Chapter 2

Self Potential/Spontaneous Potential

2.1 Introduction
If two electrodes are buried in the ground and connected to a voltmeter a potential dierence is usually
measured. Such electrical potentials can be very variable in amplitude and can show high values in regions
where suldes are present. These potentials can be the result of a variety of phenomena the principal of which
involve oxidation and reduction reactions.
Self potentials can be divided into two main groups:
1. Background Potentials are generally of the order of mV and mainly arise due to water circulation, small
mineral quantities, biologic and topographic eects, however human activities may also produce SP signals.
2. Mineral Potentials occur in regions of anomalous concentrations of sulde ores (also near graphite) and
can be of the order of hundreds of mV or even V.
Do not be misled by the name background potential as in many applications these are the signals of
interest; however, we will not explore all of the mechanisms which generate these potentials.
Surface
Water Table
Current
Flow
Negative Ions
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
s
+

Figure 2.1: A mechanism for mineral self-potential anomalies (adapted from Sato and Mooney (1960) via Kearey
et al. (2002)).
Signicant SP anomalies are associated with massive sulde deposits, but how are they generated? Unfor-
tunately a denitive explanation does not exist and it may well be that multiple processes play a role depending
on the particular setting. A generally favoured explanation, proposed by Sato and Mooney (1960), applies to
ore bodies that straddle the water table (gure 2.1). Above the water table (in the incompletely saturated
10
SP 11
vadose zone) dissolved electrolytes gain electrons from the ore body and are reduced. At depth (in the fully
saturated phreatic zone) an oxidation reaction occurs transferring electrons back to the ore body. Electrons
are then conducted through the ore body completing the circuit. Unfortunately, this proposal can not explain
all SP observations; e.g. the large anomalies associated with poorly conductive sphalerite bodies and observed
anomalies in excess of their theoretical maximum.
Streaming or electrokinetic potentials are generated by the ow of an aqueous electrolyte through narrow
channels (pores). The amplitude of the resulting potential drop depends on both the electrical (e.g. resistivity)
and mechanical (e.g. viscosity) properties of the uid and on the conditions driving the ow. The eect depends
on interaction between the liquid and the solid surface (an eect called the zeta potential). This potential can
be present (and signicant) in situations involving groundwater ow, such as dam seepage, geothermal settings
or groundwater pulses following major storms. SP anomalies generated by this mechanism may be used to map
subsurface barriers to, or conduits of, ow.
2.2 SP in the Field
SP measurement is an electrochemical process, therefore contact with the ground must be adequate. In practice
non-polarizing electrodes are used otherwise the potentials generated by reactions between the ground and the
electrodes would mask the target signal. Porous-pot electrodes are one example of non-polarizing electrodes,
they consist of a metal strip (such as Cu or Ag) immersed in a saturated solution of the same metal (e.g.
CuSO
4
or AgCl) within a porous pot (gure 2.2a). The solution slowly leaks through the porous pot creating
the contact with the ground.
To check for the non-polarization of the electrodes eld measurements should also be made with the
electrode positions reversed. The two SP values obtained should have the same absolute value. It is also
important that the resistance of the voltmeter be suciently large that the equipment draws a minimal amount
of current from the ground (in practice this means a resistance of at least 10
8
). To ensure good ground
contact of the electrodes should be kept wet and shaded when a xed electrode is used; the initial potential
dierence between the electrodes should be measured and the contact resistance kept to a minimum.
metal
saturated
solution
porous
bottom
a)
!V
Rv
R1 R2
b)
Figure 2.2: a) Schematic of a porous-pot non-polarizing electrode for use in SP studies. b) The SP circuit, R
v
should be large and R
1
+ R
2
small.
SP 12
2.2.1 Field measurements
There are dierent possible arrangements in which the equipment can be deployed.
Fixed Spacing In this approach the distance between the two electrodes is kept constant. A grid is established
and measurements are taken by moving both electrodes along the grid either maintaining (gure 2.3a) or
alternating (gure 2.3b) the electrode positions. If the electrode orientations are switched this must be recorded
as it will change the sign of the measured potential dierence. Fixed orientation measurements requires that
both electrode positions are changed between each reading; only one electrode position is changed between
readings in the alternating orientation deployment.
The gridded measurements should ultimately form a closed loop and the sum of all potentials within that
loop should equal zero (the potential at our starting point should be constant). If our potential loop does not
sum to zero, then the remainder represents an error that should be distributed among the readings. After checks
and correction the gridded potential measurements are used to draw maps of the equipotential lines as well as
proles.
Advantages of the xed spacing approach include the need for only a short wire and the reduced importance
of telluric currents (generally long-wavelength currents induced in the ground by geomagnetic uctuations). A
disadvantage is that generally two operators are required to move the system.
!V1 !V2 !V3 a) !V1 !V2 !V3 b)
Figure 2.3: Segments of xed spacing grids for SP deployment in which electrode orientation a) remains xed
and b) is alternated. In both cases three potential dierence measurements are taken; the electrode moves
between readings 1 and 2 are shown by the short-dashed arrows, the electrode moves between readings 2 and 3
by the long-dashed arrows.
Fixed Electrode In this approach one electrode is kept at a single position and the other moved through
the grid. An arbitrary value is assigned to the potential at the xed electrode from which all others are
calculated. Advantages of this system include generally reduced measurement errors and that it can be more
easily performed by a single operator. However a longer wire is required and the larger separation between
electrodes may allow telluric currents to inuence the results.
!V1
!V2
!V3
Figure 2.4: Segment of xed electrode grid for SP deployment. Three potential dierence measurements are
taken; the electrode moves between readings 1 and 2 are shown by the short-dashed arrows, the electrode moves
between readings 2 and 3 by the long-dashed arrows.
SP 13
2.2.2 Applications
Self potential measurements are used in sulde exploration, geothermal exploration, to locate faults or springs
in groundwater studies, and in geotechnical monitoring of leakage of water from dams or canals, or of leachate
from landlls. SP can also be used to search for pipelines, monitor pipeline corrosion, check for electrical power
leakage and in well logging (one electrode is kept at the surface and the other lowered into the borehole).
Downhole SP measurements of streaming potential can be used in reservoir monitoring to track the process of
injected water towards the oil extraction well.
In general, SP is employed in small areas for certain specic problems. Conducting ground is essential -
ice is no good. Practical problems to keep an eye out for include electrode polarization; rain, which changes the
contact strength and ground conductivity; telluric variations which can have daily drifts; articial sources of
electricity in the vicinity; and a shift in the equipotential lines in relation to an ore body lying at the boundary
between units of vastly dierent resistivity since current will ow preferentially in the less resistive unit.
2.3 SP Anomaly Theory
2.3.1 A Linear Conductor
l
A
I
V1 V2
Figure 2.5: A current I ows through a linear conductor of length and cross sectional area A. The potential
at the ends of the linear conductor are V
1
and V
2
.
Consider a linear conductor (gure 2.5); from Ohms law we can relate the potential drop to the resistance
and current
V
1
V
2
= RI (2.1)
where R is the resistance of the conductor. Recall from equation (1.1) that the total resistance of the conductor
depends on its resistivity as well as and A; therefore
V
1
V
2
= (V
2
V
1
) =

A
I
or I =
A

(V
2
V
1
)

(2.2)
In the limit of a vanishingly small element ( d) we obtain
I =
A

dV
d
(2.3)
The current density is dened as (j = I/A) so that
j =
1

dV
d
(2.4)
SP 14
2.3.2 Current Point Source - Innite Medium
For a point source of electric current in an homogeneous, isotropic and innite medium the equipotential surfaces
are spheres centred on the point source (gure 2.6). From the denition of current density we have
j =
1

dV
dr
(2.5)
where dV/dr is the potential gradient in the r direction. Or, if we prefer
dV
dr
= j
=
I
4r
2
(2.6)
where we have used A = 4r
2
. The potential at a given point can therefore be found by integration
V =

I
4r
2
dr (2.7)
We are free to take any point as our zero potential (i.e. as our reference); however, we note that dV/dr
as r 0. Therefore, we take innity as our reference so that we can evaluate equation (2.7); our integral
becomes
V (r) =

I
4r
2
dr =
I
4r
(2.8)
If we had a sink instead of a source, then the direction of current ow would be reversed (I I) and the
potential will be
V (r) =
I
4r
(2.9)
R
dr
A
I
+
Figure 2.6: An electric current point source
2.3.3 Point Source in a Half Space
Measurements are carried out on the Earth - which is not innite! At the surface of the Earth there is a very
large jump in resistivity (air is an excellent insulator) so that the correct geometry is closer to that of the
semi-innite half-space.
SP 15
I
air ! ! "
!1
+
Figure 2.7: An electric current point source in a half space
In this geometry the equipotential surfaces are half spheres A = 2r
2
and the potential for a source is
V (r) =
I
2r
(2.10)
and for a sink
V (r) =
I
2r
(2.11)
Another way of thinking about the half-space problem is to consider that since the current can not ow up
through the surface and enter the air any current that would have done so must ow into the ground instead.
That is, although the source produces the same total current, the current ow in the ground is doubled; replacing
I with 2I in equations (2.8, 2.9) gives the half-space potentials. From the point of view of an observer below
the surface it is as if the source was doubled. The innite resistivity contrast at the surface acts somewhat like
a mirror, reecting any current that approaches it. This remains true if the source is located at depth and
leads to the method of images; the potential within the half-space is the same as that in an innite space with
a second point source (the source image) located above the surface, like a reection in a mirror (see gure 2.8).
Rather than consider one source in a half-space it is equivalent to consider two sources in an innite space.
surface
+
+
h
h
r
1
r
2
S
SI
P
Figure 2.8: A source (S) located a depth h below the surface. In the method of images we reect the lower
half-space in the surface, resulting in a second source, the source image (SI). The potential is calculated at point
P as if both sources were located in an innite medium.
To calculate the potential within the half-space we consider an observation point (P) located at depth and
nd
V
P
= V
S
+ V
SI
=
I
4r
1
+
I
4r
2
(2.12)
Note that we are using the potential formula for point sources in an innite medium, due to the perfectly
reective surface causing us to see what appears to be two sources in an innite space. Less colloquially,
SP 16
the observed current and potential due to a single source in a half space is identical to that from the method of
images inspired model of two sources in an innite space. If we move either the observation point or the source
to the surface, then r
1
= r
2
= r and we nd
V
P
= V
S
+ V
SI
=
I
2r
(2.13)
2.3.4 Multiple Poles
The method of images eectively turns the single source problem into a multiple source problem. In geologic
settings there will often be multiple sources and/or sinks and there may be non-point sources. As we saw
above, determining the potential from multiple sources is relatively straightforward, electric potential is a scalar
quantity and thus the individual potentials can be summed in the familiar algebraic fashion. Determining the
net current ow is more complicated as current (or current density) is a vector quantity having both a magnitude
and direction and it must be added using the rules for vector algebra (see gure 2.9).
Assuming for the moment that the source and sink are in an innite medium and are of equal strength,
the potential is
V = V
S+
+ V
S
=
I
4r
1

I
4r
2
(2.14)
Note that at any point that is equidistant from the two sources (r
1
= r
2
) the net potential is zero.
+
!
r1
r2
S+
S!
j+
j!
jR
Figure 2.9: An electric current point source (S
+
) and point sink (S

) produce current densities

j
+
and

j

at a
given point. The total, resultant current density (

j
R
) is found through vector addition.
The magnitude of the current densities for the source and sink are found from equation (2.4) and the
amplitude of the resultant current density is
|

j
R
| =
I
4

1
r
1
4
+
1
r
2
4
(2.15)
If the source and sink are of equal strength all current lines will begin and end at S
+
and S

.
For multiple poles (i.e. point source and sinks) distributed in three dimensions the potential or current
density is found by extending the procedure above to sum over all poles. For non-point sources (or sinks)
the summation becomes an integral. In a semi-innite half-space the procedure is the same except that the
half-space potential formula (or the method of images) is used.
SP 17
2.3.5 Potential of an Ore Body
Suppose that we are doing an SP survey near a buried sulde ore body, what sort of signal should we expect?
Let us approximate the ore body as some sort of lens with a current point sink at its top and a point source at
its bottom (gure 2.10). We will set our coordinates such that the surface is the xy-plane, and the current poles
lie in the xz-plane (note that we have taken z to be positive down). The position of S

is therefore (0, 0, h
1
)
and that of S
+
is (a, 0, h
2
). Our measurement point is on the surface P(x, y, 0).
+
r1
r2
S+
S!
!
h1
h2
a
P
x
y
z
Figure 2.10: A buried ore body that is generating an electric current point source (S
+
) and point sink (S

).
SP measurements will be taken on the surface at point P.
The potential at P is the sum of the potentials from the sink and source which are
V
S

=
I
2r
1
=
I
2

x
2
+ y
2
+ h
1
2

1/2

(2.16)
V
S
+
=
I
2r
2
=
I
2

(x a)
2
+ y
2
+ h
2
2

1/2

(2.17)
so that
V
T
(x, y) =
I
2

(x a)
2
+ y
2
+ h
2
2

1/2

1

x
2
+ y
2
+ h
1
2

1/2

(2.18)
If a prole is taken directly over the body parallel to its length (i.e. along the x-axis) we have
V
T
(x) =
I
2

(x a)
2
+ h
2
2

1/2

1

x
2
+ h
1
2

1/2

(2.19)
An example contour map and prole are given in gure 2.11 for a dipping ore body characterised by a = 10,
h
1
= 10, h
2
= 15 (arbitrary units). Note that the anomaly peaks are not simply located above the poles and
that the negative anomaly associated with the shallower, negative pole is much more pronounced even for this
relatively shallowly dipping body ( 26.5

). A vertically body will have no positive anomaly and the negative

anomaly will be centered on the negative pole (in an homogeneous medium).
2.3.6 Depth Calculation
The shape of the SP anomaly can be used to estimate the depth of the ore body. Let us rst consider a body
with innite length, in this case the anomaly is caused by the sink point only (gure 2.12a). The potential
SP 18
!50 0 50
!0.5
!0.4
!0.3
!0.2
!0.1
0
0.1
0.2
E!W (x)
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

(
V
T
)
E!W (x)
N
!
S

(
y
)


!50 0 50
!30
!20
!10
0
10
20
30
!0.4
!0.35
!0.3
!0.25
!0.2
!0.15
!0.1
!0.05
0
0.05
a) b)
Figure 2.11: The SP anomaly of an ore body shown by a) contours in plan view, b) a prole along the x-axis.
associated with this pole is
V =
I
2
1
(x
2
+ h
2
)
1/2
(2.20)
This function (which is plotted in gure 2.12b) goes to zero as x and has a minimum at x = 0 with
V
min
=
I
2h
(2.21)
!10 !8 !6 !4 !2 0 2 4 6 8 10
!1
!0.9
!0.8
!0.7
!0.6
!0.5
!0.4
!0.3
!0.2
!0.1
0
x
V
Vmin
V1/2
-x1/2 x1/2
b)
x
!
S
!
h
r
"
P
a)
Figure 2.12: a) Geometry for the problem of calculating depth to an innite body. b) The SP anomaly prole.
We can calculate the value of V that is one half of V
min
and which will occur at a x
1/2
. This leads to
V
1/2
=
I
4h
V
1/2
=
I
2

x
2
1/2
+ h
2

1/2
i.e.
I
2h
=
I
2

x
2
1/2
+ h
2

1/2
1
2h
=
1

x
2
1/2
+ h
2

1/2
SP 19
x
2
1/2
+ h
2
= 4h
2
x
1/2
= h

3 (2.22)
So the depth to the sink can be determined from the half-width of the anomaly prole.
Another method is to take the ratio
V
V
min
=
h
(x
2
+ h
2
)
1/2
= sin (2.23)
Rays drawn from the observation points at the obtained angles should intercept at the sink (gure 2.13).
!
S!
h
"1
P1 P0
"0
P2
"2
Figure 2.13: Depth calculation by the ratio method
Suppose instead that the body is of a nite length and oriented vertically (gure 2.14a). In this case the
potential is given by
V =
I
2

1
r
1

1
r
2

=
I
2
r
2
r
1
r
1
r
2
(2.24)
If the body is small (i.e. r and h) then the lines PS

and PS
+
are nearly parallel and r
2
r
1
cos
and r
1
r
2
r
2
. Therefore
V
I
2
cos
r
2

I
2
h
r
3
=
I
2
h
(x
2
+ h
2
)
3/2
(2.25)
where we have used cos h/r.
As in the previous case the potential approaches zero as x and has a minimum at x = 0 (gure 2.14b)
and we can use the half-width at V
1/2
to nd the depth to the top of the body.
V
min
=
I
2h
2
(2.26)
V
1/2
=
I
4h
2
V
1/2
=
I
2
h

x
2
1/2
+ h
2

3/2
so
1
2h
2
=
h

x
2
1/2
+ h
2

3/2
x
1/2
= h

4 1

1/2
0.766h (2.27)
The method of ratios can also be used as
V
V
min
=
h
3
(x
2
+ h
2
)
3/2
sin
3
(2.28)
SP 20
!10 !8 !6 !4 !2 0 2 4 6 8 10
!1
!0.9
!0.8
!0.7
!0.6
!0.5
!0.4
!0.3
!0.2
!0.1
0
x
V
Vmin
V1/2
-x1/2 x1/2
b)
x
!
S!
h
r
"
P
a)
+
S+
r2
r1
l
#
Figure 2.14: a) Geometry for the problem of calculating depth to a vertical, nite body. b) The SP anomaly
prole.
will again provide a set of intersecting rays.
Both of the approximations we have considered provide estimates of the maximum depth to the current
sink (i.e. the top of the body) and the true position is often somewhat shallower. One major issue is the choice
of the zero level which must be selected correctly to determine the value of V
min
. When the prole is drawn the
reference (zero) potential needs to be set as the value for which the potential becomes constant far from the
body, this process is helped by a good lateral extent of measurements and a low level of noise.