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39 NETWORK THEORY

Basics

Theorms

Transients

A.C Analysis

(Q) What is the basic difference between Net work & circuit? Ans: Circuit Loop or mesh i.e. a closed path The Interconnection of circuits is nothing but a network. Eg: Network is like a building, where as circuits are like rooms in a building. BASICS: 1. The Mechanism of the energy flow through the conductor and the ohms law: +
S

Best conductors, Ag+1 Cu+2 Au+2 Al+3 1e- 2e- 2e- 3e Silver is the best conductor because the mobility of the free e- in a Ag conductor is several times to that of other conductors, so its conductivity is very high i.e. the conductivity of any material is mainly a function of the free electrons mobility with in that material. Generally in any conductor there are 1018 to 1023 atoms/unit volume (unit cell) and hence there are 1018 to 1023 free electrons/unit volume in a Ag conductor. i.e. every conductor is a very rich of free electrons. Whenever the generators are connected to the transmission lines (basically conductors), the electrical energy will be launched aciallay which results an axial electric field (r magnetic field) and hence the axial current density along the length of the conductor .

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When the conductor is subjected to an axial electric field, the force exerted by the F.e (N) field on each free e- is given by F = e = 1.6 10-19 C Since e is negative the direction of the force is in the direction opposite to that of E and hence there exists as net electron motion (charge motion) in the direction opposite to that of E. The amount of charge flowing is given by q = ne (c) i.e. q(t) = n(t) . e (c) n = The no.of free e- crossing a reference cross section Area cutless, a variable quantity due to a large number of free e- within the conductor. (so called randomness) The time rate of flow of these electric charges (free e-) is nothing but the electric current i.e. i =
dq ( A) dt

Since q is negative, the current direction is opposite to that of charge motion (electrons motion) i.e in the direction of E. The current per unit cross section area is nothing but the current density resulted within the conductor i.e J =

s(A / m )
2

since S is a scalar the direction of J is in the

direction of i i.e. in the direction of E. F = E . e ( N) q = n.e (C) i= J=


dq ( A) dt

s(A / m )
2

As E F n q i J Linearly As E = 0 F= 0 n = 0 q = 0 i = 0 J = 0 Defination of ohms law According to ohm, there exists a linear relation between the applied electric field and the resultant current density by J E E The Basic ohms law in the field theory J = = The conductivity of the material i.e conductor.

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J-E Characteristics

J J=E E J Limitation: The ohms law i.e a linear J-E relation is valid only when the proportionality constant is kept constant i.e the temperature is kept constant. (Q) What happens to conductivity of all the conductors when temperature increases form room temperature ? Ans: When temperature increases from room temperature (270c or 3000k) the free e- will acquire extra thermal energy at higher temperatures, which results an increase in collisions among the free electrons and hence the net electron mobility falls, so the conductivity decreases. (Q) Why voltage drop in any practical conductor whenever it carries electrical energy? Ans: As E es, there exists an increase in collisions between the free e- and immobile positive ions (Larger in size), and hence the fall in the drift velocity (Vd = E m/s, = mobility of free e- = m2/v-s, E = the external electric field = v/m), Hence the lost in the kinetic energy (K.E =
1 mvd2 (J), m = 9.11 10-37kg), this losted energy will be dissipated in 2

the form of heat energy, which results a voltage drop across the conductor. The amount of power dissipated P = J.E A/m2 .v/m P = E. E P = E2 W/m3 = powerdensity ie power dissipated per unit volume.

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R + V

i + i + C

L V V

So the currents through all the three passive lumped R, L, CS will always flows form +Ve to the Ve terminals. Since E =
v i and J = , as l and s are scalars, the drop polarities are same as l s

the electricfeild polarities and the current direction is in the J direction. Acturally the opposition for the energy flow is continuous or distributive in nature, but practically we can approximate this distributive opposition into the three lumped oppositions called the Resistance (R), Inductance (L) and the capacitance (C) For lower frequeces (up to 1MHz) The Magnitudes of R, L, CS are function of l. s and . The interconnection of these lumped elements is nothing but a lumped electric circuit. The Network theory is used to analyse the lumped electric circuits only at lower frequencies. At higher frequencies (above 1MHz), we cannot approximate the distributive elements into the lumped elements and hence no lumped electric circuit, so no network theory. Here the Field theory approach is used directly on distributive conductors. 1. The Resistance (R): i + i + V R V Since J = E
i v = s l l i v= s

43 V = Ri The ohms law in the circuit theory form where R = The Resistance parameter of the conductor
l = ohm = = s

Limitation:The ohms law i.e. A linear V-I relation is valid only when the proportionality constant R is kept constant i.e. the temperature is kept constant. As temperature increases l, s,
l = almost constant, so R. s

Rt = R0(`1+t) Where = the temp co eff in pcr0c, positive for all the conductors t = the temp in 0c. So t Rt for all the conductors. R=
m l l -1 -1 -1 = = 2 = (-m) = m = /m or s/m s RS m
1 RS m2 = = = -m l m

The Resistivity or the specific resistance = = Since V = Ri i = Where G =

V I = GV 3rd form of ohms law R

1 = mho = = the conductance parameter of the conductor. R dq Since I = dt dq V = R. 4th form of the ohms law. dt

The electric power P:P=


dw dt
dw dq

= dq dt P = V.i (w) = the instantaneous power i.e p(t) = v(t) . i(t) (w) The electrical energy (w): Since P =
dw dt

dw = P.dt w = P.dt (J) R: P = V.i = R.i.i P = i2.R (W) = the instantaneous power i.e P(t) = i2(t)R (w)

44 P = V.i
V R V2 P= (W) = The instantaneous power R V2 ( t) ( w) i.e P(t) = R

= V.

W = P.dt (J) W = i2.Rdt (J) &W=


V2 .dt (J) R

v-i characteristics: V Slope = R = 1 V = Ri 2V R= i R= = 1 1V 2A1A 0 1A 2A 1V 2V R= R=1 V OBS: So form the characteristics, the resistor is a linear, passive, bilateral and time invariant in v-i plane. 2. The Inductance (L):i + + V When a Time varying current is flowing through the coil, A time varying magnetic flux will produced (By Faradays law). The total flux produced is = N (wb) i L R= R= =1

=1 i

45 Where N = the number of turns = flux per turn. i.e (t) = (t) (wb) This total flux produced is proportional to the current flowing through the coil i.e i = Li L = the inductance parameter of the coil. The voltage drop across the coil is v =
d ( Li ) dt di v= L volts dt d / By Faradays law. dt

di =

1 v.dt L 1 t vdt A i= L di .i dt di P = Li (w) = the instantaneous power dt

t 0

P = v.i = L

W = P dt (J) W = Li P = Li Since W= W=
di .dt (J) dt

W = P dt (J)
Li dt 2 d 1
2

d 1 2 di Li = dt 2 dt dt

1 Li 2 (J) = The instantaneous energy = the total energy. 2

i.e the energy stored in an inductor at any instant will depends on the current flowing through the inductor at that instant. This is the total energy stored by the inductor form infinite part () to the present time (t).

=Li - i Characteristics:- L= 1 i

0 L - L i

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Observation:So from the characteristics, the inductor is a linear, passive, Bilteral and Time invariant in - i plane. 3. The capacitance (c):i=
dq Amp dt

qv q = cv c = the capacitance parameter of the conductor


d ( cv ) i= dt dv i = c. Amps dt

i + + V V i C,q

dv =

1 1 i.dt v = c c

i.dt

volts

P = v. i
= V.C . dv ( W ) = The instantaneous power dt

W = P ct

dv CV dt (J ) dt dv d 1 2 = CV P = CV. dt dt 2 1 Since W = CV 2 (J) = The instantaneous energy = The total energy 2

q v characteristics q=CV :
C = q V -V C

q C 0 V

-q

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Ohms : So from the characteristics, the capacitor is a linear passive, bilateral and time invariant in q v plane.

The Relation b/w voltage and current in L & C elements


L: V =L
V1 = L
di dt

V1 i1 V2 i 2
? i1 + i 2

di 1 -------- (1) dt di V2 =L 2 --------- (2) dt


d (i1 + i 2 ) dt

V =L

di d +L. 2 dt dt V = V1 + V2 V =L

So the relation between voltage and current in an inductor is linear and hence
V =L di 1 5th form of ohms law similarly i = C dt

V.dt

6th form of the

ohms law C: i = C.
dv dt

i1 V1 i 1 V2 i1 + i 2 V1 + V2

So the relation between voltage and current in a capacitor is linear and hence
i = C. dv 1 7th form of ohms law s, similarly V = C dt

idt 8th form of ohms

law. Another Method : Z = Z R =R = Z L = j L

Z + V -

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=Z C = 1 j C

I In an a.c. domain the ohms law can be written as V


V =ZI
R = R

R:

V = Z .I R R R

V Z -I Z -V
ZR=R

VR ZR=R I -IR 0 IR

-VR So VR I R only when R is kept constant ic the temp is kept constant. L:


VL =Z L I L Z L = j L

VL ZL=jL 0

-IL ZL=jL

IL

-VL So VL IL only when L is constant i.e. the temp is kept constant and also at a constant source frequency .
C : VC =Z C I C Z C = j C 1

VC ZC= -IC ZC= 0 IC

-VC

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So VC IC only when C is constant i.e. temp is kept constant and also at a constant source frequency NOTE : (1) WL = Li 2 ( J ) & (2) WC = CV 2 (J )
1 2 1 2

i = H.dl WH =
l

&

1 J H 2 3 2 m 1 J V = E.dl WE = E 2 3 2 m l

So the inductor will store the energy in the magnetic field in the form of current and the capacitance will sotreo the energy in the electric field in the form of voltage III. The Types of Elements:1. Linear and Nonlinear 2. Active and passive 3. Bilateral and unilateral 4. Distributed and jumped 5. Time invariant and time varying A two terminal element is said to be linear, if for all time t its characteristics is a straight line through the origin, otherwise it is said to be nonlinear. An element is said to be active if it delivers a net amount of energy to the outside world, otherwise it is said to be passive. An element is said to be bilateral if it offers same impedance for the different directions of the same current flow, otherwise it is said to be unilateral. v V Z= i (i,v) -i (-i,-v) v v = i i i -V Z Fig.ZBilateral element characteristics + V + V (-i,-v) (i,v) Z= 0 i

50 In other words for a bilateral element, if (I, v) is on the characteristics then (I, V) must also be on the same characteristics. An element is said to be time invariant if for all time t its characteristics does not change with time, otherwise it is said to be time varying. V t3 R3 R1 -i 0 t1 t2 R2 i

-V III. Sources : -

SOURCES Independent Dependent

I V Ideal practical I P

VCVS

VCCS

CCVS

CCCS

Independent sources:1. Ideal voltage source


-I + VS + V I + V -

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Note : The energy delivery i.e. the current delivery in any source is always from the positive terminal i.e. the current must flow from negative to positive terminals. Characteristics V Vs

I 0 To flow a current always the closed path is the must V = VS for all I Property So in an ideal voltage source, the load voltage is independent of the load current drawn. Note : Inherently all the sources are nonlinear in nature, since the relation between voltage & current is nonlinear. They are basically active and unilateral elements. 2. The Practical voltage source Rs + -I I + V Vs v2vs-IRs V ideal practical V=0 I

+IRs- + VS V By KVL

VS IR S V = 0

V =VS IR S

Property : So in a practical voltage source, the load voltage is a function of the load current drawn. ohs: Rs +0v VS + I=0 + v=vs VS I=0 Rs +0v -

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When I = 0 then V = VS So when the current through any passive element is zero then the two end voltages are equal and viceversa.

3. The ideal current source


I I + + V V I Is practical 0 I2Is-v1/Rs I=0 V ideal

IS

So in an ideal current source, the load current is independent of the load voltage.

4. The practical current source


I I v/R+ + s + V V Rs -

IS

Property: So in a practical current source, the load current is a function of the load voltage. Obs: When V = 0, I = 0 + 0v I=Is + 0A IS Rs V=0

So the current always chooses a minimum-resistance path. x V=0 Dependent (or) controlled sources:+ 1 K 1 V2

K 2 V11

+ -

K 3 I1 1

K 4 I1 2

+ -

2 K 5 I1

VCVS

VCCS

CCVS

CCCS

CCVS etc

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Linear controlled sources with respect to the controlled variable (not with respect to the voltage and current relation) The controlled sources are said to be the sources i.e. the active elements in the presence of at least one independent source then only the controlled variables are non zero and hence their magnitudes are non zero. With respect to the controlled variable only, the dependent source are said to be linear, active and bilateral. The presence of these elements makes the network a linear, an active and a bilateral.

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