Multimedia Learning in Second Language Aquisition

CHAPTER
29
Multimedia Learning in Second Language Acquisition

Jan L. Plass
New York University
Linda C. Jones
University of Arkansas
Abstract
In this chapter, we discuss research on second-language acquisition with multimedia. We propose a model of cognitive processing in second-language acquisition that is based on interactionist models and on a cognitive theory of multimedia learning ( C T M L ) . For each of the major phases in this model, we discuss the cognitive processing involved, describe how multimedia can be used to support these processes, and report what the research says about the effectiveness of such multimedia support. We discuss limitations of existing research, derive implications for cognitive theory as well as for designers of instructional multimedia materials for second-language acquisition, and suggest directions for future research.
What Is Second-Language Acquisition with Multimedia?

Introduction
T h e use of a language - w h e t h e r first or second - has as its goal the c o m m u n i c a t i o n
of ideas, maintenance of social relations, and creation of discourse, all of w h i c h require the d e v e l o p m e n t of several core c o m p e t e n cies. T h e s e include input competencies, such as listening and reading, and o u t p u t c o m p e tencies, such as speaking and writing, and entail the process of receiving (input), attending to (interaction), and assigning m e a n ing ( o u t p u t ) to verbal (aural or written) and/or visual stimuli. T h e y also include c o m petencies in c o m m u n i c a t i n g in the target language, w h i c h includes an understanding o f t h e cultural and situational c o n t e x t o f such c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e goal of learning a language is ultimately to d e v e l o p these core c o m p e t e n cies. H o w e v e r , the a p p r o a c h e s taken to the teaching and learning of a second language h a v e changed considerably over the past 4 0 years, loosely mirroring the dev e l o p m e n t of psychological theories and m o d e l s of teaching and learning. A brief , o v e r v i e w of s o m e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t approaches m i g h t be helpful in defining w h a t constitutes second-language learning and acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a (Kern & Warschauer, 2 0 0 0 ) . 467
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T h e structural approach, advocated early in t h e 2 0 t h century, focused on t h e system o f structures that-defines a language and v i e w e d language learning as the formation of habits. Following t h e influence of b e h a v ioral psychologists such as J o h n Watson and B. F. Skinner, language c o m p e t e n c i e s w e r e t h o u g h t to b e best attained b y drills o f dialogues and language patterns based on linguistic categories, and w i t h an emphasis on grammatically correct responses to linguistic stimuli. T h e s e drills, including, for e x a m p l e , audiolingualism, w h e r e g r a m m a r and v o c a b ulary are taught orally, w e r e designed w i t h out consideration of the cognitive or social processes involved in these c o m p e t e n c i e s . A d v o c a t e s of w h a t has c o m e to b e k n o w n as the cognitive approach to learning challenged the behaviorist v i e w in the late 1 9 5 0 s and early 1 9 6 0 s b y e m p h a s i z i n g the i m p o r t a n c e of considering the m e n t a l p r o cesses i n v o l v e d in learning. In language learning, N o a m C h o m s k y p r o p o s e d that language d e v e l o p m e n t was facilitated b y innate cognitive structures, n o t b y behavioral reinforcement ( C h o m s k y , 1 9 5 7 ) . W i t h this a p p r o a c h , second-language teaching b e gan to focus .on developing learners' use of cognitive strategies to i m p r o v e c o m p e t e n c e in the language and incorporated learning materials that w e r e based on an understanding o f learners' cognitive processing of t h e information (Bacon, 1 9 9 2 ; C h a m o t , 1 9 9 5 ; C h a m o t , & Kpper, 1 9 8 9 ; L o n g , 1 9 8 9 ; O ' M a l l e y , C h a m o t , & Walker, 1 9 8 7 ; Plass, C h u n , Mayer, & Leutner, 1 9 9 8 ; Postovsky, 1 9 8 1 ; R o s t , 1 9 9 0 ) . W i t h t h e s p r e a d o f the cognitive approach, the process of language learning was no longer restricted to passive, drill-and-practice, g r a m m a r - b a s e d activities b u t instead e m p h a s i z e d the develo p m e n t o f linguistic c o m p e t e n c i e s based on prior knowledge, linguistic knowledge, and interaction w i t h and understanding of the t e x t (Fischer & Farris, 1 9 9 5 ; Joiner, 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 7 ; L y n c h , 1 9 9 5 ; Pusack & Otto, 1 9 9 7 ) . S o m e w h a t parallel to the increase in p o p ularity of the cognitive a p p r o a c h to secondlanguage learning, a constructivist perspective w a s introduced that p l a c e d the agency
of the learning process on the learner as an active constructor of meaning. Instead o f insisting on a m o d e l of transferring the correct structure f r o m t h e t e a c h e r t o the student, the acquisition of a s e c o n d language was n o w v i e w e d as an individualized psycholinguistic process that, b a s e d on inp u t that was c o m p r e h e n s i b l e and natural a l l o w e d learners to d e v e l o p their o w n linguistic c o m p e t e n c e and, in the process, construct their o w n g r a m m a r of the language (Krashen, 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e notion of active learning e m p h a sized b y this constructivist p e r s p e c t i v e could not b e realized w i t h o u t introducing a social c o m p o n e n t into the learning process. T h e sociocognitive perspective focuses on the interaction of and c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g learners, redefining language c o m p e t e n c e by extending its linguistic focus to include sociolinguistic and c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e tence (Atkinson, 2 0 0 3 ; H y m e s , 1 9 7 2 J . In this approach, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of language c o m p e t e n c i e s is seen as e m b e d d e d in the particular sociocultural c o n t e x t that emphasizes both the learners' d e v e l o p m e n t o f cognitive structures and the social c o m p o n e n t of discourse and activity ( C a n a l e & Swain, 1 9 8 0 ) . In current v i e w s , a language is acquired in the process of natural c o m m u n i c a t i o n , as c o m p a r e d to the conscious process of learning the language as e m p h a s i z e d b y the structural a p p r o a c h (Krashen, 1 9 8 8 ) . F o r t h e p u r p o s e of this chapter, w e will therefore adopt the t e r m second-language acquisition to describe the meaningful interaction in the target language w h e r e the focus is on c o m m u n i c a t i o n , and t h e acquisition o f the language incidental, and the t e r m secondlanguage learningwhen the focus is on formal instruction a b o u t the language.
Second-Language with Multimedia
Acquisition
M u l t i m e d i a can b e defined as the use of w o r d s and pictures to present material (Mayer, 2 0 0 1 ) . In this context, words are verbal materials that can b e p r e s e n t e d in printed or in s p o k e n form. Pictures are either
static materials, such as diagrams, graphs, photos, or maps, or d y n a m i c materials, such as animation or video. T h e use of m u l t i m e dia t o acquire or learn a s e c o n d language can b e defined in t h e c o n t e x t of any of the approaches to language learning described previously. For the p u r p o s e o f this c h a p ter, w e will focus on s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a , that is, the use of w o r d s a n d pictures to p r o v i d e m e a n i n g ful input, facilitate meaningful interaction w i t h the target language, and elicit m e a n i n g ful o u t p u t . In the following section, w e will r e v i e w t h e research literature that describes w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t the use of m u l t i m e d i a for s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e acquisition b a s e d on the cognitive a n d constructivist/sociocognitive approaches. First, h o w e v e r , w e will p r o v i d e an e x a m p l e of s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e acquisition with multimedia.
Students have control o v e r their learning environment. T h e y can access helpful m a terial as needed, and can r e v i e w t h e t e x t as preferred. U p o n c o m p l e t i o n o f w o r k w i t h the m u l t i m e d i a materials, students engage in a series o f activities in the target language w i t h the literary passage serving as a starting point for discussion, a r g u m e n t a t i o n , and n e gotiation of meaning. In relation to the m u l timedia activity students w r i t e a criticism of the material r e v i e w e d , d e v e l o p a v i d e o that presents their interpretation o f w h a t t h e y have read, or give a group presentation to their peers in the classroom e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e y p o s t questions about the t e x t and r e a d other students' responses on a shared discussion list that is u s e d b y readers all over the w o r l d to e x c h a n g e their t h o u g h t s .
An Example of Second-Language Acquisition with Multimedia

C o n s i d e r t h e following language learning scenario: Students r e a d a literary passage in a m u l t i m e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t . In a traditional print-based scenario, students w o u l d r e a d the material and consult their dictionary as n e e d e d to access translations o f m o r e difficult words. Alternatively, p r e s e n t e d in a m u l t i m e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t , students are first i n t r o d u c e d to a prereading a d v a n c e organizer, for e x a m p l e a video, that helps t h e m activate their prior k n o w l e d g e of the m a t e rial to c o m e , allows t h e m to reflect u p o n the topic at hand, and enables t h e m to better process the i n p u t once they begin to read. A f t e r v i e w i n g the advance organizer, students n e x t access the t e x t and r e a d t h r o u g h it in a s o m e w h a t linear fashion. H o w e v e r , hyperlinks related to particular w o r d s and phrases w i t h i n the t e x t are available on each screen and p r o v i d e helpful information in the f o r m of translations, descriptive sentences, b a c k g r o u n d information, p r o n u n ciation guides, images, or video. S e e Figure 29.1 for an e x a m p l e of such an environm e n t ( C h u n & Plass, 1 9 9 8 ) .
What Do We Know About Second-Language Acquisition with Multimedia?

Research t h a t examines s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a runs the g a m u t from studies of instructional strategies for second-language acquisition t h a t i n v o l v e m u l t i m e d i a to those that focus on m u l t i media learning theories b a s e d in cognitive psychology. For the p u r p o s e o f this c h a p ter, w e will use the interactionist p e r s p e c t i v e of second-language acquisition ( C h a p e l l e , 1 9 9 7 , 1 9 9 8 ; Gass, 1 9 9 7 ; L o n g , 1 9 8 5 ; Pica, 1 9 9 4 ) , w h i c h defines three functions that are d e e m e d crucial to language acquisition and learning: c o m p r e h e n s i b l e i n p u t (Krashen, 1 9 8 2 ) , interaction (Long, 1 9 8 5 ] , and c o m prehensible o u t p u t (Swain, 1 9 8 5 ; S w a i n & L a p k i n , 1 9 9 5 ) . In the terms o f this a p proach, second-language acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a is the use o f w o r d s and p i c tures designed to s u p p o r t the c o m p r e h e n sible i n p u t that the learner is e x p o s e d to and interacts w i t h , and to elicit and negotiate c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t p u t . A s s h o w n in Figure 2 9 . 2 , C h a p e l l e ( 1 9 9 8 ) describes a simplified m o d e l of interactionist c o m p o n e n t s of the second-language acquisition process in research.
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Figure 2 9 . 1 . Picture annotation in the second-language acquisition multimedia learning environment Ciberteca (Chun & Plass, 1998). In Figure 2 9 . 2 , Input describes the w e a l t h of linguistic material that the learner is presented w i t h . Yet, only input that is apperceived can potentially b e acquired (Chapelle, 1 9 9 8 ) . Therefore, in order to help students m o r e richly apperceive incoming information, and eventually p r o d u c e c o m p r e h e n sible o u t p u t , interaction in the form of information links that provide simplification, elaboration, clarification, definitional support, or r e d u n d a n c y is n e e d e d (Chapelle, 1 9 9 7 , 1 9 9 8 ; Larsen-Freeman 8c Long, 1 9 9 1 ) , suggesting that w e s h o u l d "provide learners w i t h c o m p r e h e n s i b l e input rather than just i n p u t " (Chapelle, 1 9 9 8 , p. 9 ) . T h u s , the interaction that occurs is t w o - w a y - directed' t o w a r d t h e s u p p o r t of input and directed tow a r d the s u p p o r t of o u t p u t . T h e comprehension of the semantic cont e n t of the a p p e r c e i v e d input can be accomplished w i t h or w i t h o u t an understanding of the syntax. Intake is c o m p r e h e n d e d inp u t that can be integrated into the learner's linguistic system. Comprehensible output,
Input
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Intake
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Output
Semantic/ Syntactic
Figure 29.2. Interactionist model of basic components in the second-language acquisition process adopted from Chapelle (199S).
M U L T I M E D I A L E A R N I N G IN S E C O N D L A N G U A G E A C Q U I S I T I O N
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Selecting ~~I Words
Apperception ; Comprehension}
Organizing i Words Verbal Text Base Verbal Model Syntactic/Semantic
Learner's Integrating Linguistic System
Output
Pictorial Input
i
Images
Visual Image Base
Visual Model
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Figure 2 9 . 3 . Integrated model of second-language acquisition with multimedia.
in w h i c h students identify their errors and adjust to correct these errors, is the o b servable result of c o m p r e h e n s i b l e input and interaction. This o u t p u t can be seen through c o m m u n i c a t i v e and n o n c o m m u nicative goal-oriented tasks, such as problem solving, c o m m u n i c a t i o n of ideas, vocabulary identification, and so on ( C h a p e l l e , 1998). T h e s e s a m e strategies can b e w e l l adapted to m u l t i m e d i a environments w i t h the c o m puter acting as a partner in t h e learning process. T h e r e f o r e , the q u e s t i o n of w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t second-language acquisition with m u l t i m e d i a can b e further specified to ask: In w h a t w a y can m u l t i m e d i a support second-language acquisition by p r o v i d ing c o m p r e h e n s i b l e input, facilitating m e a n ingful interaction, and eliciting c o m p r e h e n sible o u t p u t ? T h e r e are few research studies that use both second-language acquisition theory and m u l t i m e d i a learning t h e o r y as their foundation. O n e reason for this m i g h t b e that there are no m o d e l s of s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e acquisition that incorporate e l e m e n t s of m u l t i m e dia learning ( C T M L ) . A s a case in point, the interactionist m o d e l of second-language acquisition s h o w n in Figure 29.2 does not incorporate any e x p l i c i t references to the presentation m o d e of the linguistic input. T h e components and processes described b y this model, h o w e v e r , are o f a generative nature that has parallels to M a y e r ' s ( 2 0 0 1 ] C o g nitive T h e o r y of M u l t i m e d i a L e a r n i n g (see chapter 3 ] . W e therefore p r o p o s e an integrated m o d e l that incorporates elements f Ellis's ( 1 9 9 7 } m o d e l o f second-language
acquisition, elements of an interactionist perspective of second-language acquisition (Chapelle, 1 9 9 7 ; 1 9 9 8 ) , and elements of the cognitive t h e o r y of multimedia learning (Figure 2 9 . 3 ) . In the following sections, w e will, for each of the m a j o r phases in this integrated m o d e l , describe the cognitive processes inv o l v e d , outline strategies of supporting these processes using m u l t i m e d i a , and discuss the results of research on the effectiveness of these strategies for second-language acquisition with m u l t i m e d i a .
Comprehensible Input! Selecting/Apperception

Before m u l t i m e d i a information can be p r o cessed, w o r d s and pictures need to be selected from w h a t is presented, that is, learners need to direct their attention to a specific portion o f the w e a l t h of the linguistic and nonlinguistic information they receive that they d e e m relevant. Verbal information that is selected is internally r e p r e s e n t e d in a t e x t base, w h e r e a s selected pictorial information is internally represented in a visual image base. In the interactionist m o d e l of second-language acquisition, this process is described as apperception, and the process of focusing attention on certain aspects of the target language is often referred to as noticing ( S c h m i d t , 1 9 9 0 ) . Influenced b y V y g o t s k y ' s ( 1 9 9 6 ) c o n c e p t of the z o n e of p r o x i m a l dev e l o p m e n t ( Z P D ) , second-language acquisition theory suggests that learners acquire language best b y reading or listening to
T H E C A M B R I D G E HANDBOOK OF MULTIMEDIA L E A R N I N G
material that is j ust b e y o n d their current levels of c o m p e t e n c e (Krashen, 1 9 8 2 ] . Krashen calls linguistic material comprehensible input w h e n it is one step (i + 1 ) a b o v e students' current levels o f c o m p e t e n c e (i), in w h i c h case m o r e aspects of the i n p u t can b e n o ticed, and, as a result, the acquisition of the language is m o r e likely ( D o u g h t y , 1 9 9 1 ) . In o r d e r to facilitate the acquisition of a second language, m u l t i m e d i a can b e u s e d to e n h a n c e the i n p u t and increase the likelih o o d of noticing. Strategies involving m u l timedia that h a v e been used for the s u p p o r t of noticing include highlighting or otherwise m a r k i n g words, sentences, and linguistic features, often in conjunction with p r o viding c o m p r e h e n s i o n aids in the form of m u l t i m e d i a annotations and pairing w o r d s w i t h images. Input enhancers for aural inp u t t h a t use m u l t i m e d i a i n c l u d e the use of captioned text, nonverbal cues (e.g., s u p p l e m e n t a l v i d e o images), instant feedback t o listening tasks, and repetitions of the audio input. E a r l y research on v o c a b u l a r y learning w i t h t e x t a n d pictures has consistently f o u n d an i n p u t e n h a n c e m e n t effect that resulted in better retention of v o c a b u l a r y w o r d s w h e n t h e y w e r e paired w i t h pictures, a finding that led to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the dualcoding t h e o r y (Deno, 1 9 6 8 ; Paivio, Clark, & L a m b e r t , 1 9 8 8 ; Paivio 8c Desrochers, 1 9 7 9 ) . In s o m e cases, retention w a s increased w h e n the pictorial presentation of the w o r d w a s displayed before the written presentation (Brown, 1 9 9 3 } . For w r i t t e n input in reading c o m p r e hension, e n h a n c e m e n t has b e e n p r o v i d e d in t h e f o r m of annotations for v o c a b u lary items in the text. In o r d e r to s h o w that annotations are available, w o r d s or sentences are often m a r k e d or highlighted. A l t h o u g h s i m p l e highlighting m a y not necessarily result in better v o c a b u l a r y acquisition ( D e Ridder, 2 0 0 2 ) , the highlighting of w o r d s in conjunction w i t h m u l t i m e d i a glosses has facilitated b o t h v o c a b u l a r y acquisition and reading c o m p r e h e n s i o n ( C h u n 8c Plass, 1 9 9 6 a , 1 9 9 6 b ; L a u f e r 8c Hill, 2 0 0 0 ; L i u 8c R e e d , 1 9 9 5 ; Lyman-Hager, Davis, Burnett, 8c C h e n n a u l t , 1 9 9 3 ; O m a g g i o , 1 9 7 9 ; Plass
et al., 1 9 9 8 ) , a l t h o u g h in one case students a p p e a r e d to p r e f e r to l o o k u p the English translations instead of using m u l t i m e d i a annotations ( D a v i s & L y m a n - H a g e r , 1 9 9 7 ) . A u r a l i n p u t in listening c o m p r e h e n s i o n can b e e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h d y n a m i c visual information. R e s e a r c h has found, for e x a m p l e , that v i d e o is able to s u p p o r t the processing of linguistic i n f o r m a t i o n and facilitate language c o m p r e h e n s i o n ( N e u m a n & Koskinen, 1 9 9 2 ; Sharp, Bransford, G o l d m a n , & Risko, 1 9 9 5 ) as w e l l as v o c a b u l a r y acquisition ( D u q u e t t e ScPainchaud, 1 9 9 6 ) . H e r n a n d e z ( 2 0 0 4 ) cond u c t e d a s y s t e m a t i c study of different presentation m o d e s for c o m p r e h e n s i b l e i n p u t in listening c o m p r e h e n s i o n . In this research w i t h students of English s e c o n d language ( E S L ) , scenes f r o m a feature m o v i e w e r e p r e s e n t e d either as audio (narration) only, as audio w i t h captions, audio w i t h video, or audio w i t h v i d e o a n d captions. N o differences w e r e f o u n d a m o n g the four groups in v o c a b ulary acquisition. H o w e v e r , groups receiving v i d e o (audio w i t h video, or audio w i t h video and captions) c o m p r e h e n d e d the narration better than those w h o did not, an effect that w a s stronger for learners w i t h high-spatial ability than for t h o s e w i t h low-spatial ability. T h e results o f this s t u d y e m p h a s i z e the i m p o r t a n c e of considering presentation m o d e s other than t e x t for p r o v i d i n g and enhancing input. O t h e r research has f o u n d that p r o viding instant f e e d b a c k t o c o m p r e h e n s i o n test items during listening tasks (Brett, 1 9 9 7 ) and e x a c t repetitions of the auditory i n p u t (Jensen & Vinther, 2 0 0 3 ) can also serve as i n p u t enhancers.
Interactive Processing: Organizing/Comprehension

O n c e visual a n d v e r b a l material has b e e n selected or noticed, it needs to b e organized into visual m e n t a l representations and verbal m e n t a l representations. Part of this p r o cess is t o c o n n e c t w o r d s to form a verbal m o d e l and to c o n n e c t images to form a p i c t o rial m o d e l . In s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e acquisition, these processes focus on understanding the s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t o f the i n p u t and f o r m ing a v e r b a l m o d e l t h a t also m a y include
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syntactic information, and d e v e l o p i n g a pictorial m o d e l t h a t includes linguistic as w e l l as nonlinguistic pictorial information. Interactive processing theory ( K i m , 2 0 0 2 ; S a m u e l s & K a m i l , 1 9 8 4 ; Silberstein, 1 9 8 7 ; Swaffar, A r e n s , & Byrnes, 1 9 9 1 ) is a p o p ular a p p r o a c h to describe the process of organizing in the c o n t e x t of reading and listening c o m p r e h e n s i o n . Interactive processing includes l o w e r - l e v e l ( b o t t o m - u p ) strategies that e m p h a s i z e words, structures and sounds, and higher-level ( t o p - d o w n ) strategies that p r o m o t e visualization or inferential strategies. Beginning second-language learners, for e x a m p l e , focus p r i m a r i l y on w o r d identification or b o t t o m - u p processing in listening and reading activities. M o r e proficient second-language learners use the available t e x t u a l clues to confirm b u t also predict information a b o u t t h e t e x t (Fischer 8c Farris, 1 9 9 5 ) . W i t h i n interactive processing, meaningful interaction w i t h the m a t e rial is essential in order to help students construct m e a n i n g , especially w h e n learners' prior k n o w l e d g e of a t e x t is l o w (Faerch and Kaspar, 1 9 8 6 ) . M u l t i m e d i a - b a s e d strategies to facilitate such interaction i n c l u d e p r o v i d ing m u l t i m e d i a annotations for v o c a b u l a r y w o r d s and p r o v i d i n g learners w i t h a degree of control over t h e e n v i r o n m e n t that allows t h e m to meaningfully interact w i t h the m a terial according t o their needs and styles. A s part o f the interaction and m e a n i n g making process, learners w h o are e n g a g e d in i n p u t processes such as reading a n d listening learn v o c a b u l a r y incidentally, or as a b y p r o d u c t of their goal to c o m p r e h e n d the inp u t (Hulstijn, 1 9 9 2 ; Hulstijn, Hollander, 8c G r e i d e n h a u s , 1 9 9 6 ; Yoshii & Flaitz, 2 0 0 2 ) . H o w e v e r , if the i n p u t is t o o challenging, learners m a y incidentally learn w o r d s incorrectly (Hulstijn, 1 9 9 2 ; Yoshii 8c Flaitz, 2 0 0 2 ) . In o r d e r to p r e v e n t this, researchers h a v e e x a m i n e d the use of various interactive strategies, such as providing marginal glosses, to assist learners in v o c a b u l a r y acquisition as t h e y r e a d a p a p e r - b a s e d t e x t (Hulstijn et al., 1 9 9 6 ; Kost, Fost, & L e n z i n i , 1 9 9 9 ; Watanabe, 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e use of annotations, or glosses, as an interactive processing strategy has m o r e re-
cently been applied to m u l t i m e d i a learning environments, and research on their effectiveness is one of the m o s t w i d e l y studied topics in the c o n t e x t of s e c o n d language acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a . S e v eral of our o w n studies ( C h u n & Plass, 1 9 9 6 a , 1 9 9 6 b ; Jones, 2 0 0 1 ; J o n e s 8c Plass, 2 0 0 2 ; Plass et al., 1 9 9 8 ; Plass, C h u n , Mayer, 8c Leutner, 2 0 0 3 ) h a v e e x p l o r e d the u s e of annotations in second-language m u l t i m e d i a environments for reading a n d listening c o m prehension. T h e s e studies investigated h o w the availability of visual and verbal annotations for v o c a b u l a r y items in t h e t e x t facilitates v o c a b u l a r y acquisition as w e l l as the c o m p r e h e n s i o n of a foreign language literary text. W e f o u n d that especially the availability of p i c t u r e annotations facilitated v o c a b ulary acquisition, and that v o c a b u l a r y w o r d s learned w i t h picture annotations w e r e b e t ter retained than those learned w i t h t e x tual annotations ( C h u n 81 Plass, 1 9 9 6 a ) . O u r research s h o w e d in addition t h a t incidental v o c a b u l a r y acquisition and t e x t c o m p r e hension was best for w o r d s w h e r e learners looked u p b o t h picture and t e x t annotations (Plass et al., 1 9 9 8 ) . O t h e r researchers h a v e r e p l i c a t e d these studies and e x t e n d e d t h e m to other learners, settings, and languages. A l - S e g h a y e r ( 2 0 0 1 ) c o m p a r e d t h e effect of glosses t h a t c o n tained t e x t and pictures w i t h glosses that contained t e x t and v i d e o and f o u n d that the w o r d s annotated w i t h glosses that included video w e r e retained better. Yoshii 8c Flaitz ( 2 0 0 2 ) e x a m i n e d t h e effects of different annotation types in the f o r m of text, pictures, and a c o m b i n a t i o n of the t w o in a m u l t i m e d i a - b a s e d reading c o m p r e h e n s i o n activity on E S L students' v o c a b u l a r y learning. T h e i r results of both i m m e d i a t e and d e layed tests s h o w e d that definitions for keyw o r d s in the form of both t e x t and pictorial annotations l e d to better v o c a b u l a r y learning than did the single annotations. H o w ever, pictorial annotations led to greater results on pictorial and w r i t t e n v o c a b u l a r y recognition tests than did t e x t annotations w h i l e t e x t annotations lead to greater r e sults on the p r o d u c t i o n test than did p i c t o rial annotations.
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J o n e s and Plass ( 2 0 0 2 ) investigated similar questions in the c o n t e x t of listening c o m p r e h e n s i o n b y providing students w i t h a choice o f pictorial and written verbal annotations for vocabulary in a listening text. T h e y f o u n d that students recalled m o r e v o cabulary and r e m e m b e r e d m o r e ideas from the t e x t w h e n they chose both verbal and visual annotations for u n k n o w n words. H o w ever, results of delayed vocabulary and c o m prehension tests s h o w e d that, over time, the effect of visual annotations d e c a y e d m u c h less than the effect of verbal annotations, e m p h a s i z i n g the importance of visual input in listening comprehension. A controversial question related t o p r o viding annotations in a second-language t e x t is w h e t h e r or not these annotations should include translations in the learner's first language. A d v o c a t e s of a c o m m u n i c a t i v e app r o a c h reject any such translations (Krashen, 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 8 ; U n d e r w o o d , 1 9 8 4 ) , citing that the n e e d to infer meaning from c o n t e x t p r o m o t e s a higher investment of m e n t a l effort, d e e p e r processing, and, thus, d e e p e r learning ( C r a i k 8t Lockhart, 1 9 7 2 ) . G r a c e ( 1 9 9 8 ) empirically e x a m i n e d this question in the c o n t e x t o f French v o c a b u l a r y acquisition in a m u l t i m e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h dialogues from a French c o m i c books series. In addition to providing images, sound, and t e x t annotations to all learners, one group received sentence-level translations of the dialogue, w h e r e a s the control group did not. G r a c e f o u n d in both i m m e d i a t e and delayed tests that interaction w i t h these m u l t i m e dia c o m p o n e n t s resulted in increased v o c a b ulary k n o w l e d g e for both groups. Further, learners w h o received translations r e m e m b e r e d significantly m o r e w o r d s than learners w h o did not. T h e s e results, obtained with beginning-level students, indicate that, especially for novices, translations m a y be helpful as i n p u t enhancers. A n o t h e r issue that is relevant for interactive processing is the level of control over the order and p a c e as w e l l as choice of m a terials that learners are afforded in a m u l timedia environment. A study b y Y e h and L e h m a n ( 2 0 0 a ) p r o v i d e d students of E n glish foreign language ( E F L ) w i t h a range
of 7 - 1 0 years of previous English instruction w i t h identical reading materials about historical events in the M i d d l e East in t w o t r e a t m e n t groups. In t h e learner-controlled condition, students w e r e able to r e v i e w and access helpful material as n e e d e d . In the program-controlled condition, students h a d a predefined p a c e and sequence of the instruction. Results s h o w e d that students w h o could freely interact with the m a t e rial and access information as desired recalled m o r e ideas from the t e x t than learners w h o did not h a v e control over p a c e and order. In addition, learners w i t h less-efficient English-learning strategies p e r f o r m e d significantly w o r s e in the program-controlled condition than in the learner-controlled condition, w h e r e a s learners w i t h m o r e efficient strategies did not differ. Y e h and L e h m a n ( 2 0 0 1 ) argue t h a t learner control provides students w i t h the o p p o r t u n i t y to interact w i t h the materials to construct meaning, and t h a t this interaction is especially necessary for students w i t h less efficient learning strategies. H o w e v e r , learner control research has received m u c h criticism (Reeves, 1 9 9 3 ) , and the preceding findings s h o u l d be further investigated as t h e y are in contrast to research c o n d u c t e d in other areas, w h e r e results h a v e s h o w n that l o w prior-knowledge learners need guidance and structure in m u l t i m e d i a learning environments and that only a d v a n c e d users are able to navigate such systems w i t h o u t such guidance (Lawless 81 Brown, 1997). W e investigated a similar issue in our o w n research w h e r e w e c o n d u c t e d t w o studies on the use of annotations w h i l e reading a G e r m a n text. In one study, learners had the choice of selecting visual and/or verbal annotations for u n k n o w n vocabulary (Plass e t al., 1 9 9 8 ) . In another study, learners w e r e assigned to t r e a t m e n t conditions in w h i c h t h e y h a d to v i e w visual annotations, verbal annotations, or visual and verbal annotations. T h e control group received no annotations (Plass et al., 2 0 0 3 ) . O u r research s h o w e d that learning environments that provide a choice of visual and verbal annotations equally s u p p o r t e d visualizers and verbalizers in their different learning preferences. We
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found t h a t these t w o types of learners did not differ in their overall v o c a b u l a r y acquisition, b u t that t h e y u s e d different t y p e s of annotations during the reading process, and corresponding different cues t o retrieve the translations for v o c a b u l a r y w o r d s during the test (Plass et al., 1 9 9 8 ) . H o w e v e r , w h e n instead of giving t h e m a choice, learners w e r e assigned to use either visual or verbal annotations or both, learners w i t h l o w - v e r b a l or l o w spatial ability w h o h a d to learn from visual annotations e x p e r i e n c e d higher cognitive load and r e m e m b e r e d f e w e r w o r d s than learners w i t h high verbal ability or high spatial ability. I n d e p e n d e n t of their abilities, learners assigned to receive only visual annotations c o m p r e h e n d e d the t e x t less w e l l (Plass et al., 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e s e results indicate that annotations m e a n t to e n h a n c e the linguistic i n p u t n e e d to be designed w i t h care and suggest that learners s h o u l d h a v e c o n trol over the learning e n v i r o n m e n t , w i t h the option t o v i e w annotations rather than have t h e m displayed b y default. A different t y p e of interaction takes place b e t w e e n the individual, his or her prior knowledge, and t h e text. Pica, D o u g h t y , and Young ( 1 9 8 6 ) and D o u g h t y ( 1 9 9 1 ) suggest that t h e interactive nature of m u l t i m e d i a , w h e n u n d e r a learner's control, m i m i c s reallife interaction, in particular w h e n one requests clarification, checks for c o m p r e h e n sion, or strives to confirm or u n d e r s t a n d the topic at h a n d . T h i s interaction will be rev i e w e d n e x t , w h e n w e discuss the process of integrating information.
the i n c o m i n g information (Mayer, 2 0 0 1 ) .
In the acquisition of a language, the c o m prehension of the linguistic input, involving b o t h semantic and syntactic processing, has as its result w h a t is often referred to as intake, that is, " c o m p r e h e n d e d language that holds the potential for developing the learners' linguistic s y s t e m " (Chapelle, 1 9 9 8 , p. 2 3 ) . T h e process of integration involves the dev e l o p m e n t of the linguistic system based on the intake, w h i c h , in the case of multim e d i a learning, is c o m p r i s e d of verbal and pictorial c o m p o n e n t s . M u l t i m e d i a - b a s e d approaches e m p l o y e d to s u p p o r t the integration of n e w l y acquired information w i t h prior k n o w l e d g e include the use of advance organizers ( A u s u b e l , 1 9 6 8 } . Providing introductory material in advance of t h e learning materials, and thereby activating existing prior knowledge, enables students to m o r e successfully c o m p r e h e n d the i n p u t they receive in a reading or a listening e n v i r o n m e n t . For secondlanguage acquisition, studies h a v e consistently f o u n d that advance organizers in the form of questions, statements, images, brainstorming, or v i d e o have h e l p e d students to grasp the concepts presented in the m a t e rial that followed (Hanley 8t C o l e , 1 9 9 5 ; Herrn, 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 ; H e r r n , Hanley, & Cole, 1 9 9 5 ; H e r r o n , York, C o l e , & Linden, 1 9 9 8 ; Teichert, 1 9 9 6 ) . For e x a m p l e , Herron ( 1 9 9 4 ] f o u n d that asking students to w a t c h a video w i t h o u t providing precursor information w a s not sufficient for c o m p r e h e n d ing a second-language video. Instead, advance organizer information in the form of several short sentences, written in French, that s u m m a r i z e d the principle scenes of the v i d e o greatly h e l p e d students to p r o cess, a v i d e o and m a n y associated concepts found t h r o u g h o u t each scene o f the video. Herron et al. ( 1 9 9 8 ) further e x a m i n e d advance organizers in the form of declarative and interrogative phrases. Prior t o reviewing the video, separate t r e a t m e n t groups heard either declarative phrases t h a t represented information w i t h i n the v i d e o or heard interrogative forms of these s a m e declarative phrases. N o significant differences w e r e
Intake/Integration
O n c e i n c o m i n g information has b e e n organized into verbal and pictorial m e n t a l models, referential connections b e t w e e n these m o d e l s n e e d to b e established, that is, the v e r b a l and pictorial m e n t a l representations n e e d t o b e integrated. A l t h o u g h all of t h e processes described in this m o d e l require cognitive resources, the integration of the representations into a c o h e r e n t m e n tal m o d e l is the m o s t d e m a n d i n g process because it also involves t h e retrieval and processing of prior k n o w l e d g e w i t h w h i c h
47
found b e t w e e n those w h o r e c e i v e d either form of advance organizers. H o w e v e r , w h e n no advance organizer information w a s p r o v i d e d , learning was less likely. In their study of reading c o m p r e h e n s i o n in a m u l t i m e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t , Plass et al. ( 1 9 9 8 ] p r o v i d e d learners w i t h an advance organizer in the form of a t w o - m i n u t e video. S o m e of the propositions in the t e x t w e r e included in this video w h i l e others w e r e not. Propositions that w e r e d e p i c t e d in the video w e r e recalled significantly better than those that w e r e not. In addition, visualizers recalled significantly f e w e r propositions that w e r e not illustrated in the v i d e o than verbalizers. H o w e v e r , their recall for propositions that w e r e included in the video did not differ. O t h e r research with learners of English as a foreign language ( E F L ) has f o u n d that students w h o received an advance organizer in the form of a t e x t paragraph better c o m p r e h e n d e d the input they r e c e i v e d from an interactive videodisc application than students w h o did not, regardless o f their level of efficiency of English learning strategies and their level of p r o g r a m control (Yeh 8c L e h m a n , 2 0 0 1 ) . Additional research has s h o w n that w h e n advance organizers include pictures and text, students acquire m o r e from the materials that follow than w h e n they only include t e x t (Herrn et al., 1 9 9 5 ) .
and to m o v e the learner from a p u r e l y semantic analysis o f the language to a syntactic analysis of it" (p. 2 5 2 ) . S w a i n and L a p k i n ( 1 9 9 5 J e x t e n d this a r g u m e n t by stating that learners will b e c o m e m o r e aware of linguistic p r o b l e m s b r o u g h t t o their attention b y s o m e form of e x t e r n a l feedback and that this notification o f a p r o b l e m will " p u s h " learners to m o d i f y their o u t p u t . N o t i c i n g the gap leads t h e m t o p r o d u c e modified outp u t and to integrate their n e w k n o w l e d g e into their current k n o w l e d g e . T h u s , m e a n ingful interaction w i t h o u t p u t can enhance second-language acquisition just as m u c h as input can. N u m e r o u s researchers h a v e e x a m i n e d h o w learners can m o d i f y their c o m p r e h e n sible o u t p u t to m a k e it m o r e understandable and accurate for t h e listener (e.g., Lyster 8c Ranta, 1 9 9 7 ; Pica, 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 4 ; S w a i n , 1 9 9 7 ; V a n de B r a n d e n , 1 9 9 7 ) . Negotiation of m e a n i n g was f o u n d to be particularly i m portant to help students modify their o u t p u t b e c a u s e it allows for corrective feedb a c k that encourages self-correction, w h i c h t h e n leads to m o r e precise o u t p u t rather than j u s t simple c o m p r e h e n s i o n . N u m e r o u s studies, in fact, h a v e s h o w n that w h e n students are asked to clarify i n c o m p r e h e n s i ble remarks b y native speakers, t h e y selfcorrect their errors a n d thus attain a higher level of accuracy in their c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t p u t (e.g., N o b u y o s h i 8c Ellis, 1 9 9 3 ; Pica, 1 9 8 8 ) . S h e h a d e h ( 1 9 9 9 ) further e x p l o r e d this issue b y e x a m i n i n g students' abilities to modify their c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t p u t using different t y p e s of c o m m u n i c a t i v e tools such as picture-dictation tasks and opinione x c h a n g e tasks and clarification p r o m p t s b y native versus n o n n a t i v e speakers. S h e h a d e h found that the picture-dictation task p r o v i d e d for a greater p r o p o r t i o n of modified c o m p r e h e n s i b l e i n p u t t h a n did the opinione x c h a n g e task. H e also f o u n d that the freq u e n c y of modified c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t p u t s u p p o r t e d the i m p o r t a n c e of including this t y p e of o u t p u t as a part of secondlangauge acquisition. M u l t i m e d i a can b e u s e d to provide such a meaningful c o n t e x t , t h a t is to facilitate c o m munication, and to act as a partner in this
Comprehensible
Output
C o m p r e h e n s i b l e output ( S w a i n , 1 9 8 5 ) is a c o n c e p t u n i q u e to second-language acquisition that describes the n e e d for use of language in meaningful contexts to d e v e l o p the learners' c o m m u n i c a t i v e c o m p e t e n c y . T h u s , understanding of i n p u t is not enough; learners m u s t also be given the o p p o r t u n i t y to p r o d u c e comprehensible o u t p u t , such as conversational exchanges, that e x t e n d "the linguistic repertoire of the learner as h e or she attempts to create precisely and a p p r o priately the meaning desired" ( S w a i n , 1 9 8 5 , p. 2 5 2 ) . S w a i n ' s v i e w is that c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t p u t is m e a n t "to p r o v i d e opportunities for contextualized, meaningful use, to test out h y p o t h e s e s about the target language,
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communication (Chapelle, 1 9 9 8 ) by helping students notice their errors, revise their o u t p u t to correct these errors, and b y engaging t h e m in a conversation in order to a c h i e v e a stated goal. S e c o n d - l a n g u a g e e d u cators h a v e b e e n using video, online c o m m u nication, W e b - b a s e d authentic materials in the target language, and s p e e c h recognition to elicit meaningful o u t p u t w i t h m u c h success in the classroom (Bernstein, N a j i m i , & Ehsani, 1 9 9 9 ; C h u n , 2 0 0 1 ; H e r r n , D u b r e i l , Cole, & Corrie, 2 0 0 0 ; Lee, 1 9 9 8 ; N e l s o n , & Oliver, 1 9 9 9 ) . H o w e v e r , f e w studies h a v e investigated the issue o f c o m p r e h e n sible o u t p u t empirically w i t h i n a multim e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t , and these studies did not fully i m p l e m e n t the c o m m u n i c a t i v e a p p r o a c h discussed in the p r e c e d i n g text. In h e r study of the effectiveness o f annotations in listening c o m p r e h e n s i o n , J o n e s ( 2 0 0 4 ) u s e d different types of v o c a b u l a r y tests to e x a m i n e students' v o c a b u l a r y acquisition. O n e v o c a b u l a r y test subscale e m p l o y e d test items b a s e d on recognition of w o r d s and recognition of pictures, another e m p l o y e d test items consisting of recall of w o r d s . T h e results of this research s h o w e d t h a t the teaching m o d e (visual or verbal annotation available) did not affect perform a n c e on either the pictorial or written recognition subscale, b u t that on t h e verb a l recall subscale, learners w h o h a d rec e i v e d pictorial annotations did not p e r f o r m as w e l l as learners w h o h a d r e c e i v e d verbal annotations or b o t h types o f annotations. T h e s e results suggest t h a t in m u l t i m e dia learning environments, teaching m o d e s and test m o d e s s h o u l d b e c o m p a t i b l e , and t h a t testing s h o u l d not b e c o n d u c t e d using t e x t u a l items only w h e n the instruction i n v o l v e d pictures. Borras and L a f a y e t t e ( 1 9 9 4 ) e x a m i n e d students' abilities to p r o d u c e c o m p r e h e n s i ble o u t p u t w h e n e x p o s e d to a French video w i t h subtitles. T h e y found that w h e n subtitles w e r e p r o v i d e d w i t h the video, students not only c o m p r e h e n d e d the i n p u t b e t ter t h a n w h e n subtitles w e r e absent b u t also p r o d u c e d superior c o m p r e h e n s i b l e c o m m u nicative o u t p u t than did those w i t h o u t the helpful t e x t aid.
N i k o l o v a ( 2 0 0 2 ) c o n d u c t e d a study to test elements of C h a n n e l l ' s ( 1 9 8 8 ) t h e o r y that second-language learners will acquire m o r e v o c a b u l a r y w h e n they are e n g a g e d in d e v e l oping lexical associations as t h e y e n c o u n t e r n e w vocabulary. S h e e x a m i n e d the o u t p u t of learners as a result of either learning from a c o m p u t e r i z e d t e x t that c o n t a i n e d s o u n d , text, and images as annotations, or of b e ing asked to d e v e l o p their o w n m u l t i m e dia annotations. N i k o l o v a f o u n d that students w h o d e v e l o p e d their o w n annotations recalled w o r d s from the t e x t b e t t e r w h e n time on task was not considered than groups that r e c e i v e d p r e m a d e annotations. H o w ever, w h e n t i m e on task was i n c l u d e d in the analysis, group differences d i s a p p e a r e d . S h e c o n c l u d e d that, although students' v o c a b ulary acquisition benefited f r o m the d e v e l o p m e n t of their o w n m u l t i m e d i a materials, additional t i m e is r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e of the creative activity itself.
Limitations of Existing Research on Second-Language Acquisition with Multimedia

O v e r the past decade, research on s e c o n d language acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a has significantly e x p a n d e d o u r k n o w l e d g e of h o w m u l t i m e d i a can e n h a n c e students' second-language d e v e l o p m e n t . D e s p i t e this progress, limitations exist in the present research that stem f r o m p r o b l e m s w i t h the research design and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and from limitations w i t h i n the areas of second-language acquisition t h a t h a v e been investigated. W i t h regard to t h e design of empirical studies, researchers in s e c o n d - l a n g u a g e acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a are faced w i t h the challenging task of c o n d u c t i n g their investigations in authentic settings in w h i c h the language is a c q u i r e d in natural c o m m u n i c a tion, w h i l e at the s a m e t i m e e m p l o y i n g rigorous research designs that can p r o v i d e results that are, meaningful and relevant. T h e study of language acquisition during natural c o m munication does not readily a l l o w for the use
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of rigorous quantitative designs, and studies that did try to e m p l o y quantitative m e t h ods in unaltered natural settings t e n d e d to b e forced to e m p l o y s u b o p t i m a l designs that led to a l i m i t e d validity of the findings. R e s e a r c h design p r o b l e m s observed in this c o n t e x t reveal that s o m e studies did not include useful control groups, did not assign participants to t r e a t m e n t groups randomly, did not control for confounding variables, u s e d o u t c o m e measures w i t h limited reliability and validity, and e m p l o y e d s a m p l e sizes that w e r e too l o w for meaningful analysis of the results. In order to avoid these problems, researchers m u s t either conduct studies of a m o r e e x p e r i m e n t a l nature in less authentic settings, or e m p l o y research methodologies that are m o r e appropriate to the study of language acquisition in situ. T h e p r o b l e m w i t h specifying meaningful control groups is related to another research design issue w e encountered repeatedly. M a n y studies of second-language acquisition with multimedia employed a media comparison approach, examining, for e x a m p l e , the effects of m u l t i m e d i a instruction versus standard classroom instruction. W h i l e such a research design m i g h t b e useful in s o m e v e r y limited cases, any a t t e m p t to m e a n i n g fully c o m p a r e the effectiveness of different m e d i a in a "horse race" is b o u n d to encounter such a significant n u m b e r of variables that cannot b e controlled for that the findings from such a comparison are all b u t meaningless (Clark, 1 9 8 3 ) . It appears to be far m o r e useful to c o m p a r e different t r e a t m e n t conditions w i t h i n a particular m e d i u m . A n o t h e r area for i m p r o v e m e n t concerns the use of learning o u t c o m e measures. T h e typical measures used, such as recall p r o tocols, cloze exercises, and p r o d u c t i o n or recognition tests of vocabulary, represent w h a t M y e r s ( 1 9 9 0 ) refers to as off-line measures of the p r o d u c t of c o m p r e h e n s i o n . Better e x a m p l e s can b e found in studies that used m e a s u r e s such as think-aloud protocols and other language o u t p u t strategies to assess learning, as done, for e x a m p l e , b y C h u n ( 2 0 0 1 ) , L o m i c k a ( 1 9 9 8 } , and Wade, B u x t o n , and Kelly ( 1 9 9 9 ) . In addition, researchers h a v e e m p l o y e d user-tracking software that, e m b e d d e d in the learning environment, p r o -
vides detailed information about students' actual b e h a v i o r during t h e learning task t h a t can be u s e d to s u p p l e m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e data obtained using learning o u t c o m e measures ( L e u t n e r 81 Plass, 1 9 9 8 ) . Problems related to the design of empirical inquiries can often b e addressed b y using a theoretical foundation from w h i c h to derive the research questions of the study. If such a f r a m e w o r k is not articulated, or if frameworks are u s e d that only focus on the second-language acquisition aspect of the materials and do not include multim e d i a learning theory, research designs often lack rigor in the missing area. W e h a v e therefore p r o p o s e d t h e integrated m o d e l s h o w n in Figure 2 9 . 3 , w h i c h combines an second-language acquisition approach and a cognitive approach to m u l t i m e d i a learning. B a s e d on this m o d e l , research questions can b e derived t h a t incorporate b o t h aspects of second-language acquisition and m u l t i m e d i a learning and advance insights in b o t h areas. W i t h regard to other limitations for existing research, w e found that certain areas in second-language acquisition h a v e received less attention b y empirical researchers than others. O n e e x a m p l e is the study of listening c o m p r e h e n s i o n in a m u l t i m e d i a environm e n t , w h i c h has r e c e i v e d v e r y little attention to date (Brett, 1 9 9 5 , 1 9 9 7 ; H e r n a n d e z , 2 0 0 4 ; Jones, 2 0 0 4 ; J o n e s & Plass, 2 0 0 2 ) . Be-.' cause listening c o m p r e h e n s i o n is considered to b e the foundation of language learning t h a t leads to m o r e p r o d u c t i v e reading, writing, and speaking skills (Feyten, 1 9 9 1 ; Joiner, 1 9 8 6 ] , this area of second-language developm e n t s h o u l d b e m o r e closely e x a m i n e d in a multimedia environment. A n o t h e r area that lacks investigation is that of c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t p u t . Typical research studies in second-language acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a assess o u t p u t of language c o m p e t e n c e obtained after interaction w i t h an second-language acquisition multim e d i a environment, b u t do n o t p r o v i d e students w i t h an o p p o r t u n i t y to adjust their o u t p u t b a s e d on interaction and feedback. T h i s is very m u c h c o u n t e r to C h a p e l l e s ( 1 9 9 7 } a r g u m e n t that interaction is crucial to supporting both c o m p r e h e n s i b l e input and
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c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t p u t . If, for e x a m p l e , students w e r e a l l o w e d to r e c h e c k their k n o w l edge after additional interaction w i t h the material as suggested b y feedback, the study of the original and the revised o u t p u t c o u l d be v e r y useful for understanding t h e p r o cesses of language acquisition indeed. A further issue is related to the materials u s e d for empirical studies. Existing research has primarily b e e n c o n d u c t e d w i t h materials solely designed for language teaching, leaving o p e n the question as to w h e t h e r the findings obtained w i t h these materials transfer to materials that w e r e not specifically designed for learners of the language, such as target culture W e b sites and videos that p r o v i d e authentic language e x p e r i e n c e s to students. A l t h o u g h Kern's ( 1 9 9 5 ) hallmark study on c o m p u t e r - m e d i a t e d c o m munication has established that collaboration and interaction in the second-language learning e n v i r o n m e n t can p r o m o t e language acquisition, little to no empirical research has b e e n c o n d u c t e d to e x a m i n e the learning in m o r e authentic settings, such as m u l t i m e d i a - m e d i a t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n or video conferencing, that engage students in direct c o m m u n i c a t i o n . A final limitation is that w e h a v e y e t to see the results of the studies described so far i m p l e m e n t e d into large-scale m u l t i media and W e b - b a s e d applications. T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , e x c e p t i o n s to this, including the m u l t i m e d i a - b a s e d materials p u b lished w i t h s o m e language t e x t b o o k s (e.g., A m o n , M u y s k e n s , & O m a g g i o Hadley, 2000; H e i n i n g - B o y n t o n , C o w e l l , & TorresQuiones, 1 9 9 9 ) and, m o s t notably, the dev e l o p m e n t o f the W e b - b a s e d French language p r o g r a m Frangais Interactif(University of Texas, 2 0 0 4 ) . H o w e v e r , although a n e c d o tal e v i d e n c e rates these materials very high, no systematic research has been c o n d u c t e d to e x a m i n e their effectiveness.
o p m e n t of cognitive theory (e.g., J o h n s o n Laird, 1 9 8 8 ; J u s t 8c Carpenter, 1 9 9 2 ; Kintsch, 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e study of second-language acquisition, h o w e v e r , introduces several variables, such as c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h other learners and authenticity of the language input. M o s t of the research that i n c l u d e d these variables e m p l o y e d research designs that are less suited for the a d v a n c e m e n t of cognitive theory. In addition, the absence of m o d e l s or theories combining secondlanguage acquisition theory and cognitive theories o f m u l t i m e d i a learning m a k e s it even m o r e difficult to find studies that incorporate both approaches. T h e implications for cognitive t h e o r y that w e can derive from the research w e r e v i e w e d in this chapter are therefore m o d e s t . Predictions from the C o g n i t i v e T h e o r y of M u l t i m e d i a Learning (Mayer, 2 0 0 1 ) that have been tested in the area of secondlanguage acquisition are the multimedia principle and individual differences principle. For the m u l t i m e d i a principle, although s o m e studies h a v e s h o w n the visual m o d e to be stronger than the verbal m o d e (Jones & Plass, 2 0 0 2 ; Kellogg 8c H o w e , 1 9 7 1 ; Terrell, 1 9 8 6 ) , it is the combination of both visual and verbal presentations of information that has most strongly and consistently s u p p o r t e d listening and reading c o m p r e h e n s i o n and v o cabulary acquisition ( C h u n 8c Plass, 1 9 9 6 a , 1 9 9 6 b ; Jones, 2 0 0 1 ; Jones 8c Plass, 2 0 0 2 ; Plass et ah, 1 9 9 8 ) . For the individual differences principle, second-language acquisition research w i t h m u l t i m e d i a has found indications that b y providing learners w i t h the choice of using visual versus verbal annotations in s u p p o r t of a reading text, v o c a b ulary acquisition can be equally s u p p o r t e d for visuali/.ers and verbalizers (Plass et al., 1 9 9 8 ) . W h e n learners w e r e assigned to treatm e n t conditions w i t h specific types of annotations, v o c a b u l a r y acquisition.was w o r s e for learners w i t h l o w verbal ability and l o w spatial ability c o m p a r e d to learners w i t h high spatial ability and high verbal ability w h e n t h e y r e c e i v e d visual annotations. V o cabulary recall, did not differ for learners w i t h different levels of verbal or spatial ability w h e n t h e y r e c e i v e d verbal annotations (Plass et al., 2 0 0 3 ) .
Implications of the Research for Cognitive Theory

The study of language and its acquisition has long b e e n an i m p o r t a n t source for the devel-
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H o w e v e r , it m a y be interesting t o observe that s o m e o f the other m u l t i m e d i a learning principles that w e r e f o u n d in the c o n t e x t of science learning are n o t likely to e x t e n d to the area o f second-language acquisition w i t h o u t modification. For e x a m p l e , the coherence principle suggests that u n n e e d e d or irrelevant w o r d s reduce learning of scientific content and should therefore b e r e m o v e d from the text. This principle does n o t e x t e n d easily to second-language acquisition, w h e r e any meaningful linguistic i n p u t has p o t e n tial value for the acquisition of the language, and w h e r e the relevancy o f w o r d s cannot b e as clearly established as for texts that d e scribe scientific systems and their causal relations. Similar arguments can b e m a d e for the redundancy principle and the modality principle - reading and listening are t w o c o m petencies that both n e e d to be d e v e l o p e d , and in m a n y cases o n e is u s e d as i n p u t enh a n c e m e n t for the other.
T h e availability of t e x t and pictures allows learners to construct verbal and visual m e n tal models of the i n p u t and b u i l d c o n n e c tions b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e s e connections p r o v i d e learners w i t h t w o types o f cues for the retrieval of the l e a r n e d material as c o m p a r e d to only one w h e n t h e y learn w i t h t e x t only. Several research studies have consistently s h o w n that p e r f o r m a n c e is e n h a n c e d w h e n visual and verbal annotations are p r o v i d e d rather than verbal annotations only ( C h u n 8c Plass, 1 9 9 6 a , 1 9 9 6 b ; Jones, 2 0 0 4 ; J o n e s 8c Plass, 2 0 0 2 ; Plass et al., 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e s e studies s h o w that v o c a b u l a r y acquisition and c o m prehension w e r e i m p r o v e d w h e n aural or written i n p u t w a s e n h a n c e d by visual and verbal annotations.
INDIVIDUAL D I F F E R E N C E S
PRINCIPLE
Implications of the Research for Instruction Design

T h e research described in this c h a p t e r offers a set of principles and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for the design of instructional m u l t i m e d i a materials for second-language acquisition. T h e s e principles and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are not m e a n t to be prescriptions. T h e y s h o u l d b e u s e d w i t h the c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e y w e r e o b t a i n e d in m i n d and w i t h an e y e on the specific characteristics of the m a t e rials and learners for w h o m materials will b e designed.
Principies
Principles are research findings that are in line w i t h research in other areas or existing principles (Mayer, 2 0 0 1 ) and that h a v e b e e n f o u n d to apply in the c o n t e x t o f secondlanguage acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a .
MULTIMEDIA PRINCIPLE
Students acquire language better from input enhanced by text and pictures than by text alone.
Students acquire language better when they have the choice of visual versus verbal annotations than when they do not have this choice. T h e availability of materials in different presentation m o d e s allows learners to choose those m o d e s that c o r r e s p o n d to their preferred learning style (e.g., visualizers/verbalizers). W i t h additional information only displayed u p o n request, learners can m a n a g e the level of cognitive l o a d they experience. In c o m p a r i s o n , displaying additional information b y default requires learners to process it to evaluate its relevancy for the c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the materials, p o t e n tially causing higher cognitive load. To s u p p o r t the different learning styles and cognitive abilities in learners (Reinert, 1 9 7 6 ) , giving students opportunities to choose the processing m o d e (visual or verbal) in w h i c h t h e y access s u p p o r t i v e information m a y be the m o s t effective strategy of learner s u p p o r t to e m p l o y in a m u l t i m e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t (Jones 8c Plass, 2 0 0 2 ; Plass et al., 1 9 9 8 ) . R e search has s h o w n that visualizers and verbalizers prefer to use different types o f annotations and that t h e y use different cues to retrieve learned material (Plass et al., 1 9 9 8 ) . Studies in w h i c h learners w e r e not given a choice resulted in higher cognitive load, especially for learners w i t h l o w verbal ability and l o w spatial ability, w h e n they w e r e
assigned to v i e w additional information in a visual format.

ADVANCE ORGANIZER PRINCIPLE
Students acquire language better when they view an advance organizer before receiving input in reading or listening activities. Advance organizers presented in visual and verbal modes are more effective than those presented in only the verbal mode. A d v a n c e organizers, presenting higher-level c o n c e p t u a l inform a t i o n and s u m m a r i e s as a prereading or a prelistening activity, allow learners to activate relevant prior k n o w l e d g e and therefore to m o r e easily integrate the n e w information into their linguistic s y s t e m . Several research studies h a v e consistently s h o w n that any f o r m of a d v a n c e organizer will i m p r o v e c o m p r e h e n s i o n of a listening or reading activity ( H e r r n , 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 ; H e r r n et al., 1 9 9 5 , 1 9 9 8 , 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e y also s h o w that adv a n c e organizers p r e s e n t e d using t e x t and pictures are m o r e effective than w h e n they are p r e s e n t e d in t e x t f o r m a t only ( H e r r n et al., 1 9 9 5 ) .
the materials are not necessarily presented in an o r d e r t h a t needs to b e f o l l o w e d to assure c o m p r e h e n s i o n . G i v i n g learners, e s p e cially those w i t h l o w language proficiency or less-efficient language-learning strategies, the c h o i c e to modify t h e i n p u t they receive, potentially making it easier to c o m p r e h e n d , m a y i n d e e d facilitate the acquisition of the language. For e x a m p l e , learners m a y clarify m o r e difficult passages b y clicking on keyw o r d s to access translations and or pictorial representations. Instructional designers should consider the task r e q u i r e m e n t s of the learning e n v i r o n m e n t and learner characteristics such as language proficiency and efficiency of language-learning strategies w h e n making a decision as to h o w m u c h learner control to provide.
C O M P R E H E N S I B L E OUTPUT
Recommendations
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are research results that h a v e not b e e n replicated in m o r e than a f e w studies and that do n o t e x t e n d findings from other areas to second-language acquisition w i t h m u l t i m e d i a . A d d i t i o n a l research is n e e d e d t o s h o w w h e t h e r these r e c o m m e n dations can b e replicated as principles that are specific t o second-language acquisition.
LEARNER CONTROL
T h e r e is considerable research e v i d e n c e that learners acquire language b e t t e r w h e n t h e y are e n g a g e d in c o m m u n i c a t i n g in language, that is, in p r o d u c i n g o u t p u t , and especially w h e n t h e y are asked to m o n i t o r and analyze their o w n o u t p u t and, if necessary, correct it (e.g., Lyster & Ranta, 1 9 9 7 ; Pica, 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 4 ; S w a i n , 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 9 7 ; S w a i n 8t L a p k i n , 1 9 9 5 ; V a n de B r a n d e n , 1 9 9 7 ) . W h e n p r o v i d e d w i t h appropriate feedback, for e x a m p l e , students can c h e c k their responses, seek further clarification and then present n e w l y f o r m e d o u t p u t that d e m o n strates their e n h a n c e d c o m p e t e n c e . H o w ever, research investigating h o w this interaction w i t h learners' o u t p u t can be facilitated in a second-language multimedia-learning e n v i r o n m e n t is lacking.
T h e r e is indication that students acquire language b e t t e r w h e n t h e y h a v e control over the order, p a c e , and choice of m u l t i m e d i a materials than w h e n the order, pace, and choice are controlled b y the c o m p u t e r (Yeh & L e h m a n , 2 0 0 1 ) . Providing learners w i t h a c h o i c e of the order in w h i c h they p r o c e e d t h r o u g h a m u l t i m e d i a e n v i r o n m e n t m a y all o w t h e m to m a n a g e the cognitive load they e x p e r i e n c e and the a m o u n t and s e q u e n c e of i n p u t t h e y process at any given time. This m a y b e a finding specific to second-language acquisition w h e r e , unlike in science learning,
APPROPRIATE TESTING
In addition to principles and r e c o m m e n dations related to the effect of m u l t i m e dia on second-language acquisition, there is also e v i d e n c e that the testing m o d e u s e d s h o u l d coincide w i t h the m o d e of the annotations accessed in a m u l t i m e d i a environm e n t ( C h u n & Plass, 1 9 9 6 a ; Jones, 2 0 0 4 } . T h i s is particularly true w h e n students are asked to p r o d u c e in writing the translations of k e y v o c a b u l a r y words. R e c o g n i t i o n o f
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v o c a b u l a r y usually involves multiple-choice testing w h e r e b y learners guess or select the correct response from t h e list of w o r d s p r o v i d e d . O n t h e other hand, recall or p r o d u c tion tests d e m a n d the retrieval of vocabulary f r o m m e m o r y . S u c h a strategy is m o r e difficult b e c a u s e students are not p r o v i d e d w i t h cues to retrieve the correct response from l o n g - t e r m m e m o r y (Cariana 8c L e e , 2 0 0 1 ; G l o v e r , 1 9 8 9 ; M c D a n i e l 8c M a s o n , 1 9 8 5 ] . W h e n t h e m u l t i m e d i a - b a s e d annotated information p r o v i d e d does n o t coincide w i t h t h e testing m o d e used in a production test, o u t p u t of k n o w l e d g e is hindered, w h i c h is n o t t h e case w h e n the m o d e of the test items and t h a t o f t h e annotated information p r o v i d e d coincide.
Future Directions for Research

O u r discussion of research on secondlanguage acquisition with m u l t i m e d i a learning a n d t h e implications for cognitive t h e ory and instructional design w e p r o v i d e d in this c h a p t e r cannot b e c o n c l u d e d w i t h out outlining s o m e directions that future research can and should take. T h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s fall into three principal areas. O n e area is concerned w i t h finding better w a y s t o e x p l o i t t h e potential of m u l t i m e dia in second-language acquisition, for enhancing c o m p r e h e n s i b l e input, facilitating m e a n i n g f u l interaction, and eliciting c o m prehensible o u t p u t . A second area is related t o m e a s u r e s u s e d t o assess language c o m p e tence. T h e third area is concerned w i t h the n e e d for a stronger integration of secondlanguage acquisition research w i t h cognitive theories of m u l t i m e d i a learning and the investigation of principles found in fields such as t h e c o m p r e h e n s i o n of scientific materials in t h e c o n t e x t of second-language acquisition (see parts 2 and 3 in this h a n d b o o k ) .
language educators use in t h e classroom, then w e m u s t c o n c l u d e there is still m o r e p r o m i s e than actual delivery of t h e p o t e n tial of m u l t i m e d i a to e n h a n c e t h e secondlanguage acquisition experience. In m a n y cases w h e r e innovative uses of technology h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d , t h e research necessary to understand t h e success of such uses has b e e n lagging b e h i n d . T h e r e are several u n a n s w e r e d questions related to t h e u s e of m u l t i m e d i a to m a k e i n p u t m o r e c o m p r e hensible, elicit meaningful output, and facilitate learners' interaction w i t h t h e i n p u t and o u t p u t . C h a p e l l e ( 1 9 9 8 ) discussed s o m e of these questions in t h e form of h y p o t h e s e s for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of computer-assisted language learning materials for second-language acquisition. M o s t of these hypotheses, p u b lished several years ago, have to date n o t b e e n empirically investigated. For future research, an adaptation of h e r questions, related to the e n h a n c e m e n t of secondlanguage acquisition materials t h r o u g h t h e use of m u l t i m e d i a , c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d as follows:
Comprehensible Input
H o w can m u l t i m e d i a b e u s e d to enhance noticing of relevant linguistic features of the input? H o w Can m u l t i m e d i a help learners in c o m p r e h e n d i n g t h e semantic a n d syntactic aspects of t h e input?
Comprehensible Output
H o w can m u l t i m e d i a enhance learners' . opportunities to p r o d u c e o u t p u t in t h e target language? H o w c a n m u l t i m e d i a help learners n o tice errors in their o u t p u t and correct them?
Interaction
What kind of multimedia-based second-language acquisition tasks can be p r o v i d e d that engage learners in interaction w i t h language input a n d output? H o w can m u l t i m e d i a help learners modify t h e structure of t h e target language i n p u t to m a k e it m o r e comprehensible?
Enhancement of Second-Language Acquisition Materials Through Multimedia

If p u b l i s h e d research is any indication of the kind of m u l t i m e d i a materials second-
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T h e r e are several areas of secondlanguage acquisition w h e r e only little research has b e e n c o n d u c t e d on the use of m u l t i m e d i a in general. For e x a m p l e , listening c o m p r e h e n s i o n has only b e e n investigated in f e w studies, a n d the p r o duction of meaningful o u t p u t , although w e l l - d e v e l o p e d c o n c e p t u a l l y lacks empirical research in the c o n t e x t of multimedia learning.
c o n t e x t of science learning can b e applied to second-language acquisition.
Glossary
Advance organizer: Introductory m a t e r i als p r o v i d e d in advance of learning that are intended to activate or p r o v i d e prior k n o w l e d g e relevant to the learning material. Annotations: V i s u a l or verbal s u p p l e m e n tary items, such as a translation or visual representations, that p r o v i d e additional information for selected keyw o r d s present within the t e x t . Apperception: T h e process o f selecting w o r d s and pictures to s u p p o r t interaction and thus attain c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the material. Authentic materials: Materials created for a native language audience, that have not been pedagogically designed for second-language learners. Comprehensible input: Input that is m a d e m o r e understandable for students through the use of interaction with the target material. Comprehensible output: O u t p u t t h a t is modifiable for learners t h r o u g h identification of their errors and allowance for adjustments to previously s u b m i t ted responses. Incidental vocabulary learning: A process w h e r e b y students learn v o c a b u l a r y as an aside as t h e y engage in reading and listening. Input: T h e process of receiving information, cither verbally or visually. Interaction: U s e of any n u m b e r of helping aids such as annotations, images, elaboration, simplification, clarification, definitional support, or r e d u n d a n c y to assist learners' c o m p r e h e n s i o n of i n p u t or presentation of output. Interactionistperspective: A language learning strategy that defines three functions that are d e e m e d crucial to language acquisition, c o m p r e h e n s i b l e input, interaction, and c o m p r e h e n s i b l e o u t p u t .
Language Competence
Assessment
Language educators are already using a diverse set of m e t h o d s to assess language p r o ficiency, and researchers s h o u l d incorporate more of these measures into their studies. In addition to recognition tests or cloze tests for vocabulary and recall protocols for c o m p r e hension, researchers w o u l d gain d e e p e r insights into the second-language acquisition process, if students' abilities to utilize n e w l y acquired vocabulary w e r e e x a m i n e d in c o m municative contexts and natural settings, as think-alouds and o t h e r authentic o u t put. In addition, p e r f o r m a n c e data should be enriched b y observing learners' behavior during the learning process ( L e u t n e r 8t Plass, 1 9 9 8 ) .
Integration of Second-Language Acquisition and Cognitive Theories of Multimedia Learning

A final area for future research is the integration of second-language acquisition t h e ory and cognitive theories of m u l t i m e d i a learning. For e x a m p l e , w h e n designing m u l timedia materials for c o m p r e h e n s i b l e input, the level of cognitive load i n d u c e d b y the input e n h a n c e m e n t and the role this load m a y play in the acquisition of v o c a b u l a r y and construction of m e a n i n g needs t o b e taken into consideration. W e h a v e p r o p o s e d a m o d e l (Figure 2 9 . 3 ) t h a t c o m b i n e s elements of second-language acquisition theory with e l e m e n t s from M a y e r ' s ( 2 0 0 1 ) cognitive t h e o r y of m u l t i m e d i a learning. Future research needs to investigate the specifics of this m o d e l and, in particular, to w h a t e x t e n t effects and principles that w e r e f o u n d in the
T H E C A M B R I D G E HANDBOOK OF MULTIMEDIA L E A R N I N G
Interactive
processing
theory: A t h e o r y that
refers t o the interaction b e t w e e n the individual, his or her prior k n o w l e d g e , and the input. Li: T h e typical reference for the native or first language of an individual, s a m p l e or p o p u l a t i o n . L2: T h e typical reference for t h e second language of an individual, s a m p l e or population. Language acquisition: T h e result of m e a n ingful interaction in the target language w h e r e the focus is on c o m m u n i c a t i o n and the acquisition of the language is incidental. Language Noticing: learning: T h e result o f instruction a b o u t the target language. T h e process of focusing attention on input. Output: T h e process of assigning m e a n i n g to visual or verbal input. Propositions: Individual idea units present in a reading or a listening passage. Spatial ability: A cognitive strength that is a relatively stable indicator of h o w w e l l individuals can process visual stimuli. Learners w i t h high spatial ability can process visual information better than those w i t h low spatial ability. Verbal ability: A cognitive strength that is a relatively stable indicator of h o w w e l l individuals can process verbal information. Learners w i t h high verbal ability can process v e r b a l information better than can those w i t h l o w verbal ability.
Ausubel, D. ( 1 9 6 8 ] . Educational psychology: A cognitive view. N e w York: Holt, Rinehart, &. Winston. Bacon, S. ( 1 9 9 2 ) . Authentic listening in Spanish: How learners adjust their strategies to the difficulty of the input. Hispania, 7 5 , 3 9 8 411. Bernstein, J . , Najimi, A., &. Ehsani, F. ( 1 9 9 9 ] . Subarashii: Encounters in Japanese Spoken Language Education. CALICO Journal, 7 ,
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CHAPTER
30
Multimedia Learning of Cognitive Skills

Susanne P. Lajoie Carlos Nakamura
McGitl University
Abstract
Examples of multimedia learning situations using technology are described from the perspective of enhancing cognition. Implications for instructional designers are provided along with some future directions for this field of research. We see a need for multimedia research to foster higher degrees of interactivity with more varied types of media. More importantly, such research requires the inclusion of more scaffolding of learners, more attention to assisting learners in self-regulation, and perhaps media that serves in a pedagogical manner through coaching, pedagogical agents, and realistic environments that may include virtual reality dimensions. This new generation of multimedia will focus more on active knowledge construction through performing or doing some task with guidance.
mands are placed on an individuals' p r o cessing capability. In fact, daily expectations exist for p e o p l e to attend and r e s p o n d to multiple forms of information efficiently. M u l t i m e d i a learning refers to the ability to learn f r o m m u l t i p l e representations, in particular, verbal and visual representations that are u s e d to present an instructional message (Mayer, 2 0 0 3 ) . V e r b a l representations are defined as text, s p o k e n or written, and visual representations as pictures, static or dynamic. O t h e r researchers have e x t e n d e d this definition to i n c l u d e descriptions of the different functions m u l t i p l e representations play in learning, that is, c o m p l e m e n t i n g or constraining learning, or helping learners to construct n e w k n o w l e d g e (Ainsworth, 1 9 9 9 ) . This chapter addresses m u l t i m e d i a in the c o n t e x t of learning situations using c o m p u t e r technology. T h e r e are several theoretical t h e m e s that w e discuss. M o s t relevant to the argument is the dual-coding p e r s p e c tive and the n e e d to consider b r o a d e r e x planations of w h y m u l t i p l e representations s u p p o r t cognition. A s p e c t r u m rather than a d i c h o t o m y can b e u s e d as an alternate
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Introduction to Multimedia Learning of Cognitive Skills

In e x a m i n i n g the m o r e s of today's society o n e c a n n o t help b u t notice that higher d e -

Multimedia Learning in Second Language Aquisition

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Multimedia Learning in Second Language Aquisition

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CHAPTER

Multimedia Learning in Second Language Acquisition

What Is Second-Language Acquisition with Multimedia?

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Second-Language with Multimedia

An Example of Second-Language Acquisition with Multimedia

What Do We Know About Second-Language Acquisition with Multimedia?

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Integration Into the Linguistic System

Selecting ~~I Words

Organizing i Words Verbal Text Base Verbal Model Syntactic/Semantic

Learner's Integrating Linguistic System

Visual Image Base

Figure 2 9 . 3 . Integrated model of second-language acquisition with multimedia.

Comprehensible Input! Selecting/Apperception

Interactive Processing: Organizing/Comprehension

the i n c o m i n g information (Mayer, 2 0 0 1 ) .

Limitations of Existing Research on Second-Language Acquisition with Multimedia

T H E C A M B R I D G E HANDBOOK OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING

Implications of the Research for Cognitive Theory

T H E C A M B R I D G E HANDBOOK OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING

Implications of the Research for Instruction Design

assigned to v i e w additional information in a visual format.

Future Directions for Research

Enhancement of Second-Language Acquisition Materials Through Multimedia

c o n t e x t of science learning can b e applied to second-language acquisition.

Integration of Second-Language Acquisition and Cognitive Theories of Multimedia Learning

research. Journal of Computer-Based

Multimedia Learning of Cognitive Skills

Introduction to Multimedia Learning of Cognitive Skills

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