003 in Q7 to 4 digits
(b) 1 : . . . 1323 in Q5 to 4 digits
(c) 900 − . . . 312.3 in Q11 to 4 digits
25. Find the p-adic norm of pn !.
26.* Find the p-adic norm of n!.
a − (pn − 1)b a
≤ rn ≤ n .
pn p
For sufficiently large n, this implies −b ≤ rn ≤ 0, which means that rn takes
only finitely many values. Now we can write
rn rn+1 rn+1
x = An + pn = An+1 + pn+1 = An + xn pn + pn+1 .
b b b
This implies rn = xn b + prn+1 for all n. Since rn takes only finitely many
values, there exist an index m and a positive integer P such that rm = rm+P ,
hence
Exercises
27. Prove that
(a) Zp ∩ Q = {a/b ∈ Q : p 6 | b},
(b) Z×
p ∩ Q = {a/b ∈ Q : p 6 | ab}.
28.* Let r ∈ Q. Prove that for an appropriate k ≥ 1, the p-adic expansion
of rpk can be represented in the form . . . aaaaab., where the fragments a and
b have the same number of digits. Prove that r > 0 is equivalent to b > a
in the usual sense (as integers written in base p).
29. Prove that the p-adic expansion of a ∈ Qp terminates (i.e., ai = 0
for all i greater than some N ) if and only if a is a positive rational number
whose denominator is a power of p.
1 + 1 × 5 ≡ (1 + 3 × 5 + a2 × 52 )2 ≡ 1 + 1 × 5 + 2a2 × 52 (mod 53 ) ,
which implies 2a2 ≡ 0 (mod 5) and therefore a2 = 0.
So, we get a series
a = 1 + 3 × 5 + 0 × 52 + . . . ,
where each ai after a0 is uniquely determined.
1.7. HENSEL’S LEMMA AND CONGRUENCES 25
−a = 4 + 1 × 5 + 4 × 52 + 0 × 53 + . . .
It is not very difficult to see that there exist numbers in Q5 which have
no square root (for example 2 + 1 × 5).
The above method of solving equations (like x2 −6 = 0 in Q5 ) can be gen-
eralized by using an extremely important result called “Hensel’s Lemma”.
Generalizing Remark 2 preceding Proposition 1.4.1, we say that a and
b ∈ Qp are congruent mod pn and write
a≡b (mod pn )
ak = b0 + b1 p = · · · + bk pk
The base of induction is obvious: taking b0 equal to the first p-adic digit
of a0 , we will have a0 ≡ a0 and F (a0 ) ≡ 0 (mod p).
Now let us perform the induction step, i.e., prove that S(k − 1) implies
S(k). To do this, we set ak = ak−1 + bk pk for some (as yet unknown) digit
bk satisfying 0 ≤ bk < p and expand F (ak ), ignoring terms divisible by pk+1 :
26 1. CONSTRUCTION OF p-ADIC NUMBERS
X
n
F (ak ) = F (ak−1 + bk pk ) = ci (ak−1 + bk )i =
i=0
X
n
= ci (aik−1 + iai−1 k k
k−1 b p + terms divisible by p
k+1
)
i=0
≡ F (ak−1 ) + bk pk F 0 (ak−1 ) (mod p).
Since F (ak−1 ) ≡ 0 (mod pk ) by the inductive assumption, we can write
F (ak ) ≡ αk pk + bk pk F 0 (ak−1 ) (mod p)
for some integer αk ∈ {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}. Thus we come to the following
equation for the unknown digit bk ,
F (a) = 0. (1.7.2)
By Theorem 1.4.3 there exists a sequence of integers {a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , . . .} such
that
a ≡ ak (mod pk ) (ak = b0 + b1 p + b2 p2 + · · · + bk−1 pk−1 ).
Then F (ak ) ≡ F (a) (mod pk ) and F (a) = 0 imply
F (ak ) ≡ 0 (mod pk ). (1.7.3)
Conversely, suppose the congruence (1.7.3) has an integer solution ak
for any k ≥ 1. According to Theorem 1.4.5, the sequence {ak } contains a
convergent subsequence {aki }, limi→∞ aki = a. We want to show that a is
a solution of equation (1.7.2). Since a polynomial is a continuous function,
we have
F (a) = lim F (aki )
i→∞
(here we just use the fact that the limit of the sum is the sum of the limits
and the limit of the product is the product of limits, i.e., Theorem 1.3.5).
On the other hand,
F (aki ) ≡ 0 (mod pki ).
Therefore limi→∞ F (aki ) = 0, and thus F (a) = 0.
A practical consequence of Theorem 1.7.2 is the following. If a polyno-
mial with integer coefficients has no roots modulo p, then it has no roots in
Zp . It is usually not too hard to find its roots modulo p if it has any. If
a root modulo p is not a root of the derivative modulo p, then by Hensel’s
lemma, we can find a root in Zp .
The second condition (F 0 (a0 ) ≡ 0 (mod p)) in Theorem 1.7.1 is essential
(see Exercise 30.
We say that a rational integer a not divisible by p is called a quadratic
residue modulo p if the congruence
x2 ≡ a (mod p)
has a solution in {1, 2, . . . , p − 1}. Otherwise a is called a quadratic non-
residue.
28 1. CONSTRUCTION OF p-ADIC NUMBERS
Exercises
30. Construct a polynomial with integer coefficients which has a root
modulo 2, but no roots in Q2 .
31. Prove that any infinite bounded sequence in Qp has a convergent sub-
sequence.
32. Prove that if p 6= 2, a p-adic unit
u = c0 + c1 p + c2 p2 + . . .
is a square in Zp if and only if c0 is a quadratic residue modulo p.
33. Prove that the equation x3 − 1 = 0 has a solution a 6= 1 in Z7 and find
the first 3 digits in its canonical expansion.
34. Prove that the equation x5 − 1 = 0 has no solution a 6= 1 in Q7 . You
must explain why such roots of unity must be in Zp , not merely in Qp !
Proof. Suppose first that k·k is Archimedian, i.e., there exists a positive
integer n such that ||n|| > 1, and let n0 be the least such n. Then we can
write ||n0 || = nα0 for some positive real number α.
Now, write any positive integer n to the base n0 , i.e., in the form
n = a0 + a1 n0 + a2 n20 + . . . + as ns0 ,
where 0 ≤ ai < n0 , i = 0, . . . s, and as 6= 0. Then
||n|| ≤||a0 || + ||a1 n0 || + ||a2 n20 || + . . . + ||as ns0 ||
=||a0 || + ||a1 ||nα0 + ||a2 ||n2α
0 + . . . + ||as ||n0 .
sα
Since all of the digits ai are less than n0 (by our choice of n0 ), we have
||ai || ≤ 1, and hence
knk ≤ 1 + nα0 + n2α sα
0 + . . . + n0
−α −2α
≤ nsα
0 (1 + n0 + n0 + . . . + n−sα
0 )
∞
!
X 1 i
≤n α
,
i=0
nα0
because n ≥ ns0 . The expression in brackets is a finite constant independent
of n, which we call C. Thus
knk ≤ Cnα for all n = 1, 2, . . .
The same argument with nN in place of n yields
√
knN k ≤ CnN α ⇒ knk ≤ Cnα .
N
As before, we now use this inequality for nN , take N th roots, and let
N → ∞, obtaining
||n|| ≥ nα . (1.8.2)
From (1.8.1) and (1.8.2), we deduce that ||n|| = nα for all n ∈ N. Using
property (2) of norms, we readily see that ||x|| = |x|α for all x ∈ Q. In view
of Proposition 1.2.6, we can conclude that such a norm is equivalent to the
absolute value | · |.
Now suppose that k · k is non-Archimedian, i.e., we have ||n|| ≤ 1 for all
positive integers n. Because we have assumed that || · || is nontrivial, we can
find n0 , the least n such that ||n|| < 1. Observe that n0 must be a prime
number, because if n0 = n1 n2 , with n1 , n2 < n0 , then ||n1 || = ||n2 || = 1,
and so ||n0 || = ||n1 || ||n2 || = 1. Denote the prime number n0 by p.
Next, we will prove that if n is not divisible by p, then knk = 1. Write
n = rp + s with 0 < s < p. By the minimality of p, ksk = 1. We also have
krpk < 1 since kpk < 1 (by choice) and krk ≤ 1 (by the non-Archimedian
property). Consequently,
kn − sk < ksk.
and by Proposition 1.2.10, knk = ksk = 1. Finally, given any n ∈ Z, we can
write n = pv n0 , where p does not divide n0 . Hence
knk = kpkv kn0 k = kpkv .
Let ρ = kpk < 1. Then ρ = (1/p)α for some positive real α. Therefore
knk = |n|αp .
Now, it is easy to show (using property (2) of the norm) that the same
formula holds with any nonzero rational number x in place of a. In view of
Proposition 1.2.6, we have || · || ∼ | · |p and this concludes the proof of the
theorem.
Proposition 1.8.2. (Product Formula.) Let Q× = Q − {0}. For any
x ∈ Q× we have Y
|x|p = 1,
p≤∞
where the product is taken over all primes of Q including the “prime at
infinity”.
Proof. It is sufficient to prove this formula when x is a positive integer,
the rest follows from the multiplicative property of the norm. So, suppose
that x = pa11 ·pa22 · · · pakk . Then |x|q = 1 if q 6= pi , |x|pi = p−a
i
i
for i = 1, . . . , k,
a1 a2 ak
and |x| = p1 · p2 · · · pk . The result follows.
The product formula establishes a close relationship between the norms
on Q. For instance, if we know the values of all but one norm, this allows
to recover the value of the missing one. This is very important in many
applications to algebraic geometry.
1.9. A DIGRESSION: WHAT ABOUT Qg IF g IS NOT A PRIME? 31
Exercises
35. Two fields F and K are called isomorphic if there exists a map
ϕ : F → K such that
ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b), ϕ(a · b) = ϕ(a) · ϕ(b).
(a) Prove that Qp and R are not isomorphic.
(b)* Prove that if p 6= q are two primes, then Qp and Qq are not
isomorphic.
36. Let p 6= 2 be a prime. Denote (Q× ×
p ) = {a | a ∈ Qp }. Prove that
2 2
n in k · kp .
Ap = lim a(p)
n→∞
(p)
There is no reason why the sequence {an } should converge in k·kq for q 6= p,
and it may not even be bounded relative to k · kq . In order to overcome this
difficulty, we consider the sequences
5n 2n
e(2)
n = , e(5)
n = .
2n + 5n 2n + 5n
It is easy to see that
(
1 if p=q
lim e(p) = δpq in k · kq , where δpq =
n→∞ n 0 if p 6= q.
34 1. CONSTRUCTION OF p-ADIC NUMBERS
(p)
It follows that there is an infinite subsequence ern such that
(
(q) Ap if p=q
lim a(p) e(p) =
n→∞ n rn 0 if p 6= q.
Hence
(10) (10)
n ern = hA2 , 0i, and lim an ern = h0, A5 i.
lim a(2) (2) (5) (5)
n→∞ n→∞
(2) (2) (5) (5)
Finally, we see that the sequence an = an ern + an ern converges to
hA2 , A5 i = A.
Exercises
37. Prove that if g is not a prime, then |·| is a pseudo-norm, i.e., it satisfies
(1) and (3) of Definition 1.2.1 and (1.9.1).
38. Prove that Q10 is not a field by displaying zero divisors.
39. * Look at the following sequence of integers:
6, 76, 376, 9376, 109376 . . .
(a) Prove that it can be continued in a unique way to obtain a 10-adic
integer α = . . . 109376 such that α2 = α.
(b) Prove that the equation x2 = x has 4 solutions in Z10 , namely
0, 1, α and β.
(c) Find the last 6 digits of β.
(d) Deduce that Z10 ≈ Z5 ⊕ Z2 (direct product of groups).
40. Prove that there is no relation of order > on Qp possessing the following
properties:
(a) if x > y, then z + x > z + y for any z;
(b) if x > 0 and y > 0, then xy > 0;
(c) if xn > 0 and the limit exists limn→∞ xn = x exists, then x ≥ 0.
CHAPTER 2
Proof. Any ball B(a, r) is open in every metric space, since any point
x ∈ B(a, r) is in B(a, r), which is contained in B(a, r). In order to prove
that B(a, r) is closed in Qp , we will show that its complement,
C = {x ∈ Qp | |x − a|p ≥ r}
is open. But C = S(a, r) ∪ D, where
D = {x ∈ Qp | |x − a|p > r}.
The set D is open (this is true in every metric space). To see that, let y ∈ D.
Then |y − a|p = r1 > r. We claim that the open ball B(y, r1 − r) is contained
in D. Indeed, if it were not, then there would be an x ∈ B(y, r1 − r) such
that |x − a|p ≤ r. But
r1 = |y − a|p = |a − x + x − y|p ≤ |a − x|p + |x − y|p < r + r1 − r = r1 ,
a contradiction. The proposition now follows because the union of two open
sets is open.
Now let us recall that a point x ∈ M is a boundary point of a set A ⊂ M
if any open ball centered in x contains points that are in A and points that
are not in A, and a set A is closed iff it contains all its boundary points. It
follows from the definition that S(a, r) IS NOT a boundary of the open ball
B(a, r)! Proposition 2.1.2 immediately implies that B(a, r) has no boundary
at all! And, of course, the closed ball
The values of sgnp (x) are thus solutions of the equation y p − y = 0. Since
Qp is a field, this equation cannot have more than p solutions in Qp , and
42 2. TOPOLOGY OF Qp VERSUS THAT OF R
hence in Zp . Consequently, the only solutions of this equation are the values
of the signum function.
We will see that the Cantor set presents a geometric model for p–adic
integers for any prime p. Before we proceed, we recall the definitions of con-
tinuous maps between metric spaces, as well as of some important particular
classes of continuous maps.
Definition 2.3.5. Let (X, d) and (Y, ρ) be two metric spaces. Then
• a map f : X → Y is called continuous if for each open set V ⊂ Y its
inverse image f −1 (V ) is an open set in X;
• the map f is called open if for any open set U in X its image f (U ) is
open in Y ;
• the map f is a homeomorphism if it is continuous and bijective with
continuous inverse;
• the map f is continuous at the point x if for any neighborhood A of
f (x) in Y its inverse image f −1 (A) contains a neighborhood of x;
• the map f is uniformly continuous if for each ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0
such that d(x1 , x2 ) < δ implies ρ(f (x1 ), f (x2 )) < ε.
Theorem 2.3.6. The set of dyadic integers Z2 is homeomorphic to the
Cantor set C.
Proof. Let us consider the following map:
∞
X ∞
X 2ai
ψ: ai 2 7→
i
.
i=0 i=0
3i+1
We will show that ψ is a homeomorphism. First, we observe that, by the
uniqueness of representation in both Z2 and C, ψ is a bijection.
44 2. TOPOLOGY OF Qp VERSUS THAT OF R
Proof. It follows from [R, Theorem 2.47] that the connected compo-
nents of A are open intervals. The following argument, very common in
analysis, uses the fact that Q is dense in R: each connected component of
A contains a rational point, and since the set of all rational points is count-
able, and the connected components of A are disjoint, the set of connected
components is at most countable.
Lemma 2.3.10. Suppose f : A → B is a monotone bijection between two
subsets of R. Then f is a homeomorphism.
Proof. Note that f −1 is also a monotone bijection, so we need only
show that a monotone bijection is continuous. It is sufficient to check that
the preimage of an open set in B is open as a subset of A. Suppose (a, b) ⊂ R.
Then (a, b) ∩ B is an open set in B, and
f −1 ((a, b) ∩ B) ={x ∈ A | f (x) ∈ (a, b)} = {x ∈ A | a < f (x) < b}
={x ∈ A | f −1 (a) < x < f −1 (b)} = (f −1 (a), f −1 (b)) ∩ A,
which is obviously open in A, as required.
Theorem 2.3.11. Any compact perfect totally disconnected subset A of
the real line is homeomorphic to the Cantor set C.
Proof. Since the set A is compact, it is bounded; since it is totally
disconnected, the set A is also nowhere dense (does not contain any interval).
Let m = inf A (the greatest lower bound) and M = sup A (the least upper
bound). We will construct a strictly monotone function F : [m, M ] → [0, 1]
such that F (A) = C. The set [m, M ] − A is the union of at most countably
many disjoint intervals without common ends (since A is perfect). This set
of intervals cannot be finite since A is nowhere dense, so it is countable. We
denote this set of disjoint intervals by I.
We are going to define a bijection between the set I and the set of
intervals of the complement to the Cantor set C. Take one of the intervals
whose length is maximal (there are finitely many of them); denote it by
I. Define F on the interval I1 as the increasing linear map whose image
is the interval [1/3, 2/3]. Consider the longest intervals I21 and I22 to the
left and to the right of I. Map them linearly onto [1/9, 2/9] and [7/9, 8/9]
respectively, and so on. Continuing this process, we eventually obtain a
strictly monotone bijective map [m, M ] − A → [0, 1] − C. In order to prove
this, we note that the maximal length of the intervals chosen at each step of
the process is decreasing, and since for each interval I ∈ [m, M ] − A there
are only finitely many intervals in [m, M ] − A of length greater than |I|, we
conclude that all intervals in [m, M ] − A will be eventually taken. Thus,
there is a bijection between the set of intervals I in [m, M ] − A and the
set of their images in [0, 1] − C which preserves the order of the intervals,
i.e., A is to the left of B iff F (A) is to the left of F (B). Thus the map
[m, M ] − A → [0, 1] − C is a bijection. It is strictly monotone within each
interval in [m, M ] − A by construction, and if x and y, belong to different
46 2. TOPOLOGY OF Qp VERSUS THAT OF R
intervals and x < y, then F (x) < F (y) since F preserves the order of
intervals. The map F can be extended by continuity to the endpoints of
the deleted intervals E as a monotone increasing map. For any point a ∈ A
consider the subset
La = {x ∈ E | x < a}
and define F (a) = sup{f (x) | x ∈ La }. Since a = sup(La ) and the function
F is monotone increasing on [m, M ] − A ∪ E, the map F extends to the
whole closed interval [m, M ] as a monotone increasing map. Restricting it
to A and using Lemma 2.3.10, we see that the desired homeomorphism with
C has been constructed.
Corollary 2.3.12. The spaces Z2 and Zp are homeomorphic.
Another remarkable consequence of the previous considerations is the
following construction.
Theorem 2.3.13. There exists a continuous map of the unit interval I
onto the unit square I 2 .
Proof. This construction is due to A. Chindiapine.
Consider the map f : C → C 2 described in Exercise 45. It is a homeo-
morphism, hence a continuous map. Now let g : C → I be the map described
in Exercise 43 composed with the homeomorphism between C and Z2 . It is
also a continuous map. Its square g2 : C 2 → I 2 is a surjective continuous
map. Thus we obtain a continuous map g2 ◦ f : C → I 2 of the Cantor set C
onto the unit square I 2 . Since C ⊂ I, we can extend it by linearity to the
intervals of the complement to C to obtain the desired continuous map of I
onto I 2 .
Exercises
41. Prove that a map is continuous iff it is continuous at every point.
42. Prove that the image of a connected set under a continuous map is
connected.
43. Consider the map ϕ : Qp → R, which maps each p-adic number to a
real number in base p according to the rule
. . . b2 b1 b0 .b−1 b−2 . . . b−k → b−k . . . b−2 b−1 .b0 b1 b2 . . . ,
(a) Prove that ϕ is a continuous map of Qp onto the set of nonnegative
real numbers R+ .
(b) Prove that ϕ maps Zp onto the closed interval [0, 1].
(c) Prove that ϕ is not bijective.
EXERCISES 47
44. Consider the map f : I → I 2 of the unit interval I onto a unit square
I 2 given by
f : (0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . . ) 7→ (0.x1 x3 x5 . . . , 0.x2 x4 x6 . . . )
(in order to make this a well-defined map, we forbid “tails” consisting of
9’s). Prove that f is discontinuous.
45. Consider the map f : C → C 2 of the Cantor set C onto its square C 2
given by
f : (0.x1 x2 x3 x4 . . . ) 7→ (0.x1 x3 x5 . . . , 0.x2 x4 x6 . . . ).
Prove that f is a homeomorphism.
46. Given any two dense countable subsets A, B of the open interval (0, 1),
find a monotone increasing map ψ : (0, 1) → (0, 1) taking A to B. Conclude
that A and B are homeomorphic.
47.* Let A = Q ∩ [0, 1], and B = Q ∩ (0, 1). Prove that A and B are
homeomorphic.
48.* Is there a nonempty perfect set in R which contains no rational
number?
49. Modify the construction of the Cantor set C so as to obtain a set
homeomorphic to C but of positive measure, i.e., a Cantor-like set on [0, 1]
such that the sum of lengths of its complementary intervals is less than 1.
CHAPTER 3
Elementary analysis in Qp
P
Proof. Since |ai |p converges, it is Cauchy, i.e., for any ε > 0 there
exists an integer N such that for all n, m satisfying m > n > N , we have
X
m
|ai |p < ε.
i=n+1
By the triangle inequality,
X
m X
m
|Sm − Sn |p = ai ≤ |ai |p < ε,
p
i=n+1 i=n+1
P
which implies that {Sn } is Cauchy and so the series ai converges in Qp .
As usual, we expect something much better in Qp . Indeed, the following
result is a consequence of Theorem 3.1.1.
P
Proposition 3.1.3. A series ∞ n=1 an with an ∈ Qp converges in Qp if
and only if limn→∞ an = 0, in which case
X∞
an ≤ max |an |p .
p n
n=1
Proof.
P
The series converges if and only if the sequence of partial sums
Sn = ni=1 ai converges. But an = Sn+1 − Sn . It follows from Theorem 3.1.1
that an tends to 0 if and
P
only if the series converges.
P∞
Now assume that ∞ n=1 an converges. If n=1 an = 0, there is nothing
to prove. If not, since an → 0, it follows from Exercise 50 that there exists
an integer N such that
X∞ XN
an = an
p p
n=1 n=1
and
max{|an |p | 1 ≤ n ≤ N } = max |an |p .
n
By the strong triangle inequality,
XN
an ≤ max{|an |p | 1 ≤ n ≤ N } = max |an |p ,
p n
n=1
which completes the proof.
This proposition is false in R, as Problem 2 of the Midterm Exam as-
serted. The most obvious example of a series in R whose general
P
term tends
to 0, but which does not Pconverge, is the harmonic
P
series 1/n. But there
are other examples, e.g. (1/n) log n and all prime p 1/p.
P
Definition 3.1.4. A series ∞ n=0 an converges
P
unconditionally if for any
reordering of the terms an → a0n the series ∞ 0
n=0 an also converges.
∞ P
Theorem 3.1.5. If n=0 an converges, it converges unconditionally,
and the sum does not depend on the reordering.
Proof. Let ε be an arbitrary real number and N be an integer such
that for any n > N we have |an |p < ε, |a0n |p < ε, and
X∞ X
N
an − an < ε. (3.1.2)
p
n=1 n=1
PN P
Put S = n=1 an and S 0 = N 0 0
n=1 an , and denote by S1 and S1 , respectively,
the sums of all terms of S for which |an |p > ε, and of all the terms of S 0
for which |a0n |p > ε. It is clear that S1 and S10 have the same terms, hence
S1 = S10 . The sum S differs from S1 by the terms satisfying |an |p < ε, and
S 0 from S10 by the terms satisfying |a0n |p < ε. Therefore |S − S1 |p < ε and
|S 0 − S10 |p < ε, so that |S − S 0 |p < ε. Combining this with (3.1.2), we obtain
X∞ X
N
an − a0n < ε.
p
n=1 n=1
P∞ 0
Since ε → 0 and N → ∞, we see that the series n=1 an converges and
∞
X ∞
X
an = a0n ,
n=1 n=1
as claimed.
This is quite different from the result in real analysis, where reordering
the terms of a series can change its convergence or its sum; they do not
chnage provided that the series converges absolutely (by the Dirichlet The-
orem). (Do you remember how to prove this?). Theorem 3.1.5 is even more
surprising because, just as in the real case, the following result holds:
P∞
Theorem 3.1.6. There exists a series n=1 an in Qp which converges,
but does not converge absolutely.
Proof. Let us consider the following consecutive terms of the series:
1; p repeated p times; p2 repeated p2 times; etc. These terms tend to 0,
hence the series converges. However,
∞
X
|an |p = 1 + p · p−1 + p2 · p−2 + · · · = ∞,
n=1
as claimed.
The following result is about switching the order of summations in double
series, a rather subtle subject in the real case.
Theorem 3.1.7. Consider the p-adic numbers bij ∈ Qp , i, j = 1, 2, . . .
such that for any ε > 0 there exists an integer N = N (ε) for which
max(i, j) ≥ N ⇒ |bij | < ε.
52 3. ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS IN Qp
This says that both double series converge. In order to check that their
sums are equal, we write
X∞ X
∞ XN X
N XN X
∞ ∞ X
X ∞
bij − bij = bij + bij < ε,
p p
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1 i=1 j=N +1 i=N +1 j=1
which can be true for any ε only if the series are equal.
Exercises
50. Suppose limn→∞ an = a in Qp . Prove that either limn→∞ |an |p = 0 or
there exists an integer N such that |an |p = |a|p for all n > N .
n
51. Prove that the sequence an = 23 converges in Q3 and find its limit.
52. (The “harmonic” sequence.)
(a) Show that the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, . . . does not converge in Qp but
has converging subsequences.
(b) * Prove that {1, 1/2, 1/3, . . . } is dense in the set {x ∈ Qp | |x|p ≥ 1}.
P∞
53. Prove that n=1 n! · n = −1 in Qp for any p.
54. Using the ideas of the previous exercise, show that in Qp , for any P ,
we have
∞
X ∞
X
n · (n + 1)! = 2;
2
n5 · (n + 1)! = 26.
n=1 n=1
3.2. p-ADIC POWER SERIES 53
P∞
Proposition 3.2.1. Suppose that 0 < r < ∞. Then the series
n=0 an x converges if |x|p < r and diverges if |x|p > r.
n
1/n
Since there are only finitely many n for which |an |p > 1
r−εr/2 , we have
!n !n
(1 − ε)r 1−ε
lim |an x |p ≤ lim
n
= lim = 0.
n→∞ (1 − 12 ε)r n→∞ 1 − 12 ε
Similarly, if |x|p > r, we write |x|p = (1 + ε)r. Then
|an xn |p = (r|an |1/n n n
p ) (1 + ε) .
1/n
Since there are infinitely many n for which |an |p > 1
r+ 12 εr
, we have
!n !n
(1 + ε)r 1+ε
lim sup |an x |p ≥ lim
n
= lim 6= 0.
n→∞ (1 + 12 ε)r n→∞ 1 + 12 ε
What happens on the “boundary” |x|p = r? In the Archimedian case
(R or C) the behavior on the boundary of the interval or disc of convergence
may be quite Pcomplicated. For example, the usual logarithmic power series
log(1 + x) = ∞ n=1 (−1)
n+1 xn /n has radius of convergence 1. If |x| = 1, it
In the non-Archimedian case, the answer is the same for all points of
|x|p = r. This is because the series converges if and only if |an xn |p → 0, and
this depends only on the norm |x|p , not on the specific value of x.
P
Let us take the same example ∞ n=1 (−1)
n+1 xn /n. Then
(Exercise 55). The series converges for |x|p < 1 and diverges for |x|p > 1.
If |x|p = 1 |an xn |p = pordP n ≥ 1, hence the series diverges for all such x as
well.
Lemma 3.2.2. Every f (X) ∈ Zp [[X]] converges in {x ∈ Qp | |x|p < 1}.
P
Proof. Let |x|p < 1, and f (x) = ∞ n=0 an x . Since for any n ≥ 0
n
converges.
Example 3.2.3. Let a ∈ Zp be fixed, then
∞
!
X a
fa (X) = X n ∈ Zp [[X]].
n=0
n
Here
!
a a(a − 1) . . . (a − n + 1)
= and fa (X) := (1 + X)a .
n n!
a
Lemma 3.2.4. If a ∈ Zp , n ≥ 0, then n ∈ Zp .
Proof. For each n ≥ 0 consider
X(X − 1) . . . (X − n + 1)
Pn (X) = ∈ Q[X].
n!
As any polynomial, Pn defines a continuous map Qp → Qp . If m, n are
n ∈ N, then for a ∈ N we have
positive integers, m
!
a
Pn (a) = ∈ N.
n
Thus the continuous function Pn maps N to N. By continuity, it maps the
closure of N to the closure of N. We have seen in the proof of Theorem
2.1.10 that N is dense in Zp ; this means that Pn : Zp → Zp .
m
Remark. It is not difficult to see directly that if m, n ∈ Z, then n ∈ Z.
How?
The following result is similar to one in real analysis:
P
Lemma 3.2.5. Let f (x) = an xn , an ∈ Qp , be a p-adic series whose
region of convergence is an open and closed ball D ⊂ Qp . Then f : D → Qp
is a continuous function on D.
EXERCISES 55
Therefore
δ
|f (x) − f (x0 )|p ≤ max(|x − x0 |p |an |p |x|n−1
p )< max(|an |p |x|np ).
n |x|p n
Since |an xn |p is bounded as n → ∞, we obtain |f (x) − f (x0 )|p < ε for a
suitable δ.
Proposition 3.2.6. The radius of convergence of the power series
∞
X
f (X) = an X n ∈ Qp [[X]]
n=0
and that of its formal derivative
∞
X
Df (X) = nan X n−1
n=1
are equal, i.e., rf = rDf .
Proof. For any n ∈ N we have |n|p ≤ 1. Then
rDf = lim sup |nan |1/n−1
p = lim sup |nan |1/n
p = lim sup |an |1/n
p = rf ,
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
as asserted.
The following example shows that the behavior of the power series and
its derivative on the boundary
P
of the region of convergence may differ. The
power series f (X) = ∞ n=0 X pn has radius of convergence equal to 1 and
P
diverges for |x|p = 1, while itsPderivative Df (X) = ∞ n pn −1 converges
n=1 p X
∞
for |x|p = 1 (since the series n=1 pn converges).
Exercises
55. Prove that limn→∞ pordp n/n = 1
56. Let
∞
X
f (X) = an X n ∈ Qp [[X]]
n=0
56 3. ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS IN Qp
1/n
be a power series with r = 1/ lim sup |an |p . Prove that if r = 0, then f (x)
converges if and only if x = 0, and if r = ∞, then f (x) converges for all
x ∈ Qp .
P
57. Prove the continuity at x = 0 of the power series f (x) = ∞ n
n=0 an x .
58. Prove that
n − Sn
ordp (n!) = ,
p−1
where Sn is the sum of digits of n written in base p.
− p−1
1
Proposition 3.3.4. If x ∈ Dp = {|x|p < p }, then
| expp (x) − 1|p < 1,
i.e. expp (x) is in the domain of lnp (x) and
lnp (expp (x)) = x. (3.3.3)
Conversely, if x ∈ Dp ,
− p−1
1
| lnp (1 + x)|p < p ,
and
expp (lnp (1 + x)) = 1 + x. (3.3.4)
Proof. The relations (3.3.3) and (3.3.4) follow from the corresponding
relations for formal power series, so all we need is to check that all the series
involved converge.
If x ∈ Dp , then expp (x) converges, and by Proposition 3.1.3,
xn
| expp (x) − 1|p ≤ max | |p .
n n!
Using Exercise 58, we obtain
xn
− n − n n
< p p−1 pordp (n!) < p p−1 p p−1 = 1.
n! p
− p−1
1
hence | lnp (1 + x)|p < p .
Example 3.3.6. Let p = 2. Then −1 ∈ {x ∈ Z2 | |x − 1|2 < 1} since
| − 1 − 1|2 = 1/2 < 1. Therefore the 2-adic logarithm ln2 (−1) can be
computed by using power series, namely
22 23
ln2 (−1) = ln2 (1 − 2) = − 2 + + + ··· .
2 3
On the other hand, we have
0 = ln2 (1) = ln2 (−1) + ln2 (−1) = 2 ln2 (−1),
hence ln2 (−1) = 0. This means that as n → ∞, the sum
22 23 2n
2+
+ + ··· +
2 3 n
gets closer and closer in 2-adic norm to 0, i.e., is divisible by higher and
higher powers of 2. More precisely, for any M there exists an n such that
22 23 2n
2M 2 + + + ··· + .
2 3 n
Can you estimate the highest power of 2 which divides
22 23 2n
2+ + + ··· + ?
2 3 n
This looks just like a partial sum of g(x), except we need to rearrange
its terms. To that end, we must show that the double series converges
“uniformly”. So let us make this into a series infinite in both indices:
Let (
n
an αn−m (λ − α)m if m ≤ n
βn,m = m
0 if m > n.
We would like to show that βm,n → 0 uniformly in both indices. That is,
we want to find an N such that if either m > N or n > N , then βm,n < ε.
We have the following estimate:
!
n
m
|βm,n |p = an αn−m
(λ − α) ≤ |an αn−m (α − λ)m |p .
m
p
We can find a point r1 ∈ D such that r = |r1 |p ≥ |α|p and ≥ |λ|p . (Say,
choose r1 = α or r1 = λ depending on which has bigger norm.) Then
|α|m
p ≤r
m by construction, and
|λ − α|n−m
p ≤ max(|α|p , |λ|p )n−m ≤ r n−m
by construction and by the non-Archimedian property; so
|βn,m |p ≤ |an αn−m (λ − α)m |p ≤ |an |p r n
which tends to zero as n → ∞ independently of m, i.e.
∀ε > 0 ∃N ∀n > N |βm,n |p < ε
3.5. ZEROS OF p-ADIC POWER SERIES 61
characterized by the fact that the series converge for |x|p = 1, i.e.
lim an = 0.
n→∞
Theorem 3.5.1 (Strassman’s Theorem). Let
∞
X
f (X) = an X n ∈ Qp [[X]]
n=0
be a nonzero power series (i.e., a series not all of whose coefficients are
zero). Suppose that limn→∞ an = 0, so that f (x) converges for all x ∈ Zp .
Let N be the integer defined by
(a) |aN |p = max |an |p ,
(b) |an |p < |aN |p for n > N .
Then f : Zp → Qp defined by x 7→ f (x) has at most N zeros.
Remark. Since an → 0, |an |p attains its maximum for a finite set of
indices n1 , n2 , . . . , nk ; then N = nk , the largest index of an with maximal
norm.
62 3. ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS IN Qp
which is a contradiction.
Induction step. We shall explicitly factor out one zero, and show that
the quotient is a new power series with a smaller N . Suppose
|aN |p = max |an |p and |an | < |aN |p for n > N,
n
Now we have
|bj |p ≤ max |aj+1+k |p ≤ |aN |p for all j from 0 to ∞
since aN has maximal norm, further
|bN −1 |p = |aN + aN +1 α + aN +2 α2 + ...|p = |aN |p ,
and if j > N
|bj |p ≤ max |aj+k+1 |p ≤ max |aj |p < |aN |.
k≥0 j≥N +1
So bN −1 has maximal norm, and it is the last one with maximal norm,
so the magic number for g1 is N − 1. By the inductive assumption, g1 has
at most N − 1 zeros, so f has at most N zeros, namely the N − 1 zeros of
g1 and α.
This is quite different from the classical case in which sine and cosine
functions are periodic and “entire”, i.e., are given by power series which
converge everywhere. The difference, of course stems from the fact that for
power series in R or C, if τ is a period, then, in contrast with the p-adic
case, all the points nτ do not belong to a bounded interval or disc.
P
Corollary 3.5.7. Let f (X) = n≥0 an X n be a p-adic power series
which is entire, i.e. converges for all x ∈ Qp . Then f (x) has an at most
denumerable set of zeros. Furthermore, if the set of zeros is not finite, it
forms a sequences zn , |zn |p → ∞ as n → ∞.
Proof. The set of zeros in each bounded disc pm Zp , m ∈ Z, is finite.
Exercises
59. Use Strassman’s Theorem to show that for p 6= 2 we have lnp (x) = 0
iff x = 1. If p = 2, show that lnp (x) = 0 iff x = ±1.
60. Find the region of convergence and say all you can about the zeros of
the following p-adic power series:
P
(a) P p−n X n ,
(b) n!X n .
61. Define the p-adic analogs of the sine and cosine functions, and deter-
mine their regions of convergence. Show that if p ≡ 1 (mod 4) then there
exists an i ∈ Qp such that i2 = −1, and the classical relation
expp (ix) = cosp (x) + i sinp (x)
holds for any x in the common region of convergence.
We have seen in §3.3 that if p 6= 2, then Dp = pZp and D2 = 4Z2 . The maps
expp : Dp → 1 + Dp , lnp : 1 + Dp → Dp .
are inverse to each other (Theorem 3.3.4). The fundamental properties of
logarithmic and exponential functions can be translated into the language
of groups in the following way.
Proposition 3.6.1. The p-adic logarithm lnp defines an isomorphism
of groups
lnp : 1 + Dp → Dp ,
where 1 + Dp is regarded as a multiplicative group and Dp as an additive
one; the inverse isomorphism is expp .
3.6. FURTHER PROPERTIES OF p-ADIC EXPONENTIALS AND LOGARITHMS 65
Notice that the definition of the derivative indeed makes sense since Qp
is a normed field. The derivative possesses the following standard properties.
• The well-known rules for derivatives of sum, product, quotient and
composition (chain rule) carry over without any complications.
Pn
• Consequently,
P
the derivative of a polynomial P (x) = i
i=0 ai x is equal
to P 0 (x) = ni=1 nan xn−1 .
• Rational functions (quotients of two polynomials) are differentiable.
• Differentiable functions are continuous.
P
We proved (see Proposition 3.2.6) that if fP(X) = ∞ n
n=0 an X is a power
∞ n−1
series, then its formal derivative DF (X) = n=1 nan X has the same
radius of convergence. Just as in the real and complex case, the formal
power series Df (X) indeed represents the derivative f 0 (x) in its region of
convergence:
Proposition 3.6.6. Consider the power series
∞
X
f (X) = an X n ∈ Qp [[X]]
n=0
P∞
and suppose that f (x) = n=0 an xn converges in an open ball U ∈ Qp . Then
f (x) is differentiable in U and for all x ∈ U , we have
∞
X
f 0 (x) = nan xn−1 .
n=1
More generally, f (x) has derivatives of all orders in U which are given by
∞
!
X n
(k)
f (x) = k! an xn−k .
n=k
k
The coefficients of the original power series can be expressed as follows
f (k) (0)
ak = .
k!
Now we can compute the derivatives of expp and lnp by using their power
series expansions.
Proposition 3.6.7. (a) The function expp is differentiable in Dp ,
exp0p (x) = expp (x).
(b) The function lnp is differentiable in 1 + pZp ,
1
ln0p (x) = .
x
Proof. Indeed,
∞
X X
nxn−1 xn−1
exp0p (x) = = = expp (x).
n=1
n! n=1
(n − 1)!
68 3. ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS IN Qp
Similarly,
∞
X X∞
n(x − 1)n−1 1
ln0p (x) = (−1)n+1 = (−1)n−1 (x − 1)n−1 = ,
n=1
n n=1
x
as claimed.
Now we will use p-adic logarithms to determine whether pth roots of
unity are in Qp .
Theorem 3.6.8. The (pn )th roots of unity are not in Qp , except for
p = 2 and n = 1.
n
Proof. Let p 6= 2. Let xp = 1. Then we must have |x|p = 1, i.e.
n
x ∈ Zp , and for its first digit x0 we have xp0 ≡ 1 (mod p). However, the
order of each element of the multiplicative group (Z/pZ)× must divide its
order, (p − 1), thus we conclude that x0 = 1. Therefore x ∈ 1 + pZp . It
follows from the injectivity of lnp (Proposition 3.6.1) that lnp (x) = 0 if and
n
only if x = 1. Since xp = 1, we obtain
n
0 = lnp (1) = lnp (xp ) = pn lnp (x), hence lnp (x) = 0,
which implies x = 1.
If p = 2, however, we have ln2 (−1) = ln2 (1) = 0 (See Example 3.3.6),
and a similar argument shows that x = −1 is a nontrivial square root of
unity in Q2 , but no (2n )th roots of unity are in Q2 for n > 1.
CHAPTER 4
p-adic functions
of finitely many disjoint balls such that the function f is constant on each
of these balls. In particular, the set {f (x) | x ∈ Zp } of all values assumed
by f on Zp has only finitely many distinct elements.
Proof. Let us consider the set of balls Ux from the definition of a
locally constant function. It forms a cover of Zp . By the compactness of Zp ,
this cover contains a finite subcover Ux1 , . . . , Uxk . Recall that two balls in
an ultra-metric space are either disjoint or contained in one another, so if
we delete the balls which lie inside other balls, we obtain a cover of Zp by
disjoint balls.
Corollary 4.1.6. Any locally constant function on Zp is uniformly
continuous.
Proof. Let p−mi be the radius of Uxi , i = 1, 2, . . . , k, and m = maxi mi .
We will prove that δ = p−m works for any ε > 0. Indeed, suppose that
|x − y|p < p−m . Since x ∈ Uxi for some i, and each point of the ball is
its center, we may assume x = xi . Then |xi − y|p < p−m ≤ p−mi , i.e.,
f (y) = f (xi ) = f (x)
We have seen that any x ∈ Zp belongs to some U (N, t), and since for any
N, M ∈ Nt we have |N − M |p > p−t , it follows that the balls U (N, t) are
disjoint. Therefore
t −1
p[
E= E(N ) (4.1.3)
N =0
is a partition of E. Now we can prove the following unexpected theorem.
Theorem 4.1.8. Any step function on N or Zp is periodic.
Proof. Let E = N or Zp , and f : E → Qp be a step function of order t.
Consider the partition (4.1.3) of E described above. If x, y ∈ E(N ), we have
|x − y|p = |(x − N ) + (N − y)|p ≤ p−t by the strong triangle inequality, and
hence f (x) = f (y). Notice that if x ∈ E(N ), then x + pt ∈ E(N ). Therefore
f (x + pt ) = f (x) for x ∈ E,
i.e., f is periodic.
In real analysis, functions continuous on a closed interval can be approx-
imated uniformly and arbitrarily closely by real step functions. A similar
result holds for p-adic functions.
Theorem 4.1.9. Let E be either N or Zp . A function f : E → Qp is
uniformly continuous on E if and only if for every positive integer s there
exists another positive integer t = t(s) and a step function S : E → Qp of
order at most t such that
|f (x) − S(x)|p ≤ p−s for any x ∈ E. (4.1.4)
Proof. Assume that f and S satisfy (4.1.4). If x0 satisfies
|x − x0 |p ≤ p−t ,
then we have
S(x) = S(x0 ), |f (x) − S(x)|p ≤ p−s , |f (x0 ) − S(x0 )|p ≤ p−s ,
therefore
|f (x) − f (x0 )|p = |(f (x) − S(x)) − (f (x0 ) − S(x0 )|p ≤ p−s ,
which proves that f is uniformly continuous.
Conversely, assume that f is uniformly continuous on E, and denote by
s and t = t(s) two positive integers such that
|f (x) − f (x0 )|p ≤ p−s if x, x0 ∈ E and |x − x0 |p ≤ p−t . (4.1.5)
Let Nx be as in (4.1.1), and define a function S : E → Qp by
S(x) = f (Nx ) if x ∈ E.
Then S is a step function of order at most t. By (4.1.2) and (4.1.5),
|f (x) − S(x)|p = |f (x) − f (Nx )|p ≤ p−s ,
which proves the theorem.
72 4. p-ADIC FUNCTIONS
Exercises
In the first three problems, x is an element of Zp and is assumed to be
written in canonical form
x = x0 + x1 p + x2 p2 + · · · ,
where the coefficients xn are the p-adic digits 0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1.
62. Decide whether the following functions are uniformly continuous on
N, or are continuous on Zp :
(a) f (x) = x0 + x1 x2 ;
(b) f (x) = P (x0 , x1 , x3 ) where P is a polynomial in its arguments with
coefficients in Zp ;
(c)
(
1 if x0 = 0
f (x) =
x/x0 6 0.
if x0 =
63. Are any of the functions in Exercise 62 locally constant or step func-
tions? Fully justify your answer.
64. Which of the two following functions are (i) continuous; (ii) locally
constant on N?
∞
X ∞
X
f (x) = xn ; f (x) = xn n!.
n=0 n=0
Since E and hence E are subsets of a compact set Zp , there exists a subse-
quence {Xrn } such that the limit
X0 = lim Xrn
n→∞
exists. Since all points are in E and E is a closed set, we have X0 ∈ E. Now
F is uniformly continuous on E and therefore continuous at X0 . But this
implies
lim F (Xrn ) = F (X0 ).
n→∞
contrary to (4.2.2).
To prove the uniqueness of F , we assume that there is a second function
F ∗ with the same properties. Then F − F ∗ is uniformly continuous on E
and identically 0 on E. Since E is dense in E, by continuity F − F ∗ is also
identically 0 on E.
Exercises
66. Construct a function f : R → R which imitates the function f2 of
Example 4.2.3 and prove that it is discontinuous at all points of R.
67. Prove Proposition 4.3.1.
68. Let X be a metric space. Prove that
(a) If F is closed, then it is of type Gδ .
78 4. p-ADIC FUNCTIONS
P∞
Proof. Let x = n=0 an p
n ∈ Zp , and let us set
∞
X
f (x) = an p2n .
n=0
Now if
∞
X ∞
X
x= an pn ∈ Zp and y = bn p n ∈ Z p
n=0 n=0
satisfy |x − y|p = p−j for some j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , then
a0 = b0 , a1 = b1 , . . . , aj−1 − bj−1 , aj 6= bj ,
and hence |f (x) − f (y)|p = p−2j . Thus we have
|f (x) − f (y)|p = |x − y|2p for all x, y ∈ Zp .
We conclude that f is injective (f (x) = f (y) implies x = y) and
f (x) − f (y)
= |x − y|p → 0 as y → x,
x−y
p
i.e., f0 = 0 identically.
This example brings us to the definition of a Lipschitz function.
Definition 4.4.3. Let E ⊂ Zp and α > 0. A function Zp → Qp satisfies
a Lipschitz condition of order α if there exists a constant M > 0, called the
Lipschitz constant), such that for all x, y ∈ E we have
|f (x) − f (y)|p ≤ M |x − y|αp .
The function of Example 4.4.2 is Lipschitz of order 2. Notice that in
real analysis if a function f satisfies a Lipschitz condition of order > 1, then
f 0 = 0, so that f is necessarily constant.
In real analysis, Rolle’s Theorem says that if f : [a, b] → R is continuous
and differentiable on (a, b), and f (a) = f (b), then there exists a ζ ∈ (a, b)
such that f 0 (ζ) = 0. Here is an example of a p-adic function for which
Rolle’s Theorem fails.
Example 4.4.4. Let f : Zp → Qp be given by
f (x) = xp − x.
We have f (0) = 0, f (1) = 0, f 0 (x) = pxp−1 − 1. Since |f 0 (x) + 1|p ≤ 1/p,
i.e., f 0 (x) ∈ −1 + pZp , it follows that f 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ Zp .
Another anomaly of p-adic functions turns up when we consider the local
invertibility of (continuously) differentiable functions. In real analysis, for
such a function f , if f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0, then f is locally invertible in a neighborhood
of x0 . For p-adic functions, we have the following striking example.
Example 4.4.5. There exists a differentiable function f : Zp → Qp such
that f 0 (x) = 1 for all x ∈ Zp , but for which f (pn ) = f (pn − p2n ) for all
n ∈ N, so f is injective in no neighborhood of 0.
80 4. p-ADIC FUNCTIONS
Exercises
73. Let f : Zp → Zp be defined by the formula
∞
! ∞
X X 2
n
f an p := an pn .
n=0 n=0
f0
Prove that = 0, i.e., f is a pseudo-constant.
74.* Let f : Zp → Zp be defined by the formula
∞
! ∞
X X
n
f an p := an pn! .
n=0 n=0
4.6. Interpolation
Let a1 , a2 , . . . , be a sequence in Qp . It can be regarded as a function,
namely the function f : N → Qp given by f (n) = an . Since N is a dense
subset of Zp , Theorem 4.2.5 implies that there exists at most one continuous
function F : Zp → Qp such that F (n) = f (n) for all n ∈ N. If such a function
F exists, we say that {an } can be interpolated. Of course, a similar definition
can be given for two-sided sequences . . . a−1 , a0 , a1 , . . . and sequences such
as a0 , a1 , . . . .
If f (n) = an is uniformly continuous of N, it follows directly from The-
orem 4.2.5 that it can be interpolated. Conversely, suppose that f (n) = an
can be interpolated to a continuous function F : Zp → Qp . Then F is
uniformly continuous on Zp by Theorem 4.2.4, and hence on N. Thus a
sequence a0 , a1 , . . . in Qp can be interpolated if and only if for each ε there
is an N such that
|n − m|p ≤ p−N implies |an − am |p < ε. (4.6.1)
84 4. p-ADIC FUNCTIONS
It turns out that it is not necessary to consider all the positive integers
n, m for which |n − m|p ≤ p−N , but it suffices to check (4.6.1) only for n, m
which differ by a large power of p. More precisely, we have the following
result.
Proposition 4.6.1. Let a1 , a2 , . . . be a sequence in Qp . It can be inter-
polated if and only if for any ε > 0 there is an N such that
n = m + pN implies |an − am |p < ε. (4.6.2)
Proof. If f (n) = an is uniformly continuous, then for any ε > 0 there
is an N for which (4.6.1) holds. In particular it holds for n = m + pN since
the latter implies |n − m|p ≤ p−N . We must show that the seemingly weaker
condition (4.6.2) implies uniform continuity. Given ε > 0, let us find an N
for which (4.6.2) holds. Let n, m ∈ N ∪ {0} satisfy |n − m|p ≤ p−N . Then
n − m is divisible by pN , so that n = m + bpN for some b ∈ N. We have
X
b
an − am = (am+jpN − am+(j−1)pN ).
j=1
Our condition (4.6.2) implies that the p-adic norm of each of the summands
is less than ε. By the strong triangle inequality, |an − am |p < ε.
In some sense the uniform continuity of the sequence {an } is a property
opposite to being a Cauchy sequence. The following easy proposition gives
us a lot of examples of not uniformly continuous sequences, which therefore
cannot be interpolated.
Proposition 4.6.2. Let {an } be a nonconstant Cauchy sequence of p-
adic numbers. Then it cannot be interpolated.
Proof. Suppose {an } can be interpolated to the continuous function
f : Zp → Qp so that f (n) = an . Since N is dense in Zp , for any x ∈ Zp − N
there is a sequence of integers nk converging to x. The sequence {an } is
Cauchy and hence converges to some limit c ∈ Qp . Therefore ank converges
to the same limit, and by continuity we have f (x) = limk→∞ ank = c.
Further, since Zp −N is also dense in Zp , for any n ∈ N there exists a sequence
xk ∈ Zp −N such that n = limk→∞ xk . Then an = f (n) = limk→∞ f (xk ) = c,
i.e., {an } is a constant sequence, a contradiction.
For the sake of completeness, we will prove a few properties of uniformly
continuous functions (some of them were already used in Theorem 4.2.5).
Proposition 4.6.3. Let E ⊂ Zp , f : E → Qp and g : E → Qp be
uniformly continuous functions on E. Then f + g, f − g and f g are also
uniformly continuous on E.
Proof. For any integer s > 0 there exists an integer t > 0 such that
|x − y|p ≤ p−t implies
|f (x) − f (y)|p ≤ p−s and |g(x) − g(y)|p ≤ p−s .
4.6. INTERPOLATION 85
Exercises
76. Prove that for each j ∈ N the p-adic sequence
1j , 2j , 3j , . . .
can be interpolated.
77. Prove that for each j ∈ N the p-adic sequence
1 2 3
, j , j ,...
pj p p
can be interpolated.
78. Prove that the p-adic sequence n 7→ (−1)n can be interpolated if and
only if p = 2.
Contents
Preface 1
Exercises 64
3.6. Further properties of p-adic exponentials and logarithms 64
Chapter 4. p-adic functions 69
4.1. Locally constant functions 69
Exercises 72
4.2. Continuous and uniformly continuous functions 72
4.3. Points of discontinuity and the Baire category theorem 75
Exercises 77
4.4. Differentiability of p-adic functions 78
4.5. Continuously differentiable functions
and isometries of Qp 80
Exercises 83
4.6. Interpolation 83
Exercises 86
Bibliography 89
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Moscow, 1993
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89