Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series.

Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 1 - 4

Language and Literature

ROMANUL ROMNESC LA NCEPUTURILE LUI. MODELE APUSENE I RELEVANA LOR. MANOIL, DE DIMITRIE BOLINTINEANU Simona Antofi Asumarea, de ctre Bolintineanu, a unei serii de modele de scriitur romanesc, unele (aproape) incompatibile, n redactarea romanului Manoil se explic, n mod evident, prin ncercarea de a arde etapele i de a sincroniza specia abia nscnd a romanului cu o palet larg i diversificat de modele care funcionau sau funcionaser deja n literaturile occidentale, n special n cea francez. Formele romanului epistolar mbin tradiia Noii Eloise, a lui Jean Jacques Rousseau, cu cea wertherian, cu modelul Ren, al lui Chateaubriand, cu romanele doamnei de Stal, cu cea a romanelor de mistere gen Misterele Parisului, al lui Eugne Sue, sau Misterele Londrei, al lui Paul Fval, dar i cu formula realismului de tip Balzac i Stendhal. Particularitile de structur i de semnificaii care vin din direcii att de diferite, n cadrul romanului lui Bolintineanu, se simt att la nivelul naraiunii, ct i n construcia personajelor i n ansamblul lumii ficionale pe care textul o construiete. Se adaug, aici, lipsa de vigoare narativ a epicului romanesc, la nceputurile literaturii romne moderne, i difuziunea ctorva mrci ale lirismului percepute ca argumente n favoarea literaturitii n ntreg corpusul literar al epocii paoptiste i postpaoptiste. Este vorba, n special, despre criteriul sinceritii i despre clieul i strategia de construcie textual mrturisirii, precum i de omul poetic acel prototip al eroului romantic sentimental, melancolic, nefericit, pesimist, etern ndrgostit de natur i predispus spre lungi divagaii lirice [1]. Structura epistolar a romanului Manoil favorizeaz asimilarea tututror acestor elemente n spaiul epicului validnd, n acest mod, un tip de scriitur deloc nou, n literatura universal, i confirmnd ateptrile unui public cititor obinuit s aib de-a face cu o serie de indicii semantico structurale care s-i dirijeze ferm lectura. n aceeai ordine de idei, romanul sentimental izoleaz protagonitii ntr-un model societal obinut printr-un procedeu reductiv n centrul cruia st eroul ce consider deart lupta pentru existen i care, tocmai de aceea, se retrage la moie prefernd, aristocratic, compania femeilor i farmecul naturii [2]. Pe de alt parte, trebuie menionate mrcile realismului de tip balzacian reunirea, la nceputul romanului, a personajelor ntr-o scen a mesei sau a salonului favorabil prezentrii sintetic realiste a tipologiilor i a caracterelor pe care evoluia ulterioar a personajelor este de ateptat s le confirme, prezentarea conflictului / conflictelor ce vor regla desfurarea tramei epice i, implicit, a taberelor conflictuale, precum i situarea

tuturor acestor elemente ntr-un context spaio temporal istoricete determinabil, care motiveaz, n bun msur, comportamentul eroilor, caracterele i relaiile interumane. Amestecul ingredientelor de tip roman sentimental face, ns, ca tipologiile n special cele feminine prezentate s se situeze n siajul romantismului minor: Smrndia fr exagerare, o frumusee rar, dar seamn cu o floare ce n dimineaa vieei sale se nclin melancolic! ... un suflet plin de blnde, o inteligen superioar; multe cunotine, mai ales pentru o dam din timpul i din ara noastr!; Zoe nepoata Smrndiei o copil de cincisprezece aniori; chipul mtue-sei, dar strlucitor de frgezime. Ai asemna-o cu un bobocel de roz pe care fluturii nc nu-l bag n seam; plin de spirit i de inim ...; Mrioara este o amic a Smrndiei: o fat de boier mare, de 18 20 de ani; nu este prea frumoas, dar drgla ca luna lui mai! ... vorbele ei rsun ca o muzic sublim; ideile cele mai comune n gura ei se ndumnezeiesc! [3]. Aa cum las s se neleag acest portret cu putere de caracterizare dup modelul romantic al epocii, Mrioara spiritul comun, susceptibil de a devia n direcia polului negativ al macrosemnificaiei romaneti, va confirma ateptrile publicului cititor i se va transforma ntr-o prostituat celebr, cu veleiti criminale. n ceea ce-l privete pe protagonistul romanuilui, el ilustreaz tipologia parvenitului n varianta cel mai des ntlnit, i anume parvenitul prin femei. n romanul sentimental arat Nicolae Manolescu rangul aristocratic are o importan major. ns Manoil este orfan, cu o poziie social inferioar, un intrus n casa i n familia moierului Colescu, soul Smrndiei. Aspiraia de a se contopi cu lumea dorit i orgoliul plebeu l caracterizeaz i pe el, ca i pe eroii balzacieni i stendhalieni. ns metamorfoza personajului inexplicabil n grila verosimilitii realiste poate fi privit ca semnul imitaiei i al parvenitismului numai dac acceptm, o dat cu Nicolae Manolescu, faptul c Manoil l detest pe fa pe Alexandru C., pentru a-l admira n secret [4]. Chiar i aa, predictibilitatea indiciile privind ncadrarea ntr-un gen anumit, sistemul personajelor, teme proeminente, poziia i felul naratorului, ca elemente implicite de anticipare [5] este sporit. Faptul se explic prin aceea c, n perioada paoptist i postpaoptist, n construcia tramei narative, att romanul de senzaie, ct i novella melodramatic sau povestirea aventuroas accept, ba chiar cultiv o doz mare de arbitrar, de neverosimil, supunnd-o unui tratament de domesticire [6] pe gustul cititorului. Ca urmare, dus la pierzanie de o femeie malefic, Mrioara, n prima parte a romanului, protagonistul - care face romanul n calitate de scriitor i semnatar al scrisorilor pe care i le trimite companionului su ntru ficiune, un anume B, personaj absent sau autor ficionalizat ca personaj absent va fi recuperat tot printr-o femeie, cea angelic, Zoe, care l-a iubit dintotdeauna n secret i care l protejeaz din umbr. Ca o noutate absolut n scriitura romanesc a epocii paoptiste, procedeul mise en abme intervine, la un moment dat, ca instrument de reglaj narativ anun revenirea moral i sentimental a eroului i de recuperare programat n nsi teza romanului, a acestuia. Este vorba despre un vis n care lui Manoil i apare Smrndia, care ntre timp murise, mustrndu-l i, n acelai timp, sintetiznd existena de pn atunci a personajului masculin / anticipnd revenirea lui spectaculoas la ipostaza pozitiv de la nceputul romanului, mbuntit suplimentar prin acuza nedreapt de crim, ca form de purificare i de ispire a tuturor greelilor comise cndva..

Iat vorbele Smrndiei, n visul lui Manoil:

Altdat tu erai floarea tinerimei noastre! Patria ta puses n tine atta speran! ... inima ta era tnr i plin de candoare ca o fecioar; ci te cunoteau nu puteau s se opreasc de a te iubi ... iar astzi, cel mai degrdat om nu s-ar crede stimat ca s-i strng mna; cel ce crezuse n talentul tu astzi roete c a putut avea o asemine cugetare; inima ta s-a mbtrnit, s-a degradat i nu mai poate s bat de acum nainte dect la fapte nefolositoare! ... pentru ce ai venit n casa aceasta? Vrei s amgeti pe Zoe; pare c roeti de a fi singur n felul tu, i vrei s trti n tina n care te afli tu fiina ast tnr i inocent! ...

Cu alte cuvinte, romancierul i construiete personajul pe dou paliere distincte i perfect opozabile, am zice izomorf opozabile. Primul Manoil este eroul romantic pozitiv prototipal: suflet pur, cinstit, fire sensibil, bnuitoare, nclinat spre melancolie i pesimism, dezgustat de via. Dac acest Manoil este animat de un patriotism ardent, conform comandamentelor epocii i cu certe sentimente demofile [7], cel de al doilea este un depravat cinic dup modelul personajului Alexandru C., cu care construiete o desvsit antitez romantic, n prima parte a romanului. Scrisorile acestui Manoil transformat fac posibil o prezentare n grila realismului francez, contaminat, i de aceast dat, cu certe elemente de recuzit romantic i sentimental melodramatic a decderii aristocraiei de ras, n perioada de tranziie de dup 1850, concomitent cu ascensiunea aristocraiei banului i cu extinderea progresiv a fenomenului parvenitismului:
M-am aruncat n braele tuturor dezmierdrilor cei mai frumoi cai albioni au avut onoarea s plimbe persoana mea pe cel mai frumoase strade ale cetilor italiene; vinul cel mai scump, bucatele cele mai rari au mpodobit masa mea i au mbuibat stomahul meu, cele mai graioase copile ale lui Pafos au ncununat fruntea mea de flori i de srutri. Apoi dac trebuie s-i spun i aceasta, am stricat mai multe mritie nepotrivite, ceea ce nu este un mic serviciu pentru umanitate; m-am convins c patriotismul este numai o fanfaronad la cei mai muli; sau de nu, un egoism ntre mai muli indivizi. Acolo unde mi-e bine i acolo unde-mi place, acolo este patria mea, i este de prisos ca s-o iubesc, cci ea poate exista i fr iubirea mea; cel nti lucru ce am fcut, ajungnd n Bucureti, a fost s ntreb dac se fac mari pierderi n cri. Mi s-a rspuns c se perd pe sear i pn la cinci mii ducai. Vestea aceasta m-a mai mpcat cu patria.

ns, n intenia autorului, transferat n mesajul strveziu al finalului romanului, Manoil este doar un suflet nobil cari a scpat o clip hurile, cci iluzia eticist conteaz mai mult n acest realism dect adevrul, iar manipularea personajului este, din acest punct de vedere, simpl i strvezie. [8] Adugnd aici tema scrisului i imaginea literaturii naionale, a crei realitate se mut n plin ficiune romanesc [9] Bolintineanu nsui este citat de protagonist ntr-una dintre scenele petrecute n salonul Smrndiei - imaginea acestui roman al nceputurilor literaturii romne este, n datele ei eseniale, deplin. Potrivit opiniei - clasicizate deja a unuia dintre exegeii literaturii create de Bolintineanu, romanul Manoil este deficient din punct de vedere compoziional, al crerii

i individualizrii personajelor, dar e interesant ca atmosfer. [10]

Note [1]. Dimitrie Pcurariu, Bolintineanu, Ed. petru Literatur, 1962, p. 82 [2.] Nicolae Manolescu, Arca lui Noe, vol. I, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1980, p. 83 [3]. Toate fragmentele din romanul Manoil au fost extrase din ediia Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Manoil. Elena, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1988. [4]. Idem, pp. 84 - 85 [5]. Liviu Papadima, Literatur i comunicare. Relaia autor cititor n literatura paoptist i postpaoptist, Polirom, 1999, p. 167 [6]. Ibidem [7]. Dimitrie Pcurariu, op. cit., p. 82 [8]. Nicolae Manolescu, op. cit., p. 87 [9]. Andrei Bodiu, 7 teme ale romanului postpaoptist, Ed. Paralela 45, 2002, p. 170 [10]. Dimitrie Pcurariu, op. cit., p. 82 Referine Bodiu, A. (2002). 7 teme ale romanului postpaoptist, Piteti: Ed. Paralela 45 Bolintineanu, D (1988). Manoil. Elena, Bucureti: Ed. Minerva Manolescu, N (1980). Arca lui Noe, vol. I, Bucureti: Ed. Minerva Papadima, L (1999). Literatur i comunicare. Relaia autor cititor n literatura paoptist i postpaoptist, Bucureti: Polirom Pcurariu, D (1962). Bolintineanu, Bucureti: Ed. pentru Literatur

Abstract The novel appears and develops in the Romanian literature after the year 1848 through the assimilation of western models, especially those from the French literature and through the juxtaposition of elements belongong to the romantic convention of the genre epistolary novel, sentimental novel, mystery novel and the elements peculiar to to the convention of Balzacian or Stendhelian realism. Dimitrie Bolintineanus Manoil contributes the features of the literary prose of the epoch, i.e., the poetism and the lyrical enunciation as well as the ethical thesis of the novel. Rsum Aprs lpoque de 1848, le roman apparat et se dveloppe dans la littrature roumaine par lassimilation dune srie de modles occidentaux, particulirement de la littrature franaise, et par la combinaison des lments appartenant la convention romantique du genre le roman pistolaire, le roman sentimental, le roman de mystres avec des lments spcifiques la convention du ralisme balzacien ou stendhalien. A tout a, le roman de Dimitrie Bolintineanu, Manoil, ajoute les particularits de la prose littraire de lpoque. Il sagit des marques de la poticit et de lnonciation lyrique ainsi que de la thse thique du roman. Rezumat Dup epoca paoptist romanul apare i se dezvolt n literatura romn prin asimilarea unei serii de modele occidentale, mai ales din literatura francez i prin combinarea elementelor care aparin conveniilor romantice ale genului romanul epistolar, romanul sentimental, romanul misterelor cu elemente specifice conveniei realiste balzaciene sau stendhaline. Romanul Manoil a lui Dimitrie Bolintineanu completeaz particularitile prozei literare a epocii mrci ale poeticitii i ale enunrii lirice precum i teza etic a romanului.

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 5 - 8

Language and Literature

STILUL PROVERBIAL Doina Marta Bejan Stilul proverbial este n majoritatea limbilor naturale consolidat i conservator, reprezentnd o varaiant a limbajului popular, fiind considerat un stil nchis. Prin stil nchis trebuie s se neleag un ansamblu de particuariti de coninut i de expresie, finit i relativ redus ca numr de elemente specifice, cu structuri fixe de combinare, n care inovaiile sub raportul noilor tipare nu sunt, n general, acceptate. De fapt, orice stil nchis, cu tipare abstracte, are posibilitatea de a genera, teoretic la infinit, un numr de texte concrete. n limitele tiparelor existente, limba creeaz mereu structuri frazeologice care tind s se fixeze, iar multe dintre ele au ansa de a deveni proverbe dac, pe lng condiiile lingvistice, necesare n primul rnd, vor ajunge s le satisfac i pe cele extralingvistice reunite sub termenul tradiie. Din perspectiv structural, tiparele proverbiale formate i consacrate n limbajul popular s-au putut extinde i n alte variante ale limbii, n spe limba literar (care accept includerea de texte i de tipare proverbiale).Dei stilul proverbial este nchis, corpusul de texte este n permanen deschis, deoarece modelele (tiparele) proverbiale sunt att de evidente i de productive, nct s-ar putea vorbi de o adevrat competen i performan paremiologic la vorbitorii unei limbi (Tabarcea, 1982: 52). Structura limbii furnizeaz elemente pentru realizarea performanei proverbiale. Potenial, proverbul exist n orice fraz care ndeplinete anumite condiii. Muli creatori au intuit acest fapt, iar cultura romn cunoate cazul tipic al lui Cilibi Moise, creator de pilde, maxime i aforisme, care a lansat n circulaie sute de texte paremiologice modelate dup cele existente, bazndu-se pe specularea unor caracteristici ale structurii limbii: Acela care deosebete om de om nu este om (aici se valorific polisemia cuvntului om, dar trebuie s se aib n vedere i modelele Omul e om sau Om la om ndejde trage). I.L.Caragiale l pune pe celebrul personaj Mitic s creeze aforisme dup model proverbial: i-ai cumprat o blan nou. Te ntlneti cu Mitic. n loc de s-o pori sntos! i zice: Bravos! Blan ai, acum junghi i mai trebuie!; Mitic, n compania unei amice, ateapt s treac tramvaiul, i tramvaiul nu mai trece. Ah! domnioar, toate trec n lumea aceasta, numai tramvaiul nu trece. (apud Tabarcea, 1982: 53). n limbajul presei (i n limbajul publicitar, astzi) s-a manifestat o tendin vdit spre proverbializare nc din secolul al XIX-lea, prezena locuiunilor i proverbelor fiind apreciat ca o apropiere a stilului publicistic de limba vorbit (Andriescu, 1979: !58 162). Sesizarea intuitiv a trsturilor formale ale proverbului, utilizat ca mijloc de persuasiune i de atragere a ateniei publicului totodat, a putut favoriza tendina creativ n materie de proverbe. Mai ales titlurile unor articole de pres sunt formulate proverbial (nelegndu-se prin aceasta att un model preexistent, imitat, ct i crearea de tipare noi), urmrindu-se o anume startegie n scopul captrii receptorului. (Tabarcea, 1982: 55).Se utilizeaz titluri alctuite din:

-citarea de proverbe: Una cald, alta rece (Revista 22, XVIII,nr.12, 2026 martie 2007); -combinarea proverbelor, cu obinerea efectelor ironice: Minciuna are picoare scurte i totui, uneori, adevrul chioapt sau ara arde, dar nu se pred (www.adevrul.ro); - modelalarea pe tipare paremiologice a unor adevrate variante: La aa tiri, aa public) (Dilema veche, III,nr.109, 24 feb. 2 mart. 2006, p.3) recunoatem modelul : La aa stpn, aa slug; exemplele care urmeaz se regsesc n textul articolului: Maculatura rmne tot maculatur, fie c e finanat cu bani de stat, precum Era socialist, fie cu bani privai. (Romnia literar, nr. 14/7 aprilie 2006) modelul este evident Prostu-i prost , nu ai ce-i face; un alt exemplu: ntr-o abordare strict instituional (ct de fireasc, n fond!) dosarul statuii lui Caragiale ar fi riscat s zac i s se prfuiasc n vreun dulap la Ministerul Culturii, lsndu-ne tuturor, mai mult ca sigur, gustul amar al inutilitii... Aa cum de attea ori s-a ntmplat, se ntmpl i se va ntmpla cci, vorba Maestrului nc de la 1894: Reforma trece, nravurile rmn! (Dilema veche, III,nr.109, 24 feb. 2 mart. 2006, p.21) recunoatem modelul Apa trece, pietrele rmn; - substituirea unui cuvnt sau adugarea unor determinani inexisteni n textul atestat al proverbului, ajungndu-se la variante provenite prin modificarea structurii proverbului: Cte bordeluri, attea obiceiuri (Dilema veche, II, nr.87, 16. 22 septembrie 2005, p.1), n care se recunoate proverbul Cte bordeie, attea obiceie; Laptele neprins, negustor cinstit (www.adevrul.ro); Nimeni nu e mai presus de care lege? (Dilema veche, III, nr.109, 24 feb. 2 mart. 2006, p.4); - fragmentarea proverbului n titlu, articolul respectiv fiind, prin coninut, dezvoltarea prii care lipsete din proverbul titlu: Cu un ochi m bucur.... ....dar cu cellalt plng.. (Dilema veche, III,nr.109, 24 feb. 2 mart. 2006, p.21)textul articolului despre reamplasarea satuiei dramaturgului I.L.Caragiale n peisajul capitalei, ncepe chiar cu continuarea proverbului; - combinarea de procedee, la fragmentarea proverbului adugndu-se o replic, situaie des ntlnit i n corpus: Cu un ochi m bucur.... ....dar cu cellalt plng. i v garantez c n-ar fi cu putin altfel. Cutez chiar a spune c, dac a avea patru ochi, unul singur i-ar permite s rd, iar ceilali trei i-ar lcrima tristeea... mai departe. (Dilema veche, III,nr.109, 24 feb. 2 mart. 2006, p.21). Un alt exemplu: La pomul ludat... De data asta, la pomul ludat merit s mergi cu un sac mare, pentru c fiecare va gsi cu ce s-l umple. N-au rmas prea multe documente n legtur cu Pomul Verde, primul teatru de limba idi din lume, nfiinat de Avram Goldfaden la Iai, n 1878. (Romnia literar, nr. 7/22 28 februarie 2006) dezvoltarea titlului contrazice forma cunoscut a proverbului:La pomul ludat s nu mergi cu sacul. Prin astfel de procedee se realizeaz nu numai utilizarea proverbelor n discursuri de diverse tipuri, dar i creaii de elemente noi. Exemplele de mai sus, la care s-ar mai putea aduga multe altele, sunt suficiente pentru a demonstra att capacitatea performativ a tiparelor proverbiale,ct i expansiunea proverbului din varianta n care structural i cronologic a luat natere. (Tabarcea, 1982: 55). Cu toate acestea, rmn cu statut de proverbe numai acele texte care ndeplinesc cerinele stilului proverbial, formulate de Cezar Tabarcea (1982:83 84), i anume: - Proverbul este un enun lingvistic, adic o secven fonic limitat prin pauze i caracterizat printr-un contur intonaional, care poart o anumit informaie semantic, fiind deci o comunicare.

- Proverbul cuprinde n formularea sa o structur logico semantic particular, fix. Opernd orice modificare a aceteia (substituiri, permutri), enunul respectiv nu mai este recunoscut ca proverb, ci este perceput ca un joc verbal. - Proverbul este o expresie recurent (o izolare) a crei apariie n discurs este marcat prin elemente segmentale specializate cu rolul de a schimba planul de referin, sau prin procedee suprasegmentale: pauze semnificative, intonaii specifice; intr aici toate mrcile introductive ale proverbului, care semnalizeaz receptorului introducerea unei secvene deosebite fa de enunul care formeaz macro-textul. - n momentul enunrii sale, proverbul se refer metaforic la o situaie (concret sau transpus ntr-un enun lingvistic). n afara enunrii propriu-zise, el denumete i definete o clas de mprejurri concrete, folosind trsturile acestora extrase prin generalizare, pe care le lexicalizeaz i nglobeaz n expresia sa. Interpretarea denotativ a enunului proverb sau absena mrcilor introductive dezorganizeaz ntreaga semantic a discursului n care proverbul se intercaleaz i are ca efect redundane nefuncionale.(n proverbe se regsesc toate figurile de stil pe care retoricile le enumer n mod curent.) n lucrarea citat (Tabarcea, 1982: 205) se atrage atenia asupra faptului c proverbele pot aprea fr a perturba comunicarea n texte aparinnd diverselor stiluri funcionale, pentru c autorii recurg la anumite strategii din dorina de a-i ctiga publicul. Prezena proverbului n diverse tipuri de comunicare, n diverse limbaje este posibil dac se accept coninutul i funcia practic a acestuia. Concepia modern asupra stilurilor funcionale nu mai impune necesitatea unui stil pur, iar introducerea conceptului de idiostil care nu poate exista dect n msura n care include mcar dou limbaje diferite (Coteanu,1975:81), elimin aceast condiie; n timp ce retorica tradiional presupune poziia emitorului numai ca reprezentant al unui stil dat, pre-existent i normat, stilistica funcional, pornind de la distincia langue/parole, vede la vorbitor un proces de codificare pe baza cunoaterii ntregului sistem al limbii. Ca urmare, proverbul poate fi considerat ca element al unui idiostil, ceea ce nltur necesitatea unui domeniu specific pe care ar trebui s-l acopere stilul proverbial, stil care poate fi prezent la orice vorbitor i n orice domeniu de activitate.
Bibliografie Andriescu, Al., (1979), Limba presei romneti n secolul al XIX-lea, Editura Junimea, Iai Coteanu, Ion, (1973), Stilistica funcional a limbii romne. Stil,stilistic, limbaj, Editura Academiei R.S.R., Bucureti Ruxndoiu, Pavel, (1966), Aspectul metaforic al proverbelor, n Studii de poetic i stilistic, Bucureti Tabarcea, Cezar, (1982), Poetica proverbului, Editura Minerva, Bucureti Abstract A proverb is, first of all, an act of language. The creation of the proverb-text is related to the existence of proverbial patterns, which allows for the extension of their usage from the colloquial and familiar styles, in the journalistic jargon, in advertising slogans and in the work of certain writers. Based on these aspects one can speak of a closed proverbial style, but with an overt corpus which the current paper approaches. Rsum Avant toute autre chose, le proverbe est un acte de langage. La cration dun proverbe-text est lie de lexistence des modles proverbiales qui assurent lextension de leurs utilisation du style colloquial au style familier, largot journalier, des formules publicitaires et dans loeuvre de certains auteurs. En vertu de ces aspects on peut parler dun style proverbial ferme, mais avec un corpus ouvert que larticle vient dillustrer.

Rezumat Proverbul este, nainte de orice, un fapt de limb. Apariia textului-proverb este legat de existena unor tipare proverbiale, ceea ce permite extinderea folosirii lor din limbajul popular familiar, n limbajul jurnalistic, n sloganurile publicitare i n opera anumitor scriitori. n virtutea acestor aspecte se poate vorbi de un stil proverbial nchis, dar cu un corpus deschis, pe care articolul de fa l ilustreaz.

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 9 - 13

Language and Literature

K. ISHIGUROS THE REMAINS OF THE DAY: FOREGROUNDING AND OPENNESS OF MEANING Ruxanda Bontil Introduction: On figure and ground It is common knowledge that the notion of figure and ground is a central concept in cognitive linguistics, which also means that it has been used to develop a detailed grammatical framework for close analysis, as well as very abstract ideas across whole discourses (see van Peer, 1993; also Short, 1996; also Stockwell, 2002 and 2003). It is also acknowledged that the phenomenon of figure and ground relates to the literary critical notion of foregrounding. The latter refers to how we perceive certain aspects of literary texts as being conspicuously more important or salient than others. This is being achieved at textual level by such devices as repetition, unusual naming, innovative descriptions, creative syntactic ordering, puns, rhyme, the use of creative metaphor, and so on. These devices are meant as attention attractors to some element, foregrounding it against the relief of the rest of the features of the text. The principles of prominence and newness work towards focusing attention on a particular feature/ character/ setting, within the textual space. According to Stockwell, there is a dynamic relationship between the processes of figuring and grounding, as elements of the text are thrown into relief in the course of reading or actualising the text. By a constant renewal of the figure and ground relationship, the text works against the inhibition of return, i.e. the loss of attention to static or unchanging elements (2002: 14-19). Still, we also think that any description of a text is ones personal option of choosing out of a multitude of details and textual interrelationships those that have been placed in the foreground of the text itself. We consider that a text can be unlocked with the key offered by the interplay of emphases amongst its parts and partial elements. This can become a guarantee of one successful decoding from the part of the reader that will make him go on reading the text. That is why our argument is meant to prove that the constant interplay at any given moment between openness of meaning and strategies of foregrounding represents a vital aspect of textuality. Much debate has been given to the theory of foregrounding since its conceptualisation by the Russian Formalists and Prague Structuralists. Subsequently, it has developed into a systematic coherent theory with immediate relevance for the literary texts by describing the linguistic mechanisms involved in concrete cases of foregrounding. Willie van Peer focuses in his study on foregrounding, upon the central characteristic of this notion, namely the characteristics, typically encountered in literary texts of deviating from rules and habits, while at the same time displaying unusual regularity through partial repetition (1993: 50), that is both deviance and parallelism. The former device refers to deviation as introduced in a text through neologisms, archaisms, metaphors, paradox, and hyperbaton functioning as a disruption to the linguistic expectations we approach a text with. The latter device refers to parallelism such as syntactic symmetry, doublets, ellipsis, and semantic contrast functioning as 9

reinforcement due to the degree of extra regularity brought in by means of repeated elements. Foregrounding may occur at any level: phonological, grammatical, semantic and pragmatic. In each case, the effect is one of heightened psychological attention (Peer, 1993: 50) as a particular referent is established in the foreground of consciousness while other discourse referents remain in the background. Hopper and Thomson have argued that foregrounded clauses are high in transitivity, a complex notion involving verb tense or aspect, the number of participants in the clause and their case roles as well as other grammatical factors (qtd. in Brown, 1983: 165). We certainly do not profess that the reader should be baffled by theories and concepts to highlight her/his awareness of the text, since any moment in a text beyond the immediate beginning and close, can and must be read both prospectively and retrospectively. However, it remains for us to prove that even beginnings tend to be open and to indicate significant emphases. This is readily apparent with the opening paragraph of K. Ishiguros novel The Remains of the Day the winner of the 1989 Booker Prize. Foregrounding and textual interrelationships: an exemplary beginning Our argument intends to demonstrate how through a technique of foreshadowing, the thematic hypersignification of the novels larger discourse discloses itself from the very first paragraph. In other words we will try to highlight how the very beginning of the novel may suggest the outcome of the novel, thus ensuring the structural and thematic unity of the whole. It seems increasingly likely that I really will undertake the expedition that has been preoccupying my imagination now for some days. (1) An expedition, I should say, which I will undertake alone, in the comfort of Mr. Farradays Ford; an expedition which, as I foresee it, will take me through much of the finest countryside of England to the West Country, and may keep me away from Darlington Hall for as much as five or six days. (2) The idea of such a journey came about, I should point out, from a most kind suggestion put to me by Mr Farraday himself one afternoon almost a fortnight ago, when I had been dusting the portraits in the library. (3) In fact, as I recall, I was up on the step-ladder dusting the portrait of Viscount Wetherby when my employer had entered carrying a few volumes which he presumably wished returned to the shelves. (4) On seeing my person, he took the opportunity to inform me that he had just that moment finalised plans to return to the United States for a period of five weeks between August and September. (5) Having made this announcement, my employer put his volumes down on a table, seated himself on the chaise longue, and stretched out his legs. (6) It was then, gazing up at me, that he said: [...] (7) (Ishiguro, 1989: 3). The turbulence as immense as it is slow (Rushdie, 1991: 34) lying below the understatement of the novels surface is envisaged through a masterful handling of foregrounding strategies. The very first extraposition of a clausal subject in the opening line signals a brilliant subversion of the fictional modes to which the novel seems to align. It further signals that the novels larger discourse will move back to a previous point in time to attempt to explain this present moment. The formal stiffness and stillness introduced through the phrase It seems increasingly likely (1) will become crucial both for understanding the narrator narratee relationship and the major theme of the novel.

10

The existence of two subjects, which we may identify as the postponed subject (the clause which is notionly the subject of the sentence) and the anticipatory subject (it) pinpoints the coexistence of an experiencing mode and an observing mode within the narrative voice, the I speaker, which is both narrator and participant. The objectifying of the first person narrator through language on the syntagmatic axis [my imagination (1); I will undertake alone; it will take me; may keep me away (2); suggestion put to me (3); my employer (4); my person; to inform me (5); my employer (6); gazing at me (7) ] is also apparent in the way the writer makes the speaker relate his own centre to the surrounding cognitive environment. This is controlled through a range of deictic elements encoding the spatio temporal context and subjective experience of the encoder. The way mental proximity and distance is deictically encoded in the discourse event is another instance of foregrounding both grammatically and lexically [the expedition (1); An expedition (2); now for some days (1); as I foresee it (2); The idea of such a journey (3); one afternoon almost a fortnight ago (3); On seeing (5); he had just that moment finalised (5); a period of five weeks (5); It was then (7)]. The choice of words on the paradigmatic axis is also significant to the purpose of foreshadowing the central theme of the novel: the dichotomy appearance / reality, seeming / being, extrapolated from the real story of a man (Stevens, a butler well past his prime) destroyed by his own ideas upon which he has built his life, to the more serious issue of the end or at least passing of a certain kind of Britain and Englishness. The word expedition (1, 2), carries a connotation (exploration, warfare, purpose) which through foregrounding is immediately brought to the readers awareness; journey (3), its extensive doublet deters the former words meaning from becoming too conspicuous, exactly as all the big questions preoccupying the heros mind are deterred from getting the answers the hero feels his duty to give. The word imagination (1) is an instance of semantic contrast on the paradigmatic axis which together with the semantic charge embedded in the process verb undertake (1, 2) will point to the time and space of the action. Moreover, the rightbranching of the foregrounded sentences beginning with the complement expedition (2), preceded by the indefinite article with anaphoric function could also be regarded like a deictic element in the multitude of textual interrelationships. The complexities of modality, both epistemic and deontic are carried out at both paradigmatic and syntagmatic levels. At the paradigmatic level, through the choice of words pertaining to modality [seems increasingly likely (1); really; will (1); should say; will; will may (2); should (3); presumably ; wished (4)]. At the syntagmatic level, the interruptions caused in discourse through apparently overformal asides carry that supplementary deictic function of sharing experience, negotiating meaning between narrator and reader [I should say (2); as I foresee it (2); I should point out (3); as I recall (4)]. Further more, they ensure the coherence of the discourse, trapping the reader into a more active and imaginative engagement with the text, due to more implicit cohesive ties. The so far achieved congruence of the text is also a modality of increasing awareness as to the understatement of a perfectly smooth, not-important-type of narration. The more immobile everything looks, the more devastating it is perceived by the experiencing narrator. The time-hallowed bonds between master and servant, and the codes by which both live, are no longer dependable absolutes but rather sources of ruinous self deceptions, opinions Rushdie (1991: 37).

11

Alongside with such cohesive devices as substitutions, repetitions, embedding, there are more overt connections used at the syntagmatic level: subordination [that (1); which (2); when (3, 4); On seeing (5); Having made (6)]; or conjuncts, In fact (4), indicating the connection between what is being said and what was said before. Regarding the value of tense and aspect they may have relevance when speaking about coding time, content time and receiving time, but most of all with a view to foreshadowing the hypersignification of the larger discourse. The staccato rhythm imposed by the paradigmatic choices as well as the hyperbaton cause effect phenomenon of foregrounding, is also relevant for the textual interrelationships. As Still (or smooth) waters run deep, there is a lot the reader has to ask himself after the first paragraph of the novel: Who is the I unfolding so neatly and conscientiously the ideas preoccupying his imagination? What is the real nature of the expedition which is thrown into focus by the anaphoric and cataphoric It beginning the sentence? Who is Mr. Farraday in whose Ford the speaker will undertake the expedition alone? What is their relationship? What does Darlington Hall represent to the narrator that he may feel kept away from it, be it only for five or six days? Why does the narrator have to foresee the finest countryside of England? The verb tenses recede one by one into the past [seems; will undertake; has been preoccupying; came; had been dusting; was; had entered; took the opportunity; had finalized; put; ; seated stretched; said], inverting text order and story order and suggesting a sequence of conflicts prior to the present time temporal adverb now from sentence one. All these details on both paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes are meant to open discourse up towards story and hypersignification, highlighting ways of opening meaning within the novel. Concluding remarks You see, I trusted [...]. I cant even say I made my own mistakes. Really one has to ask oneself what dignity is there in that? (Ishiguro, 1989: 243) Is our argument together with the expedition, intensively and extensively foregrounded by the author, to acquire the same cruelly beautiful question/ answer conclusion? The point is that we tried to show how Kazuo Ishiguro through an apparently obscuring surface, manages to disclose a complex of attitudes and emotions, thus opening meaning through technique; how through congruence amongst paradigmatic choices and syntagmatic and grammatical cohesion the author manages at once to conceal and disclose the implicit relationship between fallible narrator and self-deceptive narrate. References
Brown, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis, Cambridge University Press. Ishiguro, K. (1989). The Remains of the Day, London, Boston: Faber and Faber. Peer, W. van (1993). Typographic Foregrounding, Language and Literature, 2/1, 49-61. Rushdie, S. (1991). Imaginary Homelands. Essays and Criticism 1981-199, London: Granta Books. Short, M. (1996) Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose, London: Longman. Stockwell, P. (2002). Cognitive Poetics, London, New York: Routledge. Stockwell, P. (2003). Surreal figures. In Gavins, J. and G. Steen (eds.), Cognitive poetics in practice, (pp. 1327), London, New York: Routledge.

12

Abstract In what concerns the literary text, the renewal of the dynamics of stylistic markers, the so-called attractors, represents the key to focusing the readers attention and hindering the inhibition of return (Stockwell, 2002). What we used to call literary competence has become, according to the cognitive poeticians, experimental learning of competency and assuming control over the way in which the readers attention in the textual game between figuring and grounding is being achieved. Our present argument centers on how foregrounding strategies contributing to literariness are inductive of narrative hypersignification too.

Rsum Dans le cas du texte littraire, le renouvlement de la dynamique des particularits stylistiques, ce quon appelle attracteurs (Stockwell, 2002), reprsente la clef du succs dans la focalisation de lattention du lecteur et linhibition de la dfocalisation. Ce quon appelait traditionnellement comptence littraire , les potes cognitivistes appellent aujourdhui apprentissage exprimental de la comptence et contrle sur la manire de focalisation de lattention dans le jeu textuel entre figure et arrire-plan. Notre travail se propose de dmontrer que les stratgies de mise en vidence (foregrounding, ayant comme effet linduction de la littrarit, aident la construction de lhypersignification roumaine.

Rezumat n cazul textului literar, rennoirea dinamicii particularitilor stilistice, aa numiii atractori (Stockwell, 2002), reprezint cheia succesului n focalizarea ateniei lectorului i inhibarea defocalizrii. Ceea ce tradiional se numea competen literar, poeticienii cognitiviti numesc acum nvare experimental a competenei dar i control asupra modului de focalizare a ateniei n jocul textual ntre figur i fundal. Demonstratia noastr i propune s dovedeasca c strategiile de evideniere (foregrounding) ce au ca efect inducerea literaritii ajut la construirea hipersemnificaiei romaneti.

13

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 14 - 22

Language and Literature

HUMOR UND KATEGORISIERUNG Raluca Bourceanu I. Bedeutungsaufbau in der kongnitiven Semantik Auggangspunkt jedes Versuchs, erklrende Schemas des Bedeutungsmechanismus zu entwickeln, ist die Inanspruchnahme der Beziehungen zwischen Sprache und Wirklichkeit. Die kognitive Linguistik, die als Reaktion gegen das formale Modell der Sprachanalyse entstanden ist, geht davon aus, dass Sprache Gedankenschnitte widerspiegelt, woraus sich ergibt, dass Studium von Sprachen Studium von Konzeptualisierungsschnitte heit. Whrend die formale Semantik von der Voraussetzung ausgeht, dass die Grundfunktion der Sprache die Beschreibung einer objektiven Realitt ist und diese Beziehung zwischen Sprache und Wirklichkeit von den Wahrheitsbediengungen modelliert sein kann, besagt die kognitive Semantik, dass Sprache an sich keine Bedeutung kodiert. Wrter stellen demzufolge nur eine Art Fenster fr die Bedeutungsaufbau dar. Laut dieser Ansicht wird die Bedeutung auf dem konzeptuellen Niveu aufgebaut, indem Bedeutungsaufbau mit dem Konzeptualisierungverfahren gleichzusetzen ist. Man kann sich die Frage stellen, wie kommt es vor, dass wir uns doch in der Welt zurechtfinden, wenn die Struktur, die Kategorien und Eigenschaften der Sprache keine Entsprechungen in der Wirklichkeit haben. By viewing meaning as the relationship between words and the world, truth-conditional semantics eliminates cognitive organization from the linguistic system (Sweester 1990:4). Dagegn begreifen die Kognitivisten die Bedeutung als Offenbarung einer konzeptuellen Struktur: Research on cognitive semantics is research on conceptual content and its organization in language (Talmy 2000: 4). Es gibt vier Grundannahmen der kognitiven Semantik hinsichtlich des Bedeutungsaufbaus, die fr unsere Absicht, Sprchhumor durch Kategorienfehler zu erklren, grundlegend sind. Es geht um die Prinzipien der verkrperten konzeptuellen Struktur, der Gleichsetzung der semantischen mit der konzeptuellen Struktur, der enzyklopdischen Bedeutungreprsentierung und der Annahme, dass Bedeutungsaufbau Konzeptualisierung heit. Bedeutung wird also weder als Eigenschaft indvidueller Aussagen, noch als einfache Sache deren Interpretation hinsichtlich der Auenwelt betrachtet. Hingegen entsteht Bedeutung aus einem dynamischen Proze des Bedeutungsaufbaus, der Konzeptualisierung benannt wird. Demzufolge darf Semantik von der Pragmatik nicht getrennt werden, da auf der einen Seite Bedeutungsaufbau vom Kontext der uerung abhngig ist und auf der anderen Seite Bedeutungsaufbau sich auf einigen Mechanismen der konzeptuellen Projektion (etwa Metapher und Metonymie) sttzt. Laut dieser Einstellung existiert doch die Auenwelt, die Art und Weise aber, wie man sich mental die Welt vorstellt, hngt direkt mit der verkrperten Erfahrung zusammen. Was zu sagen heit, dass Bedeutungsaufbau nicht in Richtung eines matching-up der Aussagen mit objektiv definierbaren states of affairs vorangeht, sondern in Richtung der Konzeptualisierung eines enzyklopdischen Wissens. Man kann daher sagen, dass einerseits die semantische Struktur die konventionelle Form ist, die die konzeptuelle Struktur beim Einkodieren in die 14

Sprache einnimmt und, dass sie andererseits einen Gehalt eingelagerten Wissens darstellt, der durch die Sprache einfach reflektiert wird. Die in die Sprache einkodierten Bedeutungen sind nur partielle und unvollstndige Reprsentierungen der konzeptuellen Struktur. Whrend die Reprsentierung dieser Erfahrungen, die unser konzeptuelles System ausmachen, weniger detaillert als die Wahrnehmungserfahrungen selbst ist, sind die durch die semantische Struktur einkodierten Reprntationen noch rmer an Details. Sprache kodiert doch Bedeutung ein, diese Bedeutung ist aber verarmt und gilt als Fenster fr den Aufbau von reicheren Konzeptualisierungvorgngen Seite des Hrers:
Expressions do not mean; they are prompts for us to construct meanings by working with processes we already known. In no sense is the meaning of an utterance right there in the words. When we understand an utterance, we in no sense are understanding just what the words say; the words themselves say nothing independent of the richly detailed knowledge and powerful cognitive processes we bring to bear. (Turner, 1991:206)

Bevor wir anhand eines Beispiels die Relevaz der bis hier besprochenen Phnomene zeigen, ist es wichtig Fauconniers Bedeutungsaufbau-Theorie zu erwhnen, die im engen Zusammenhang mit der Problematik der Deutbarkeit steht. Laut Fauconnier setzt der Bedeutungsaufbau zwei Verfahren aus: 1. den Aufbau von mental spaces; und 2. das Etablieren von mappings zwischen diesen mental spaces. Fauconnier definiert die mental spaces als partial structures that proliferate when we think and talk, allowing a fine-grained partitioning of our discourse and knowledge structure (Fauconnier, 1997:11). Auerdem werden diese Mapping-Beziehungen vom jeweiligen Kontext beeinflut, was zu verstehen lt, dass Bedeutungsaufbau immer kontextabhngig ist. Man kann sagen, dass man eigentlich mit zwei Bedeutungsvarianten zu tun hat. Zum einen geht es um die konventionelle Bedeutung, die mit einem bestimmten Wort oder einer bestimmten Konstruktion asoziiert wird (kodierte Bedeutung), zum anderen handelt es sich um die Bedeutung, die der Kontext ausmacht (pragmatische Bedeutung). Da aber Wrter immer wieder in Kontexte hervorkommen, stellt die kodierte Bedeutung eine Idealisierung aufgrund der prototypischen Bedeutung, die man aus der kontextualisierten Verwendung der Wrter herauskriegt. Eigentlich schliet die mit den Wrtern assoziierte Bedeutung immer die pragmatische Bedeutung ein, whrend kodierte Bedeutung nur eine Bekundung dieser prototypischen Bedeutung, die aus der Menge der pragmatischen Interpretationen abstrahiert wird, darstellt. Zusammenfassend werden wird sagen, dass Sprache das Wahrnehmen voraussetzt und, dass Wahrnehmen zur Konzeptualisierung fhrt. Die Sprache setzt also nicht nur intelligente Wesen, sondern auch einen kognitiven Zugang dieser Wesen zur Welt voraus. Die sinnliche Wahrnehmung ist es, die die sprachliche Reprsentation ermglicht, denn ohne Wahrnehmung gibt es keine Kognition. Die Sprache macht demzufolge von den kognitiven Leistungen der Wahrnehmung wesentlich Gebrauch, da die Dinge, ber die wir reden, von uns ursprnglich durch die Wahrnehmung ausgemacht und indentifiziert werden. Die Wahrnehmung liefert uns Informationen ber deren Attribute, die wir in der Sprache festhalten. Wahrnehmungen sind verkrpert, oder anders gesagt ist Sprache zentriert. Alle Sprechenden sind kompakte Krper, die die umliegende Welt von einem rumlich sehr begrenzten Standpunkt aus wahrnehmen. Was der Bedeutungsaufbau im Bezug auf den Kategorisierungsverfahren betrifft, mu man noch hinzufuegen, Searle folgend, dass, whrend eine Wahrnehmung etwas prsentiert, die Kategorisierung reprsentiert. Es handelt sich dabei um die Prsentierung oder die Erfahrung unmittelbarer Wahrnehmung, die dann auf der Konzeptualisierungsebene zur Reprsentierung der mittelbaren Kategorisierung fhrt. Um zu zeigen, inwieweit dieses kognitive Bedeutungsmodell mit anderen Bereichen der Kognition bereinstimmend ist und inwieweit es zu einer Humoranalyse beitragen knnte, werden wir im folgenden ein Beispiel nehmen. Wenn man auf die Frage

15

Wo ist die Katze durch Die Katze ist auf dem Stuhl antwortet, befinden wir und vor einem Normalfall, der neutral klingt. Wenn man aber hingegen dieselbe Frage durch Der Stuhl ist unter der Katze beantwortet, wird man bestimmt Humor, wenn nicht Erstaunen auslsen. Warum sollte denn diese Antwort merkwrdig und witzig klingen? Es ist eine grammatisch perfekt aufgebaute Aussage. Die Kognitivisten knnten die Sache durch das Einbeziehen der Ergebnisse der Psychologie erklren. Wir wissen also, dass die Menschen die Tendenz haben, ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf besimmte Aspekte einer visuellen Buehne zu fokusieren. Der Blickpunkt, den wir fokusieren, stellt etwas dar, was uns erlaubt, bestimmte Voraussagen zu formulieren. In unserem Beispiel richten wir unsere Aufmerksamkeit eher auf die Katze und nicht auf den Stuhl, weil unser Weltwissen sagt uns, dass es wahrscheinlicher ist, dass die Katze, und nicht der Stuhl, sich bewegen, ein Gerusch oder irgend etwas machen wird. Man nennt diese hervortretende Entitt die Figur und den restlichen Teil der Bhne Hintergrund. Diese Tatsache der menschlichen Psychologie gibt uns auch eine Erklrung dafr, warum Sprache die Information auf eine bestimmte Weise einpackt. Ein anderer Aspekt, der auch im kommenden Teil unseres Aufsatzes wesentlich ist und mit der Problematik der Kategorisierung eng verbunden ist, wird durch ein anderes Phnomaen erklrt, nmlich durch das profiling, das uns erlaubt, Aufmerksamkeit umzuschalten.

II. Kategorisierung In diesem Teil unserer Arbeit werden wir uns mit der Problematik des Kategorisierungsverfahren beschftigen, die eine zentrale Rolle in unserer Humoranalyse spielt. Kategorisierung entspricht unserer Fhigkeit, hnlichkeiten (und Unterschiede) zwischen verschiedenen Entitten zu identifizieren uns sie, aufgrund dieses kognitiven Prozees zusammenzubringen. Kategorien sind demzufolge wesentliche Elemente, die sich an der Organisation unserer Erfahrung beteiligen. Die klassische Forschungsrichtung, die auf Aristoteles zurckzufhren ist, geht von der Idee aus, dass Kategorisierung auf der Basis gemeinsamer Eigenschaften erzeugt wird und, dass die Mitglieder einer Kategorie die gleichen Merkmale aufweisen. Bevor wir die von Rosch entwickelte Prototyp-Theorie besprechen, werden wir uns mit der klassischen Ansicht auseinandersetzen, um dann feststellen zu knnen, warum sie mit der Realitt der kognitiven menschlichen Erfahrung nicht bereinstimmt. Die aristotelische Kategorisierung zeichnet sich bekanntlich durch mindestens drei Merkmale aus: (i) die Zugehrigkeit zu einer Kategorie erfolgt auf der Grundlage von notwendigen und hinreichenden Kriterien, (ii) jede Kategorie hat klare Grenzen; (iii) jedes Element einer Kategorie hat denselben Status wie jedes andere. Es gibt mehrere Probleme mit dieser Theorie, die wir besprechen werden. Auf der einen Seite behauptet sie im Bezug auf das ertse Merkmal (i), dass Kategorien eine definitorische Struktur zugeschrieben wird, was in der Wirklichkeit nicht gilt, da es unheimlich schwer ist, przise Kriterien herauszufinden, die notwendig und hinreichend bei dem Etablieren einer Kategorie sind. Es gengt, die berhmte Behauptung Wittgensteins ber die Spiele zu erwhnen, um die inhrente Schwieriegkeit dieses Verfahrens zu zeigen:
Wir sehen ein kompliziertes Netz von hnlichkeiten, die einander bergreifen und kreuzen. hnlichkeiten im Groen und Kleinen. Ich kann diese hnlichkeiten nicht besser charakterisieren, als durch das Wort "Familienhnlichkeiten"; denn so bergreifen und kreuzen sich die verschiedenen hnlichkeiten, die zwischen den Gliedern einer Familie bestehen: Wuchs, Gesichtszge, Augenfarbe, Gang, Temperament, etc. etc..Und ich werde sagen: die Spiele bilden eine Familie.

Rosch und Mervis kondensieren Wittgensteins Gedanken zu folgender schematischen Form:A family resemblance relationship consists of a set of items of the form AB, BC,

16

CD, DE. That is, each item has at least one, and probably several, elements in common with one or more other items, but no, or few, elements are common to all items. Zweitens besteht das Problems der klassischen Theorie darin, dass sie die Tatsache voraussetzt, dass jede Kategorie klare und endgltige Grenzen hat (ii). Bei der Diskussion dieses Standpunkts mu man immer die Abgrenzung der Volk-Kategorien von den ExpertKategorien im Auge halten.Wenn man die Kategorie der ungeraden Zahlen betrachtet, wird man feststellen, dass diese Kategorie doch klar definierte Grenzen hat. Mitglieder dieser Kategorie sind jene Zahlen, die nicht (ohne Rest) durch 2 teilbar sind. Das gilt aber nicht mehr im Bezug auf die Kategorie Mbel zum Beispiel, wobei es schwer zu entscheiden ist, ob sagen wir Teppich dazu gehrt oder nicht. Drittens werden die Schwachheiten dieser Theorie im Bezug auf die letzte Grundannahme sichtbar, die besagt, dass jeder Mitglieder einer Kategorie mit jedem anderen gleichwertig sei. Dagegen kann man Armstrong et al. (1983) Experimenten aufrufen, die bewiesen haben, dass sich sogenannte prototypische Effekte innerhalb einer Kategorie bemerken laen. Armstrong stellte fest, das Versuchspersonen gerade und ungerade Zahlen nicht als gleichwertige Mitglieder der jeweiligen Kategorien bewertet haben, sondern, dass es in beiden Fllen Prototypen dieser Kategorien gibt. Was die ungeraden Zahlen angeht, wurde 3 als der reprsentativeste Mitglieder betrachtet, was die geraden Zahlen hingegen betrifft, handelte es sich um 2 und 4. Aufgrund der Unterscheidung zwischen Volk und ExpertsKategorien erklrt Armstrong diese Ergebnisse durch den Zusammenhang zwischen core definition und identification procedure, wie Osheron und Smith behaupten:
the core of a concept is concerned with those aspects of a concept that explicate its relations to other concepts, and to thoughts, while the identification procedure specifies the kind of information used to make rapid decisions about membership. [] We can illustrate with the concept woman. Its core might contain information about the presence of a reproductive system, while its identification procedures might contain information about body shape, hair length, and voice pitch. (Osheron and Smith 1981:57).

Obwohl diese Erklrung die klassische Kategorisierungstheorie mit der der Kategorisierung durch Prototype zu vershnen scheint, bleibt doch eine Tension zwischen die prototypischen Effekte der (un)geraden Zahlen und unsere klare Intuition, dass (un)gerade Zahlen keine vage, sondern eine klar begrenzte Kategorie darstellt. Man knnte vielleicht das Problem besser lsen, wenn man Langackers Unterschied zwischen Kategorisierung durch Prototypen und Kategorisierung durch Schemas erwhnt:
A prototype is a typical instance of a category, and other elements are assimilated to the category on the basis of their perceived resemblance to the prototype; there are degrees of membership based on degrees of similarity. A schema, by contrast, is an abstract characterization that is fully compatible with all the members of the category it defines (so membership is not a matter of degree); it is an integrated structure that embodies the commonality of its members, which are conceptions of greater specificity and detail that elaborate the schema in contrasting ways (Langacker 1987:371).

In den 70en Jahren wurde die klassische Theorie dank den von Rosch gefhrten Experimenten und deren Ergebnisse in Frage gestellt. Die Prototyptheorie postuliert, dass es zwei Grundprinzipien gibt, die die Bildung von Kategorien bestimmen: 1) das Prinzip der kognitiven konomie und 2) das Prinzip der wahrgenommenen Weltstruktur. Das erste Prinzip legt fest, dass der Mensch versucht, so viel Information wie mglich ber seine Umgebung zu gewinnen, indem er gleichzeitig seine kognitive Bemhungen und Ressourcen auf ein Minimum bringt. Diese Kosten-Nutzen- Balance bestimmt den Aufbau von Kategorien. Anstatt separate Informationen ber jeden erfahrenen individuellen Stimulus abzuspeichern, gruppiert der Mensch hnliche Stimuli in Kategorien ein. Was das zweite Prinzip angeht, handelt es sich um die korelationelle Struktur der Welt. Es ist zum Beispiel eine Tatsache, dass Flgel eher mit Federn und der Fhigkeit zum Fliegen assoziiert werden, als mit Fell und der Fhigkeit, unter dem Wasser atmen zu knnen.

17

Diese Annahme postuliert also, dass sich der Mensch auf solcher korelationellen Struktur sttzt, um Kategorien aufbauen und organisieren zu knnen. Whrend das eine Prinzip die Ebene der Angehrigkeit beeinflut, ist das andere Prinzip fr die prototypische Struktur der Kategorien verantwortlich. Daraus ergibt sich die Tatsache, so Rosch, dass die strukturelle Organisation der Kategorisierungssystem zwei Dimensionen aufweist: eine vertikale und eine horizontale. Die vertikale Dimension beinhaltet den Reprsentationsgrad verschiedener Abstraktionsebenen, wobei die basic levels einen von Rosch eingefhrten zentralen Begriff ist, die der hchste Grad an Reprsentativitt darstellt. Die horizontale Dimension hingegen betifft die Zerlegung einer Kategorie auf derselben Abstraktionsebene. Die Grundannahmen der Prototypenmodells werden von Kleiber (1993) wie folgend zusammengefasst: 1. Eine Kategorie hat eine prototypische innere Struktur. 2. Der Reprsentativittsgrad eines Exemplars entspricht dem Grad seiner Zugehrigkeit zur Kategorie. 3. Die Grenzen zwischen den Kategorien bzw. Begriffen sind unscharf. 4. Die Vertreter einer Kategorie verfgen nicht ber Eigenschaften, die allen Vertretern gemeinsam sind; sie werden durch eine Familienhnlichkeit zusammengehalten. 5. Die Zugehrigkeit zu einer Kategorie ergibt sich aus dem Grad der hnlichkeit mit dem Prototyp. 6. ber diese Zugehrigkeit wird nicht analytisch, sondern global entschieden. Diese Ergebnisse stellen den Ausgngspunkt einer von Lakoff bekannten Theorie von Idealised Cognitive Models (ICMs). ICMs sind relativ stabile mentale Reprsentationen, die Theorien ber die Welt darstellen. Sie sind idealisiert, weil sie Erfahrungen abstrahieren, anstatt spezifische Instanziierungen einer bestimmten Erfahrung darzustellen. In diesem Sinne sind sie Fillmores Begriff von frames hnlich, da sie auch komplexe Wissensstukturen miteinbeziehen. So Putnam: no language, it is safe to assume, has a name for a category consisting of just teacups, treacle and loud noises, or similar heterogeneous collections of things. (Putnam 1983: 73). Ausgehend von diesen Bemerkungen, knnen wir im weiteren aufgrund eines Beispieles die Relevanz der Prototypentheorie im Bezug auf den Humor probieren, indem wir mit den bis hier entwickelten theoretischen Instrumenten einen Fall von Humorproduktion zu analysieren versuchen. In einer seinen Arbeiten stellet sich Fillmore die Frage, ob der Papst als Junggeselle betrachtet werden kann (Fillmore 1982:34). Wenn man die Aussage The Pope is a real bachelor uert, lst man bstimmt Humor auf. Wenn man die Analyse in den von Raskin vorgeschlagenen Rahmen durchfhrt (Raskin 1985), wrde man sagen, dass man hier mit einer einfachen Skript-Opposition zu tun hat, nmlich geistig vs sexuel. Das einfache Etablieren dieser Opposition erklrt aber das Phnomen nur auf einer oberflchlichen Ebene, oder ist nur das Endergebniss eines viel komplexeren kognitiven Verfahrens. Man mu zuerst bemerken, dass, obwohl der Papst die Eigenschaften eines Junggesellen aufweist, er doch intuitiv eine Grenzinstanz dieser Kategorie ist. Prototypische Effekte knnen aber wegen mismatches between ICMs against which particular concepts are understood (Evans, 2005: 270) vorkommen. Wenn wir die ICMs betrachten, die den Junggesellen-Begriff bestimmen, schlieen sie Informationen ber eine monogame Gesellschaft, die Ehe und ein standard Heiratsalter ein. Wir haben demzufolge mit einem Zusammenbruch der Hintergrundkategorien, die das Miteinbeziehn des Papst in die Kategorie der Junggesellen erlaubt hatte.

18

III. Humor und Kategorienfehler In Michael Jubien (1994) haben wir folgendes Beispiel gefunden, das wir als Ausgangspunkt dieser Analyse gedacht haben:
"I recently heard a commercial on the radio for a company that leases cars: Salesman: And, ah, Mr. Smith, just for how much of the car did you want to have? customer: uh, I was thinking in terms of the whole thing. Salesman: I see. So you plan on having it for...well, for quite a long time....? Customer: Not really. maybe three, four years. Salesman: Ah, then you don't want the whole thing after all, you only want three or four years of it! But then why buy the whole thing in the first place? why not just buy the part you want?"

Es handelt sich hier um den Versuch, den Humor durch die Kategorisierungsverfahren und deren Zusammenbruch zu erklren, wobei eine zentrale Rolle die kognitiven Verhltnissen der Proto-und Stereotypenetablierungen spielen, indem auf der anderen Seite ein Kollaps der kognitiven Erfahrungen der am Sprechakt Beteiligten zutrifft. Unsere Hypothese ist, dass Stereotypen, die die Menge der einen Prototyp definierenden Eigenschaften sind, die 'frames' bilden, den semantischen Bereich, der sich als Rahmen des enzyklopdischen Wissens zu verstehen lt, wobei die 'scripts' die dynamische Aktualisierung im Kontext der sprachlichen Handlung sind. Die Unterscheidung zwischen 'frames' und 'scripts' haben wir von John R. Taylor ( 1995) entnommen. Da wir uns hauptschlich mit Raskins Theorie auseinandersetzen, finden wir diesen feinen terminologischen Unterschied ziemlich wichtig, da bei Raskin 'scripts' als die um ein Wort herum existente semantische Information definiert wurden, wobei die dynamische Komponente, oder das Herausziehen der 'scripts' aus den gegebenen prototypischen 'frames' nicht vorausgesagt ist. Bei Raskin werden 'scripts' in der NonBona-Fide Kommunikation (NBF) als entgegengesetzte semantische Informationen dargestellt, was berhaupt nicht der Fall sein knnte, sonst knnte sich der wesentliche berraschungseffekt des Humors nicht offenbaren. Die darausfolgende These ist, dass bei der Humorauslsung die prototypischen Effekte durch Instanziirungen neugedachter Stereotypen, oder besser gesagt durch Zusammenfallen der blichen Stereotypen, die zu neuen Kategorisierungsvorschlgen durch logische 'mismatchs' fhren, neue Ontologien schpfen. Die Wahrheitswerte, die Verbindung zwischen linguistischen und extralinguistischen Realitten leisten mgen, finden sowieso auch in der Bona-Fide Kommunikation (BF) nur insoweit einen Deckungsbereich, inwieweit sie den 'frames' der Sprecher entsprechen. Dasgleiche geschieht auch in der NBF-Kommunikation, in der sie Sache der subjektiven Deutung der Sprecher und Hrer sind, die dadurch neue Ontologien als akzeptabel bewerten knnen, wodurch die Metapher zum Beispiel nicht als einen aberanten Fall sprachlicher Taetigkeit, wie bei Searle, betrachtet wird. Metapher werden in diesem Proto-und Stereotypenmodell als Interaktion (Black folgend) angesehen, oder als Konzeptualisierung eines prototypisch semantischen Bereichs durch Stereotypen, die normalerweise einem anderen semantischen Bereich gehren oder ontologische bertragungen. Das erweiterte Modell der Prototypensemantik versucht eben eine Erklrung der Phnomene der Polysemie und Homoymie. Auf der einen Seite weisen Kategorien eine ziemlich groe Flexibilitt auf, die das Einbeziehen neuen, hitherto Begriffe erlaubt, die zumindest eine Weile, weil unerwartet, als witzig empfunden werden knnen, auf der anderen Seite kann man im Falle einer etymologischen Entwicklung mit wissenschaftlichem gegen folklorischem Wissen spielen. Im dem folgenden Schritt werden wir die oben entworfene Theorie pncktlich besprechen. Wie schon gesagt berlappen sich ICMs mit Fillmores Begriff der frames. Wichtig fr den Zweck dieser Analyse halten wir eine weitere Unterscheidung, die uns dann erlauben wird, die Kritik an Raskins Theorie zu fhren. Laut Beaugrand und Dressler,

19

bilden frames global patterns of common sense knowledge about some central concept, so dass das lexikalische Element, das das Konzept bezeichnet, den ganzen Frame hervorbringt. Grob genommen stellen Frames statysche Konfigurationen von Wissenkomplexen. Auf der anderen Weise sind Skripts dynmische Informationen, die man mit den schon erwhnten basic level Elementen assoziiert warden. Diese Unterschiede knnen in Zusammenhang mit der Beziehung zwischen Proto-und Stereotypen gebracht warden, wobei die Frames den ICMs entsprechen, die ihrerseits von Prototypen reprsentiert werden und die Skripts ihre Entsprechung in den Stereotypen finden, die den Prototypen instanziieren: Putnams stereotypes [] comprise not only the prototype, but also frame and script based information wich provides the context for o prototype representation. (Taylor, 1995: 73). Wenn man jetzt die Werbung betrachtet, kann man feststellen, dass das Aktualisierung bestimmter Skripts im Rahmen einer gegebenen Frame eine Sache der Interpretabilitt und Zusagung ist. Normalerweise wrde dieses Beispiel merkwrdig klingen. Was heit ja nur Teile eines Auto kaufen, weil man das Auto nur fr ein paar Jahren braucht? Der Versto gegen die stereotypische dreidimensionale Wahrnehmung der Wirklichkeit, bzw des Autos durch das Aktivieren unerwarteten Skripts lst Humor wegen einer Kollision der ontologischen Kategorien auf. Diese Stereotypen, die sich in Skripts konkretisieren, oder Greimas folgend Isotopien, fhren im Falle von Humor zur Inkongruenz als Folge von 'category mistake', wie Gilbert Ryle (1949) diese Kollision genannt hat. Was die Bon-Fide-Kommunikation und deren Gegenteil, die Non-Bona-FideKommunikation betrifft, die bei Raskin als zwei voneinander klar unterschiedliche und begrenzte Kommunikationsrahmen vorkommen, mu man sagen, dass unserer Meinung nach keine transchante Grenze zwischen den beiden ziehen kann. Demzufolge kann man auch nicht sagen, dass bestimmte Mechansimen der Bedeutungs- bzw Kategorienaufbau spezyfisch fr die eine oder die andere sei. Die NBF setzt voraus, dass Sprecher und Hrer sich der Wahrheit nich verpflichteen, d.h. dass sie absichtlich und bewut einen bestimmten Rahmen fr die Kommunikatin auswhlen. Diese Wahl bastimmt laut Raskin auch die Bedingungen, die den Humorsinn ausmachen: people with a sense of humor (i) switch easily and readily from the bona-fide mode of communication to the joke-telling mode; (ii) have more scripts available for appositeness interaction; (iii) have more oppositeness relations between scripts relations (Raskin 1998: 97). Das Problem dieser Theorie ist, dass sie das Verfahren von Humorproduktion und Rezeption vereinfacht. Wenn die Skript-analyse im Sine Raskins Unterkategorien von Humor erklren knnen, scheint es schwieriger im Falle einer konzeptuellen Proijektion zum Beispiel, wie der Metapher, zu sein. Unser konzeptuelles System ist weitaus metaphorisch aufgebaut, wobei Metapher im alltglichen Leben eine zentrale Rolle im Kategorisierungsverfahrens spielen. Black folgend haben Lakoff und Johnsen (Lakoff und Johnsen 2003) eine Metapherntheorie entwickelt, die sich auf dem bisher vorgestellten Kategorisierungsmodell sttzt, wobei Metapher als Interaktion angesehen wird. Ausgangpunkt ist die Festlegung, dass der metaphorische Ausdruck in seinen konkreten textuellen Umraum thematisch nicht recht zu passen scheint. Eine Metapher also, behauptet Black, sei nur dann zu verstehen, wenn die Differenz berwunden und die Bedeutung des metaphorischen Ausdrucks und die des Kontextes mieinander abgeglichen werde. Nehmen wir als Beispiel eine Aussage wie Er ist eine Wolke in Hosen, geuert von einer Frau beim Ansehen eines atraktiven Mannes. Die Aussage, er sei eine Wolke in Hose setzt eine Interaktion zwischen dem Begriff der Wolke und demjenigen des Menschen in Gang. Die Eigenschaften, die normalerweise Wolken zugeschrieben werden 'interagieren' mit den Eigenschaften des Menschen, alle Merkmale der Wolke, die auf Menschen anwendbar sind, werden im metaphorischen Proze auf den Menschen 'projiziert'. Der Mensch wird durch die der

20

Wolke zugeschriebenen Eigenschaften und Merkmale hindurch wahrgenommen. Neben dem Begriff der Interaktion und der Projektion verwendet Black das Bild eines Filters: Das 'Wolke-System' bildet den Filter, durch den bestimmte Eigenschaften des Menschen hervorgehoben, und andere in den Hintergrund gedrngt werden. Man kann also davon ausgehen, dass zu jedem Begriff der Sprache ein System von Stereotypen oder Skripts existiert, das als Wissen im Umfeld des Begriffs, d.h. als Frame vorausgesetzt werden kann, und dass dieses Wissen im Fall seiner metaphorischen Verwendung in andere Kontexte und auf andere Gegenstnde bertragen wird. Man mu also hervorheben, dass sowohl im Begriff des Filters als auch in dem der Interaktion der metaphorische Austausch die jeweiligen Systeme der Stereotypen nicht unberhrt lt. Auf beiden Seiten der metaphorischen Interaktion findet eine Vernderung und eine Erweiterung der Bedeutung statt, die als das Spezifische der Metapher angesehen werden kann und auch als das eigentliche Element, das Humor auslst. Nehmen wir ein anders Beispiel, das von Lakoff (1977) in Bezug auf zusammengesetzte Substantive wie zum Beispiel topless dress, topless judge, topless bar besprochen wurde. Das Verstehen dieser Ausdrcke setzt zuerst unser Wissen voraus, dass Frauen ihre Brste einhllen mssen. Wir wissen auch, dass Frauen, die das nicht machen, in bestimmten Kneipen arbeiten; dass sich diese Kneipen in bestimmten Zonen einer Stadt befinden. Dementsprechend kann man sich ein topless bar als eine Kneipe, wo topless women arbeiten, a topless district als eine Zone, wo topless bars sind, wo topless women arbeiten, vorstellen. Andererseits ist ein Ausdruck wie topless chair virtuel undeutbar. Wie knnte man diesen Ausdruck mit Hilfe Raskins Theorie erklren? Dem Ausdruck topless chair werden die Skripts zugeschrieben, die den stereotypischen Ausdruck topless woman ausmachen. Es geht hier um das Problem von ignorance and error, das mit der Tatsache zu tun hat, dass es mglich ist, ein Konzept zu beistzen, ohne aber seine Attribute zu kennen.

IV. Schlufolgerungen In Wierzbickas Worten (1985) ist es notwendig einen Unterschied zu machen zwischen the knowledge of a concept and knowledhe about a concept. Diese Flexibilitt der Kategorien, neue Mitglieder aufgrund einfacher hnlichkeiten oder proijzierter metaphorischen Skripten zu erlauben, kann zum Humorauslsen beitragen. Da das Entstehen von neuen Begriffen eine Sache der Interpretabilitt und metaphorischer Proijzierung ist, kann man zum Beispiel einen Ausdruck wie topless chair als ein Stuhl, auf dem topless Frauen sitzen deuten. Da Bedeutung Gedankenschnitte reflektiert und sich auf der Basis von Mappings zwischen verschiedenen mentalen Reprsentationen aufbaut, kann man im Licht der angegebenen Beispiele sagen, dass Humor nicht so sehr auf der Wortsemantik fut, die die raskinsche Skript-Oppositionen rechtfertigen, sondern vielmehr auf unerwarteten Kategorisierungen (topless chair) oder Kategorienfehler (das Werbung-Beispiel). Bibliographie
Evans, Vyvyan and Green Melanie (2005). Cognitive Linguistics, Edinburgh University Press Fauconnier, Gilles (1997). Mappings in Thought and Languge, Cambridge Fillmore, Charles (1982). Frame Semantics in Linguistics in the Morning Calm, Seoul, 1982 Jubien, Michael (1994). Ontology, Modality and the Fallacy of Reference, Cambridge University Press Lakoff, George and Johnses, Mark (2003). Metaphors we live by, The University of Chicago Press Langacker, Ronald (1987). Foundations of Cognitive Grmmar, Stanford University Press Putnam, Hilary (1983). Realism and Reason. Philosophical Papers, Cambridge Raskin, Victor (1985). Semantic Mechanismus of Humor, D. Reidel Publishing Company

21

Raskin, Victor (1998). The sense of humor and the truth in The Sense of Humor, Ruch, W. (ed), Mouton de Gruyter, 95-108 Rosch, Eleanor and Caroline Mervis, (1975). Family resemblances: studies in the internal structure of categories, n Cognitive Psychology 7, 573-605 Sweester, Eve (1990). From Etymology to Pragmatics, Cambridge University Press Talmy, Leonard (2000). Toward a Cognitive Semantics, Cambridge Taylor, John R. (1995). Categorization: Prototypes in linguistic theory, Oxford University Press Turner, Mark (1991). Reading Minds, Princeton University Press Wierzbicka, Anna (1985). Lexicography and Conceptual Analysis, Karoma Abstract Categoarization errors or surprising categorizations which seemingly can or cannot logically represent categorization errors underlie the creation of humour. I start with the rendering of the idea of meaning in cognitive semantics, according to which meaning represents models of thinking, at the basis of meaning lying the process of conceptualization and categorization.an example shows the extant to wich cognitivists succeed in applying discoveries in linguistics and the extant to which they can account for humour. The second section of the approach presents the classic model of categorization which ic argued against through Roschs discoveries of the 1970s which radically changed the perspective on the necessary and sufficient conditions imposed upon the memebres of one category, producing an example for the relenance of the new model in an analysis of humour. The last section presents a confrontation with Raskins theory where I try to show through examples the impossibility of explaining all manifestations of humour through recourse to his theory and the need to place the research on a more profound level of analysis involving the appeal the process of conceptualization and categorization. Rsum Les erreurs de catgorisation ou les catgorisations surprenantes qui apparemment ou non se constituent du point de vue logique dans des erreurs de catgorisation, se trouvent la base de la production de lhumour. Nous avons commenc par la description de lide de signification dans la smantique cognitive, selon laquelle, la signification reprsente les modles de raisonnement, base sur le processus de conceptualisation et catgorisation. Par lexemple propos, nous avons dmontr dans quelle mesure les cognitivistes russissent appliquer les dcouvertes du domaine de la psychologie en linguistique et, comment elles peuvent expliquer lhumour. Dans la deuxime section, nous avons prsent le modle classique de la catgorisation que nous avons combattue laide des dcouvertes faites par Rosch, dans les annes 1970, et qui ont totalement chang la vision sur les conditions ncessaires et suffisantes imposes aux membres dune catgorie.Nous avons aussi exemplifi la relevance du nouveau modle dans une analyse de lhumour.Dans la dernire section nous nous sommes confront la thorie propose par Ruskin, de manire dmontrer, par des exemples, quil est impossible dexpliquer toutes les manifestations de lhumour, en appelant uniquement sa thorie et, le besoin de situer la recherche un niveau plus profond danalyse qui implique le recours au processus de conceptualisation et catgorisation. Rezumat Greelile de categorizare sau categorizri surprinztoare care aparent sau nu se pot constitui din punct de vedere logic n greeli de categorizare se afl la baza producerii umorului. Am nceput prin redearea ideii de semnificaie n semantica cognitiv, conform creia semnificaia reprezint modele de gndire, la baza semnificaiei aflndu-se procesul de conceptualizare i categorizare. Printr-un exemplu am artat n ce msur cognitivitii reuesc s aplice descoperirile din psihologie n lingvistic i n ce msur pot ele explica umorul. Am trecut n cea de-a doua seciune la prezentarea modelului clasic al categorizrii pe care l-am combtut cu descoperirile fcute de Rosch n anii 70 i care au schimbat total viziunea aspura "condiiilor necesare i suficiente" impuse membrilor unei categorii, exemplificnd, iar, relevana noului model intr-o analiz a umorului. n ultima seciune m-am confruntat cu teoria propus de Raskin ncercnd s art prin exemple imposibilitatea de a explica toate manifestarile umorului prin recursul la teoria lui i nevoia de a situa cercetarea pe un nivel mai profund de analiz ce implic recursul la procesul de conceptualizare si categorizare.

22

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 23 - 30

Language and Literature

THE EC LANGUAGE POLICY AND CONTENT-BASED LEARNING IN ROMANIA Anca Cehan The Romanian education context is such that there is relatively little foreign language input outside the classroom, and that the classroom input may not be enough. For this reason, foreign language teachers may opt for skill-building over building communicative competence, claiming that there is not enough time for the real thing. Development of recent approaches, new specific materials and textbooks, including content-based learning (also known as CLIL - Content and Language Integrated Learning) seems a possible solution.

1. Students For many of the Romanian students, who are likely to use the English learnt in school throughout their lives, the time spent in foreign language lessons practising grammar, learning words, speaking, reading or writing, is enjoyable, easy and successful. However, many more students leave school being able to use very little of the foreign language which they spent so much time learning. For them, the investment of time and effort in the English classrooms has disappointing outcomes. When they leave school and later in their lives, they find it difficult to use the foreign language they know as this is either not enough or not what would help them in their jobs. The language they learn in school cannot be used as a tool for real-life communication in the everyday situations in which they may have to operate. When it is too late, they may realise that it does not make sense to have spent all this time learning a language which they cannot use in real life situations. For such people, more important in point of effective language learning and communication is not what they know but how they could use it.

2. Schools The learning process organised in schools is very much a situation-specific matter. The kind of schools that students attend provide strong influences on the teaching learning process, and it is counterproductive to ignore them. The implementation of an appropriate methodology depends on the teachers ability to find out in the classroom what is the extent to which the knowledge and skills acquired or learnt in the classroom can be transferred into activities accountable later on. Although it is possible to generalise about some social principles, and to say, for instance, that classroom cultures are influenced by the cultures outside the classroom, or that there is likely to be conflict between teacher and student agendas, it is not possible to generalise about the precise nature of a particular classroom culture, or the other cultures 23

which influence it, or the form which this influence takes. This has to be worked through in the specific situation in which the teaching - learning process takes place. The implications are not simple: the class teacher should be aware of who the students in a particular classroom are, what their needs and interests are, and what they are able to do. The class teacher has the role of seeing what is going on and finding out about the relevant backgrounds of all parties involved. Other parties, such as curriculum developers, materials and textbook writers, school administration, may also be involved in making decisions about the nature of classroom teaching and learning through recommended syllabi, textbooks, methodology, materials, and equipment. To be appropriate, materials and methodology must be sensitive to the prevailing culture surrounding any given classroom. In other words, appropriate materials and methodology must be culture-sensitive and as such they must be based on a process of learning about the classroom. The data produced by this process makes the methodology culture-sensitive and appropriate. Learning about the classroom and the ethos of the entire school is an essential aspect of finding out how to teach. Any class and any foreign language class for that matter, is supposed to cater for the specific needs of each group of learners if not for each individual learner. The process of learning about the classroom needs involves research which can be carried out at an informal level in such a way as to be accessible to all teachers. The notion of teacher as informal researcher is already common in general education (Stenhouse 1985, Ruddock and Hopkins, 1985), and is becoming popular in English language education, too (Nunan 1990, Allwright 1992). Teachers can carry out even less formal classroom research in a way that it is fully integrated with their day-to-day work. For this kind of research Allwright and Bailey (1991) use the notion of exploratory teaching.

3. Foreign language teaching and beyond In Romania, many foreign language teachers work in situations where the established syllabus is not in agreement with their view of how English is learned efficiently, or the needs of their students, as perceived by the teachers. Such teachers have two options: either to simply go along with the syllabus and complain secretly to their peers, or to secretly do what they think is best and be successful, and thus credit the syllabus with undeserved merits. However, the system offers a chance that quite a few teachers understood is worth taking: 'curriculum la decizia colii' ('curriculum based on school decision'), with its three alternatives: the basic core curriculum, the expanded curriculum and the optional syllabi. The optional syllabi may be designed by regular school teachers on different levels: subject level, curricular area level, or cross-curricular area level. The optional syllabus developed for a subject consists in either new learning modules, activities, or projects for a subject in the national syllabus, or in a completely new syllabus for a new subject, complementary to those in the national curriculum. The optional syllabus developed for a curricular area requires the choice of a new topic, which involves at least two subjects of the same curricular area. In designing such an optional syllabus new objectives have to be specified and related to the instructional goals of the two subjects. The third type of optional syllabus implies at least two subjects of different curricular areas. Consequently, the input offered to students is more complex, and thus allows them to acquire high cognitive skills (e.g. generalization, transfer, extrapolation, etc.). In contrast to learning skills in isolation, when students participate in crossdisciplinary experiences, they understand better the value of what they are learning and

24

become more actively engaged. The optional syllabus developed on a cross-curricular area level encourages students to cross boundaries in order to find and work with authentic material on other subjects, such as history, geography or sciences, which will immediately stir their interest. In favour of cross-curricular transfer, is the idea of skills integration; through integration, skills tend to become more stable parts of a persons understanding of the world. A cross-curricular approach in education in general, not only at the level of foreign languages, is a must of our time. It helps students to form an image of reality in its entirety, develop an integrative model of thinking, and adapt transfer methods, values and skills from one area or field to another with minimum effort or risk. Cross-curricular teaching is seen as a way to address some of the recurring problems in our school education, such as fragmentation and isolated skill instruction, and involves a conscious effort to apply knowledge, principles and values to more than one subject simultaneously. The subjects may be related through a central theme, issue, problem, process, topic or experience. This legal provision allows teachers to develop specific syllabi, design materials and even write textbooks which respond directly to the needs of their students. Based on ethnographic study processes, such as classroom observation, insights into the feasibility of innovation for students and classroom conditions, teachers are able to find out what the students needs really are, and starting from there, to design or adapt both syllabi and materials. Their analysis of the environment is accompanied by a tacit understanding of the psycho-cultural and micro political aspects of institutional behaviour. One opportunity offered by this optional syllabus, as identified by foreign language teachers, is to put some time of the school week for learning other subjects, such as geography history or civilisation, or special modules through English. In this way, lessons are taught that offer opportunities to students to use English naturally, forgetting about the language and focusing mainly on the learning topic. The learning of language and the content of another subjects are mixed and each lesson has a twofold aim: one related to the subject, topic or theme, and one linked to the foreign language. Thus these kinds of lessons have a dual focus. This approach, in itself, is not new, nor is it unknown in Romania. Over the years, teachers have tried to teach foreign languages through other subjects and other topics. This is the philosophy behind bilingual schools and classes, where a foreign language is used as a medium of teaching and learning. It has been felt that students benefit from the focus being less on the language in terms of grammar, functions, or lexis, and more on the content or topic. By choosing topics that learners are already somehow familiar with, currently studying or interested in, the hope is that they will learn more and faster. This approach is gaining more ground, not only in bilingual schools, but also in vocational schools.

4. CLIL Content-based learning / Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) can be very successful in enhancing the learning of a foreign language together with another subject, and in developing in the young people a can do attitude towards their own learning. CLIL lessons can offer supplementary opportunities of picking up a foreign language, while studying a content area. Naturalness appears to be one of the major assets of this approach. Dual-focus lessons offer a natural situation for language practice and development which builds on the forms learnt in the language classes. As such they can boost the learners motivation and interest for learning the foreign language, as the language is relevant for their interests and needs. An important difference between a

25

foreign language lesson and a CLIL lesson is that in the latter the language is picked up more naturally. In a typical language class, the learners go through the process of sorting out sounds, patterns, structures, vocabulary, etc. In a CLIL class, it is essential for the students to understand how language works, but there is seldom enough time for learning more than the essentials. A CLIL class in English enables students to acquire subjects through the mediation of English as a foreign language and it is the subject orientation which is given a special focus. It can combine sector-specific target language knowledge with job-specific communication competencies. CLIL promotes several principles: content At the very heart of the process of learning is placed successful content or subject learning, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and understanding characteristic for that subject. The traditional transmission model for content delivery which conceptualises the subject as a body of knowledge to be transferred from teacher to learner is not longer considered appropriate. Rather, a symbiotic relationship is stressed between the foreign language and the subject, which demands a focus on how subjects are taught while working with and through another language rather than in another language. This important shift in focus has determined the redefinition of methodology to take account of language use by both teachers and students, which encourages real engagement and interactivity. It has also brought about teacher reflection on how best to teach. This means consideration of issues fundamental to the education process itself. Consequently, CLIL has implications for teacher education and training. communication The foreign language is seen as a conduit for both communication and learning. It is learned through use in authentic, unrehearsed, yet scaffolded situations. By using English as the medium of instruction and communication, the foreign language teacher becomes more aware of the learners linguistic needs and triggers tunedin strategic language behaviour. The teacher also performs constant comprehension checks, related to content. This may result in high levels of communication between the teacher and the studens and among students themselves. CLIL stretches the learners language and language learning potential through pushing them to produce meaningful and complex language. Thus it fosters implicit and incidental learning by focusing on meaning and communication, and providing great amounts of input. At the same time, the regular foreign language class can keep a complementary focus-on-form approach in the needed language areas. In addition, CLIL fosters fluency, whereas many simple foreign language lessons tend to focus on accuracy. Therefore, CLIL lessons are complementary to the more structured foreign language lessons. CLIL lessons build on the language learned and practised in the language lessons by providing alternative opportunities to develop a wide range of language skills, strategies and competences needed by students to function in everyday situations. The linguistic competence acquired in the language lessons may be transferred to yet another kind of language in the CLIL setting. CLIL serves to reinforce the notion that any language is a tool which, to have meaning and sense, needs to be activated in contexts which are motivating and meaningful for the learners. cognition CLIL challenges the learners cognitively, whatever their ability. It provides a rich setting for developing thinking skills in conjunction with both basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive-academic language proficiency (CALP). Research suggests that these challenges encourage thinking to take place in different languages and at a deeper level of cultural understanding. 26

The potential of CLIL for successful foreign language teaching comes from meaningful input. It strengthens the students ability to process input, which enhances cognitive development and prepares them for higher-level thinking skills. The need for more support for CLIL lessons (visual and other types), makes the teacher aware of the more general need of cognitive and interactional support that foreign language learners, particularly young learners, require. Also, CLIL facilitates the transfer of literacy skills from the mother tongue to the foreign language. pluriculturality Language, thinking and culture are inextricably linked, and CLIL may provide an ideal opportunity for students to operate in alternative cultures through studies in an alternative language. Studying a subject through the language of a different culture paves the way for understanding and tolerating different perspectives. This element is fundamental to fostering European understanding and making European citizenship a reality. These four principles elevate CLIL to the position of a major and significant contributor to the realisation of the European Commissions Language Policy. In addition, CLIL provides a learning environment which makes it possible to realise modern learning theoretical and methodological concepts in an optimal way. CLIL has some clear advantages: authenticity of language and content. CLIL learners deal with authentic content and interact in a foreign language about the real world around them. Authenticity promotes the language learning process more than talking about the pseudo-real and fictitious contents of the traditional language classroom. Authenticity is a fundamental condition that gives good results. learner autonomy. In science, history, geography or other subject lessons, students make use of alternative learning strategies and study skills when they have to deal with bibliographical sources, tables, maps, or diagrams. Such materials not only provide a lot of information but also allow students a certain degree of independence. A CLIL class can be a place in which the different topics are not divided arbitrarily and taught in isolation, but as a complex whole or a place of autonomous learning in which students deal independently with the learning content. conceptualisation. CLIL does not promote only linguistic competence. It offers different thinking horizons as a result of work in another language, and the way in which learners think can be modified. Being able to think about something of real interest, professionally or otherwise, can enrich the learners understanding of concepts, and help to broaden their conceptual mapping resources. This allows better association of different concepts and helps the students towards a more sophisticated level of learning in a certain field. Classes provide situations in which the attention of the students is on some form of learning activity that is not the language itself. Students are provided opportunities to think in the foreign language, not just learn about the language itself as the major learning focus. Students in CLIL classes often lack the cognitive language proficiency needed to process and express content area concepts. The task of the CLIL teacher is to expose learners to appropriate content designed to further their linguistic skills and to render the core concepts of the CLIL lesson accessible through language enrichment activities. This task involves sophisticated adaptation techniques and strategies, and for many teachers, it may entail a rethinking of how to present material to learners. attitude towards the foreign language. As CLIL lessons are not primarily foreign language lessons, students should be encouraged to challenge the idea of waiting to communicate in the foreign until they think they are good enough in the language to use it.

27

The status of the foreign language as a tool for communication and learning should be emphasised. The foreign language teacher can capitalise not only on the positive attitudes the students may have towards the language, but also on their motivation to reach the best possible outcomes in terms of learning the other subject. In addition, the students affective filter may be lower than in other situations, for learning takes place in a relatively anxietyfree environment: a syllabus designed after enquiring about their needs, and students (often) more knowledgeable of the content than the foreign language teacher. Thus, motivation to learn content through the foreign language may foster and sustain motivation towards learning the language itself. social learning. The relevance of study topics motivates the students to understand the importance of forms of collaboration, better than in the traditional classrooms. Thus, CLIL creates a learning environment that corresponds better to modern psychological principles than do traditional learning environments. It also connects different areas of the learning curriculum into a meaningful and economic use of study time. The pedagogical potential of CLIL is enormous and lies not only in the promotion of foreign language learning but in the adaptation of the educational structures to the EU language policy. Within such a learning environment, reaching the goal of trilingualism of all the citizens of the EU, as defined in the 1995 White Paper by the Council of Europe, seems more feasible. CLIL is far better suited than mainstream pedagogical concepts to provide for the learners different aptitudes.

5. EC language policy The principles behind CLIL include global statements such as all teachers are teachers of language (The Bullock Report, A language for Life, 1975) to the advantages of cross-curricular bilingual teaching in statements from the Content and Language Integrated Project (CLIP, hosted by the British National Centre for Languages - CILT). The benefits of CLIL may be seen in terms of cultural awareness, internationalisation, language competence, preparation for both study and working life, and increased motivation. A major outcome of CLIL is to establish not only competence in a foreign language, but also nurture a can do attitude towards language learning in general. The CLIL language can be a platform by which the learners may take an interest in other languages and cultures as well. Learning a language and learning through a language are concurrent processes, but implementing CLIL requires rethinking of the traditional concepts of the language classroom and the language teacher. The immediate obstacle for the implementation of the CLIL approach seems to be the opposition to language teaching by subject teachers, but opposition may also come from the language teachers themselves. The scarcity of CLIL teacher-training programmes suggests that the majority of teachers may be ill-equipped to do the job adequately. However, the characteristics of CLIL activities are not unfamiliar to the teachers from the foreign languages background: integration of language and content integration of receptive and productive skills material directly related to a content-based subject lessons often based on reading (and listening) authentic texts lessons not always graded from a language point of view. Language is functional and dictated by the context of the subject language emphasis placed on lexis rather than on grammar.

28

A CLIL approach is not unlike the humanistic, communicative and lexical approaches, as it aims to guide language processing and supports language production in the same way that a foreign language course would, by teaching techniques for exploiting reading or listening texts and structures for supporting spoken or written language. CLIL can be both challenging and demanding for the teacher and the learners, but it can also be very stimulating and rewarding for both parties. The degree to which the teacher adopts this approach may depend on the willingness of the students, the institution in which they work, and the resources within their environment. It could be something that a school wants to consider introducing across the curriculum or something that they experiment with for a few lessons. If either of these is chosen, the advice for the foreign language teachers is that they should try to involve other subject teachers within the school. This could help both in terms of finding sources of information and in having the support of others in helping to evaluate the work. In such schools or classes, the quality of foreign language teaching will be improved through team-work and/or tandem teaching. While CLIL may be the best-fit methodology for foreign language teaching and learning in a multilingual Europe, there remains a dearth of CLIL-type materials, and a lack of teacher training programmes to prepare both language and subject teachers for CLIL teaching. Until CLIL training for teachers is organised and materials are published, the immediate future remains with parallel rather than integrated content and language learning. However, the need for language teaching reform in the face of Europeanisation may make CLIL a common feature of many European education systems in the future. Several European organisations specialising in CLIL projects have emerged: UNICOM, EuroCLIC and TIE-CLIL. Research on CLIL is mainly based at the University of Nottingham, which also offers teacher training and development courses in CLIL, available though NILE (the Norwich Institute for Language Education). Society is changing, particularly in Europe, with changes brought about by the process of integration. It is this reality, alongside our new understandings of language acquisition and learning which has provoked excitement about CLIL. There are social, economic, cultural and ecological advantages to be gained though promoting plurilingualism through language learning. CLIL offers one additional means by which we can give the young people the opportunities to develop their capacity to use language and to reap the benefits in their present and future lives.

REFERENCES Allwright, R. L. and K. Biley. (1991). Focus on the Language Classroom An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers. CUP, Cambridge Cummins, J. (1981). Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire. Clevdon, Multilingual Matters McDonough, J., and Shaw, C. (1995). Materials and Methods in ELT,: Basil Blackwell, Oxford Centre for Information on Language, Teaching and Research, www.cilt.org.uk CLIL Compendium www.clilcompendium.com Translanguage in Europe Content and Language Integrated Learning, www.tieclil.org Website of University of Jyvskyl, www.jyu.fi Website of the Central European Regional Network for Education Transfer. European Studies material, www.cernet.at Website of Eurydice, www.eurydice.org/resources/eurydice/pdf

29

Abstract This paper is a synthesis of the characteristic features of CLIL (content-and-language integrated learning). This approach can offer interesting solutions for the teaching of foreign languages - at different levels - for the world of work as it promotes intercultural awareness, internationalisation, and it increases student motivation

Rsum Larticle contient une synthse des caractristiques qui font dEMILE (lenseignement dune matire intgr une langue trangre) une solution intressante pour promouvoir lintercomprhension europenne et pour faire de la citoyennet europenne une ralit. Lauteur montre comment EMILE cre une atmosphre dtudes plus efficace que dautres mthodes en usage, et comment ltude des langues trangres peut bnficier dune ducation double objectif.

Rezumat Articolul este o sintez a trsturilor caracteristice abordrii studiului limbilor strine din perspectiva integrrii coninutului i a limbii. Aceast abordare este o soluie interesant pentru promovarea cunoaterii limbilor strine la diferite nivele de performan, necesar pieei muncii, dar i pentru promovarea cunoaterii interculturale i a globalizrii. Aceasta abordare cu dublu obiectiv genereaza o motivaie mai susinut la cursani.

30

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 31 - 35

Language and Literature

PREVIZIBIL VS. IMPREVIZIBIL IN DISCURSUL PUBLICITAR Mihaela Crnu Mai mult dect orice situaie comunicaional, textul publicitar cultiv ludicul, sub diferite aspecte, la diferite niveluri i, ca n orice joc, exist pri previzibile, dar i multe lucruri imprevizibile, care mresc interesul participanilor. Structuri ale repetiiei (de la recurena lexical pn la figurile de stil), dar i elemente ale surprizei (paradoxul, particulariti ale deicticelor) sunt urmrite n articolul de fa, ca elemente pragmatice, surse ale persuasiunii publicitare. Predictibilitatea din text, acele structuri repetabile, ajut la memorarea i identificarea rapid a imaginii create. Cea mai ntlnit schem este structura tripartit a textului: Dac / Cnd [A], folosii [B] i obtinei [C] (Stoichioiu Ichim, 1997, II, p. 45): Cnd te supr durerea de dini Nurofen te poate ajuta. Calmeaz rapid i eficient durerile de dini chiar n locul unde este nevoie. Cu Nurofen, durerile de dini nu mai sunt o problem. Acesta este modelul general, din care uneori, n text, pot fi exprimate doar dou dintre cele trei pri: Dac ii pas ce bei Wembley dry gin. Pentru a fi mai provocatoare, prima parte ia uneori form interogativ: Te ustur ochii? Fii cu ochii pe Visine! Cte o picatur de Visine n fiecare zi i vei vedea rapid efectul. Folosirea frecvent a unor cuvinte (recurena lexical) d impresia c publicitatea i-a nsuit o anumit sfer lexical: nou, avantajos, rentabil, ieftin, ideal, perfect, unic, excepional, eficien, calitate, succes, soluie, siguran, confort, prospeime, valoare. Observm c folosirea repetat a acestora nu este ntmpltoare, ci urmrete sfera lexical preferat de publicitate: avantajele unui pre accesibil, rezultatul benefic al folosirii produsului. Insistnd asupra anumitor particulariti pentru a le imprima ct mai bine n memoria receptorului, textul este construit adesea cu ajutorul figurilor repetiiei. Repetiia fonologic are ca rezultat construciile rimate, receptate uor i cu plcere de public: Eti pe felie cu Adi Ilie (Campofrio); Acioneaz cu putere n orice durere (Panadol Extra). Repetiia lexical are la dispoziie multiple posibiliti de realizare: epifora (N-ai mai vzut aa ceva! N-ai mai simit aa ceva! N-ai mai auzit aa ceva! De Valentines Day ascult Europa FM), anafora (Rezistent la paste. Rezistent la pizza. Rezistent la pasiune. Este mai mult dect un ruj. Este Lipfinity), anadiploza (O marf nu poate alege. Alege s nu fii o marf! campania TVR2 mpotriva traficului de fiine umane), poliptoton (Pr special? ngrijire special! Pantene PRO-V), diafora ( Ace. Ce-i trebuie albului s fie alb). Preluate din alte registre ale limbii, figurile insistenei aduc textului, de cele mai multe ori, o not colocvial, apropiat. Proverbul (Ce-i al tu e pus deoparte Primola) i climaxul (Gut. Besser. Gsser. n care numele berii se afl pe locul superlativului n paradigma gradelor de comparaie a adjectivului bun n limba german) sunt figuri ale refleciei, care atrag atenia receptorului asupra mesajului, dar mai subtil dect figurile repetiiei. Cu o tendin recunoscut spre exagerare, textul publicitar nu putea evita hiperbola, realizat att prin adjective sau substantive cu sens de superlativ (Noul Bona. 31

Albul absolut; Ariel & Whirlpool de 2 ori impecabil), ct i prin superlative retorice (Fairy face minuni; Dream Space de la Whirlpool i ofer mai mult dect ai visat!). Previzibilul (capacitatea textului de a-l lsa pe receptor s ghicesc ce urmeaz), sub orice form de manifestare, d receptorului impresia c i el ar fi putut s spun/fac un astfel de lucru grozav, c este coautor al mesajului publicitar. Totui, exist riscul monotoniei, atunci cnd totul este intuit. Surpriza, noul, neobinuitul sunt elemente care ocheaz i atrag atenia. Ambiguitatea, jocul planurilor implicit explicit solicit interpretarea receptorului, punndu-i n aciune atenia, memoria, perspicacitatea. Pentru a obine un astfel de efect, creatorii textelor publicitare folosesc adesea calamburul (o form de ambiguitate lingvistic), realizat prin exploatarea intenionat a mai multor fenomene lingvistice: La PROTV n fiecare noapte ai filme detepte care te in detept.; Ea aduce clasa. n fiecare joi, de la 20.30 Reuniunea de clas.; Totul se limpezete! Chiar i hinuele bebeluilor Noua main de splat Beko 8014 Electronic. S fie limpede: butonul Baby asigur cltirea perfect a hainelor i hinuelor!; Nu uita s-i ntorci ceasul! (ora G); Cineva te nconjoar cu caldur. Junkers. Cldur pentru o via. (centrale termice Junkers). Omonimia i polisemia produc i ntrein echivocul, ambiguitatea: detept = 1.inteligent, 2. treaz; clas = 1.calitate, valoare, 2. grup de elevi; a limpezi = 1.a clarifica, 2. a clti (rufe); a ntoarce (ceasul) = 1.a nvrti, a rsuci resortul unui mecanism, 2. a schimba poziia unui obiect, aezndu-l invers fa de poziia fireasc; cldur = 1. starea sau gradul de nclzire a unui corp, 2. afeciune, amabilitate . Contextului i revine cea mai important sarcin, aceea de a ndruma receptorul spre unul dintre sensuri sau, dimpotriv, de a permite coexistena celor dou: totul se limpezete s fie limpede. Cele mai multe reclame au marele avantaj al folosirii imginilor, uneori chiar cu rol de context edificator. n reclama pentru emisiunea ora G, alturi de titlul: Nu uita s-i intorci ceasul, se afla imaginea unui ceas ntors cu susul n jos, aluzie la coninutul emisiunii: lucruri trsnite, sucite. Interpretarea rmne la alegerea receptorului. Importana contextului (a imaginii, dac este cazul) devine maxim n cazul paronimiei: Negrul se duce. Negrul seduce (detergentul Bona pentru rufe colorate) este partea lingvistic a mesajului publicitar, la care nu trebuie uitat imaginea, o comparaie ntre rochia neagr, splat cu un detergent obinuit, care se decoloreaz n timp, i rochia neagr, splat cu noul produs Bona, care i pstreaz culoarea n timp. Receptarea corect a mesajului este asigurat de forma scris a textului, n primul rnd, i de imagine. Paradoxul, o alt figur folosit ca surs a ambiguitii, se bazeaz pe contradicie: o idee dintr-un ir logic continu cu o idee care nu are nici o legtura cu prima sau o contrazice pe aceasta. Una dintre reclamele pentru Sprite, un spot, are urmtorul text: Ptrunde acum n lumea minunat brbieritului fericit. Numai Sprite aranjeanz pn i firele la care n-a ajuns nimeni. Noua tehnologie a bulinuelor inteligente. Deci nu folosi Sprite ca loiune de ras pentru c nu conteaz imaginea, dar nici chiar aa. Urmeaz-i setea! Sprite. Aceast reclam face parte dintr-o ntreag serie n care productorul ncepe prin a spune ce nu poate s fac Sprite, terminnd cu ceea ce poate s fac: s potoleasc setea. Este o reacie la curentul general din reclam n care produsul este hiperbolizat i i se atribuie o serie de caliti i efecte pe care nu le are. Cu o not de umor, ironie chiar, reclama prezint un brbat care, dup ce a folosit Sprite ca loiune de ras, se alege cu faa plin de tieturi. Concluzia: Sprite este o butur rcoritoare iar textul reclamei spune acest lucru prin contradicie (exagerare aptitudini reale). Proverbele sau expresiile celebre pot constitui baza unui paradox: A fi sau a nu fi la Euro 2004. Aceasta-i ntrebarea. Rspunsul: totul depinde de noi. Copenhaga jocul cu Danemarca. Fii alturi de

32

Naional! Fii in galben!. Celebra dilem shakespearian devine problema existenial a echipei noastre de fotbal. Ambiguitatea referenial realizeaz o alt sfer a surprizelor. Diverse clase de cuvinte sunt folosite cu valoare deictic. Deixis-ul personal ocup un loc important n strategia de ambiguizare la nivelul textului publicitar. Caracteristica formelor pronominale de persoana I i a II-a de a nu avea referin proprie duce la opacizarea identitii celor doi participani la actul de comunicare: emitorul i receptorul. Foarte multe texte publicitare sunt construite pe aceste dou persoane: Tu i Maggi. Echipa bunului gust.; Hidrateazi pielea i rsfa-te! (Dove); Ploaie de culori sclipitoare pe buzele tale!; Complimente prului tu! (Londacolor). Adresarea direct, aici, apropie receptorul dar nu-l identific. Acest tu poate fi oricine. Putem deduce cteva dintre caracteristicile destinatarului doar dup natura prudusului cruia i se face publicitate. Produsele cosmetice sunt folosite (de obicei) de femei, iar ingredientele Maggi de cei care gtesc. Sunt texte n care formele pronominale de persoana a II-a nu apar, dar deducem acest lucru din forma verbal: Radio contact un radio aa cum vrei; Planeta singuratic. Locul n care nu eti niciodat singur; Fa. Eti gata de aciune?; Speli mai mult cu mai puin (Fairy). Ambiguitatea referenial crete, deoarece informaia referitoare la destinatarul mesajului nu mai este exprimat lexical (prin intermediul unei forme pronominale), ci doar gramatical. Persoana I l aduce n prim plan pe receptorul mesajului, care este fie proprietarul obiectului / serviciului promovat, fie un (eventual) beneficiar: Noi chiar avem ceva de spus (Jurnal); S-mi fac un card VISA numai ca s m simt mai domn cnd pltesc la restaurant?. Identificarea rmne foarte vag, dar are mai multe elemente de personalizare dect textele construite cu persoana a II-a. La Mica Publicitate mai toate anunurile sunt fcute la persoana I (singular sau plural): ofer credite fr dobnzi; caut partener pentru afacere cu cherestea i lemn; acordm mprumuturi; vnd combin muzical; angajm patiser cu experien; ghicesc n Tarot, cafea, fac pentru dragoste i mpcare. Un element specific de individualizare n asemenea anunuri este numrul de telefon i/ sau adresa. tim c n spatele textului nu se ascunde un numr foarte mare de persoane, ci unul singur sau un grup mic, identificabil. Prin natura lor, anunurile matrimoniale dau cteva detalii referitoare la emitorul mesajului: arpe, 26 ani, Bucureti; Inginer, 48/1,84/82. Fiecare apreciaz singur ce anume este de spus despre sine n asemenea mprejurare: vrsta, nlimea, greutatea, ocupaia, zodia, localitatea de reedin. n reclamele care beneficiaz de ajutorul imaginii, persoana I are o situaie aparte. Cinele meu e protejat ntreaga via (Pedigree); Nu vreau s-i fie frig cluului meu (Bramac); S-mi spl zilnic prul? (amponul Schauma cu mueel). Beneficiarul (sau posibilul beneiciar) este prezentat n imagine: medicul veterinar Andrei Timen, un copil, respectiv o tnr. Nu putem conchide ns c doar ei pot beneficia de produsul respectiv, ci ei sunt reprezentanii celorlali, sunt cei care lanseaz o provocare: dac el are grij de animalul su, i receptorul poate face acest lucru, dac tnra i spal prul zilnic fr ca prul s aib de suferit, ci dimpotriv, atunci oricine dorete un pr frumos, ngrijit poate folosi amponul prezentat. Se realizeaz, aadar, o pseudo-individualizare a emitorului. Exist un spot publicitar conceput ca dialog ntre dou tinere. Una dintre ele ( pe care o notm cu T1) se afl n camera prietenei, unde vede fotografia unui brbat. Cealalt (T2) se piaptn n baie, avnd n fa noul ampon Nivea. T1 - Ei, ceva nou n viaa ta? (privete fotografia) T2 Da. Exact ce cutam (ia amponul n mn). Puternic dar delicat. T1 Acesta este? (arat fotografia) T2 Evident! (iese din baie cu amponul n mn).

33

Formele pronominale (ceva, acesta), folosite aici atipic, au ca suport imaginea. Dac la nceput ambiguitatea este sporit de imagine (fiecare participant la dialog are o alt reprezentare a lui ceva), n final tot ea (imaginea) este cea care dezambiguizeaz realitatea referenial (cele doua fete ajung la acelai referent). Deixisul temporal se exprim n cteva forme, mai ales n anunurile de la Mica Publicitate. Pentru a capta atenia i a grbi rspunsul receptorului, multe anunuri ncep cu adverbul acum: Acum angajez vnztoare; Acum particular ofer mprumut avantajos; Acum! Caut spaiu comercial (Romnia liber, 14 ianuarie 2003, p. 19, 21). Dei orice articol dintr-un ziar, indiferent dac este publicitate sau articol informativ, trebuie corelat cu data de apariie a cotidianului, adverbul acum nu se refer neaprat la dat, ci la un moment ct mai apropiat de momentul receptrii mesajului. Destinatarul mesajului este ndemnat s acioneze imediat. Acelai rol l au i adverbele rapid i urgent: Rapid, gratuit oferim personal calificat conform cerinelor firmei dumneavoastr, Urgent, doresc angajare ofer profesionist; Cutm urgent pentru Israel custoreas cu experien (ibidem, p.15). La aceast grab se adaug uneori o not de umor: Repede c se dram! Cas cu teren (Romnia liber, 28 mai, 2000, p.16). Aceeai referin temporal nedeterminat este sugerat i prin folosirea imperativului: contactai-ne!; abordai-ne!. Se obine, de obicei, un rspuns la cteva ore sau cteva zile de la publicarea anunului. Verbul are i la nivel semantic un aport deosebit. A ncepe i a aprea presupun exitena unui anumit moment (pe care l-am putea nota t0) care declaneaz aciunea: A nceput promoia, preuri cu TVA inclus; A aprut absolut avantajos! Achiziionez antichiti; A aprut cumpr Mercedes 124 (Romnia liber, 14 ianuarie, 2003, p. 21). Dac a ncepe face referire la un moment al aciunii promovate, verbul a aprea nu are o legtur direct cu aciunea denumit, ci cu procesul n sine: a aprut ocazia de a. Conjugate la indicativ, perfect compus, aceste verbe denumesc activiti tocmai ncheiate, care ofer receptorului ocazia de a aciona n avantajul su. Adverbul astzi nu este foarte folosit i, de obicei, i se adaug o precizare: Familia Vincreaiu anun dispariia fulgertoare a celui care a fost cel mai iubit so, tat, bunic i profesor Viorel Vincreaiu. nmormntarea va avea loc azi, 14 feb. ora 13. n reclamele din reviste acum are o conotaie puin diferit: Acum exist un deodorant de a crui prospeime te poi bucura n orice moment al zilei, de dimineaa pn seara (deodorant Nivea); Acum poi spla att de mult! Cu att de puin! (Fairy). Acest acum nu mai are legtur cu data de pe coperta revistei, ci reprezint noutatea n domeniu (un nou produs din gama Nivea, respectiv un nou detergent de vase). n ediiile promo sunt frecvente exprimrile de tipul: ast sear numai la PRO TV; filme de aciune toat sptmna; filmele tale, filmele pe care i-ai dorit s le vezi sptmna aceasta la ANTENA 1; toamna aceasta la HBO, vineri, la ora 20.00. Contextul comunicrii are rol dezambiguizator: substantivele sear, sptmn, toamn, vineri denumesc o unitate precis de timp, n raport cu momentul emiterii mesajului. Deixisul spaial are mai puine actualizri n textele publicitare. Anunurile de ziar folosesc adverbul aici pentru a obliga cititorul s se opreasc asupra acelui mic fragment din paginile ntregi de anunuri; nu d indicii asupra produsului prezentat de anun: Aici! Angajm ageni paz; Aici! Vnd avantajos. n reclamele din reviste sau cele TV, imaginea este un plus necesar de informaie: Efectele se simt de aproape (deodorant NIVEA). Aproape poate fi definit cu exactitate doar n funcie de poziia vorbitorului fa de ceva sau cineva. Imaginea explic ce nseamn aproape. Spotul publicitar pentru detergentul BONUX este conceput ca o conversaie ntre dou vecine, ambele deintoare de pensiuni. Una dintre ele, Maria, are foarte muli oaspei, datorit

34

preurilor avantajoase. Cealalt, ngrijorat de inflaia care o oblig s aib preuri ridicate i puini clieni, afl de la Maria secretul succesului: folosirea detergentului BONUX. n finalul spotului, cnd primete alte solicitri, Maria rspunde: - Am casa plin, dar vorbesc cu vecina s v ia la ea. - Dar nu e scump? - Era. Acum e ca la mine. Acest la mine este un deictic spaial care, prin raportare la emitor, poate fi tradus n contextul de mai sus astfel: la pensiunea Maria. n reclama pentru cardurile VISA, obinute prin HVB Romnia, explicitarea este dat chiar n text: De ce tocmai card VISA? Pentru c sunt carduri internaionale acceptate n foarte, foarte multe locuri. Dac mai vrei i alte motive, treci pe la noi. << Noi >>, adic HVB Romnia. Zilnic apar noi producii publicitare. n calea spre succes, fiecare trebuie s gseasc ceva ce n-a avut precedenta, nct publicul s-o remarce, s o identifice, s rein mesajul i s acioneze (n cele mai multe cazuri este vorba despre a cumpra produsul promovat). Jocul ntre previzibil i imprevizibil reprezint o arie foarte larg de posibiliti n atingerea unui asemenea scop.
Not: * Trsturile dominante ale textului publicitar sunt enuniative i descriptive, dar, la acestea, se adaug cele narative i argumenttive (v. P. Charaudeau, 1992). Note bibliografice: Charaudeau, P., Grammaire du sens et de lexpression, Paris, Hachette, 1992; Du Marsais, Despre tropi, Bucureti, Univers, 1981; Lotman, J.M., Structure du texte artistique, Paris, 1973; Stoichioiu-Ichim, A., Strategii persuasive n discursul publicitar, I, II, LL, 1997, vol 2, p.51-56, vol.3-4, p. 45-54; Surse material: Romnia liber, 28 mai, 2000, Romnia liber, 14 ianuarie, 2003. Abstract More than in any other type of communication, the advertising text cultivates the ludic, under its different aspects, at different levels, and, as it is the case with any game, there are predictable sequences but there also are unpredictable situations which enhance the curiosity of the participants. Different forms of repetitions oppose ambiguities, each of them playing a well determined role. Our contribution is an analysis of the means which produce these stylistic figures. Rsum Plus que dans tout autre situation de communication, le texte publicitaire cultive le ludique, sous des aspects diffrents, aux niveaux diffrents et, comme dans tout jeu, il y a des squences prvisibles, mais aussi des situations imprvisibles qui agrandissent lintrt des participants. Les figures de la rptition sopposent lambigut, chacune ayant un rle bien dtermin. Cette tude analyse des moyens de ralisation de ces figures. Rezumat Mai mult dect n orice alt tip de comunicare, textul publicitar cultiv ludicul, sub diversele lui aspecte, i, ca i n cazul oricrui alt joc, exist i aici secvee predictibile i secvene impredictibile care accentueaz interesul participanilor. Figurile discursului repetat se opun ambiguitilor, fiecare avnd un rol bine determinat. Prezentul studiu analizeaz mijloacele prin care se realizeaz aceste figuri.

35

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 36 - 41

Language and Literature

PRESA CA ISTORIE ALTERNATIV N MOROMEII, DE MARIN PREDA Aplicaii pe texte literare Matei Damian Studiul urmtor i propune un scurt excurs literar ca pretext al tratrii unei problematici extrem de interesante la nivelul subiectului de oper epic: presa i rolul acesteia ca motor al conflictului i al evoluiei personajelor. Vom ncepe cu o comparaie ntre romanele Ion, de Liviu Rebreanu, Moromeii, de Marin Preda, respectiv comedia Take, Ianke i Cadr, de Victor Ion Popa, pentru a ne deda apoi cu totul la delectarea cu desenul media moromeian. Astfel, observm diferene de viziune i construcie cu rdcini adnci n creaia primilor doi autori. Spre a atinge problema impactului presei asupra lumii rneti a Moromeilor, ne vor fi de ajutor cteva idei ale lui Mihai Ungheanu, ntru reliefarea distinciei ce trebuie fcut ntre cele dou planete ale ruralului ce graviteaz n opera lui Rebreanu, respectiv a lui Marin Preda:
Marin Preda refuz un erou de felul lui Ion, a crui foame de pmnt este posesiv i dezumanizant. Eroul su, dealtfel, nici nu e srac cu totul, aa cum era fiul Glanetaului. [] Portretul Glanetaului e fcut din punctul de vedere al unei optici pe care Moromete ar fi ironizat-o. [] Celelalte caliti ale lui sunt notate nu cu prea mult consideraie. Marin Preda semnaleaz la ran tocmai calitile pentru care e desconsiderat Glanetaul. [] (Ungheanu, 1973: 234-35) Universul moromeian cunoate o pasiune nou pentru ceva mult mai puin sau aproape deloc concret, pentru ceva abstract, nepipibil, o realitate deprtat. Dar ceea ce este cu adevrat revoluionar pentru mediul i mentalitatea lui Ion este renunarea la pmnt . Niculae refuz o proprietate care i-ar fi putut ulterior manifesta furia ei posesiv i a crei victim este chiar tatl su. El aspir ctre eliberarea de sub tirania pmntului.[] (Ungheanu, 1973: 236) Oamenii constat c loturile sunt extrem de importante pentru ei, dar reuesc un fel de detaare pe care nu trebuie s-o cutm n romanul Ion. Acolo pmntul e atotputernic, devorant. Marin Preda descrie un alt ran, cu alt mentalitate, din alt perspectiv i aceasta e cucerirea cea mai de pre pentru literatura romn. (Ungheanu, 1973: 237)

Tocmai refuzul nvestirii factorului pmnt cu rolul de motor al conflictelor face ca atmosfera romanului Moromeii s piard din acea densitate distructiv proprie i Rscoalei. Dup cum preciza Mihai Ungheanu, Preda deseneaz un nou tip de ran, chiar dac nu vorbim nc despre Ilie Moromete, ceea ce se traduce neaprat n schimbarea de

36

aer; fora deflagrant a Rscoalei se nate att de verde din vectorul pmnt nct, dac respiraia e necesar roie, atunci masele de rani nu pot fi dect negre: pare c nsui pmntul explodeaz, ca rscolit de furie. De altfel, Miron Iuga pare nghiit mai mult de o glie-burete, mbogit cu puin trup de opincile erbilor. Dimpotriv, romanul Moromeii nu mestec pmnt, ci sol. Dup cum recunoate i M. Ungheanu, conflictele nscute funciar sunt rare i fac parte din lumina de scen. Chiar i personajele protagoniste ale unor astfel de episoade sunt vzute ca marginale, interesant fiind i perspectiva n care ogorul este lsat n paragin spre a nu ncurca treburile n economia subiectului operei:
Booghin e un personaj cu totul periferic: se mbolnvete de plmni i merge de mai multe ori la medic [] i totui, cu Booghin se ntmpl ceva. El face un gest tot att de nou i de semnificativ ca al lui Niculae Moromete. Booghin accept s vnd pmntul pentru a se vindeca! Sfatul dat fr speran de medic cade pe un teren rodnic: ranul secular, n stare s moar de oftic, dar s nu se ating de pmnt, este infirmat de iniiativa lui Booghin. Ni-l putem nchipui pe Ion al Glanetaului vnznd pmnt pentru a vindeca de boal pe vreunul din ai si sau pe sine?[] La fel de nejustificat n economia crii pare i cuplul Biric-Polina. Dar n acest caz, mai mult ca n celelalte, aspectul de replic ni se nfieaz convingtor. Biric i Polina fac o cstorie din dragoste.[] Ca i n cazul lui Niculae este refuzat pmntul i totodat ntreinut o aspiraie care depete cadrul material. Marin Preda alege personaje i situaii n care vechea mentalitate rneasc este nvins de oameni care pun mai presus dect pmntul altceva. Booghin pune mai presus dect pmntul propria via, Niculae, coala, Biric i Polina, dragostea lor. Prozatorul Moromeilor se oprete asupra oamenilor eliberai de instincte i de ancestrale tiranii. El descoper n mediul rural apetene noi i neobinuite: puritatea erotic, aspiraia intelectual, pasiunea adevrului. (Ungheanu, 1973: 237-39)

ntr-un astfel de peisaj se coace o gogoa de mtase nou: n furibunda aspiraie intelectual de care vorbete Mihai Ungheanu, descoperim o celul a comentariului literar pe text jurnalistic, un cenaclu i o agenie de pres n acelai timp: faimoasa Poian a finanatorului Iocan. Precum caielele dintre buzele fierarului, se pierd ntr-o copit de cal remarci ca ale nvtorului Teodorescu: Am citit ieri n ziare (dumneavoastr dac nu tii carte, nu citii ziarele) (Preda, 1981: 294) sau furii pestrie ca ale agentului stpnirii care vine s jecmneasc un om de litere: i mai face i politic! [] E abonat la ziar i foncierea nu vrea s-o plteasc. (Preda, 1981: 152) Cum altfel, dac nu ntr-un climat al celor ce nu simt pmnt sau nu iubesc ogor, s-ar fi putut constitui un astfel de spaiu, rupt de timp? Bomba cu hidrogen a Rscoalei nu las loc vreunui reviriment, ns corul de creiere de la Iocan e astfel desenat nct s controleze eficient eventualele accese de piromanie i s detoneze profesionist roadele grenadelor puberului ugurlan. Acesta din urm, precum un copil care se foreaz s-i injecteze maturitate, pare a nu accepta din principiu joaca celorlali: Pi asta e politic ce facei voi?! , Nu e nimic de capul vostru! (Preda, 1981: 132-33) Echipa de descarcerare trece la treab extrem de prompt, prin nii protagonitii si: Cocoil se rezum la a-i relata rebelului un knock-out cazon mpotriva unuia de dou ori mai mare ca Dumitru lui Nae, fr ns s se ating de ugurlan, n timp ce Moromete, fair-play, concluzioneaz c trei chestiuni rezult din cele spuse de ugurlan (Preda, 1981: 134) n spe, sunt importante remarcile lui Mihai Ungheanu, pe care-l citm din nou:

37

El aruncase vorbe grele, jignise pe toi cei prezeni, inclusiv pe Moromete, dar prima reacie a acestuia este s disting n mnioasele fraze ale lui ugurlan o ordine, un sens. Poate c nici o alt mprejurare nu definete mai bine spiritul lui Ilie Moromete, rasa spiritual a omului, dect ciocnirea de la fierria lui Iocan. El are capacitatea de a depi evenimentul strict, de a se detaa de ntmplri i de a apela la o operaie de disociere care caut s menin adunarea n planul ei de gndire iniial. (Ungheanu, 1973: 139)

n aceeai ordine de idei, vom mai insista doar asupra definiiilor pe care le d critica adunrii din Poian. Iat, pentru nceput, opinia Andreei Vldescu:
Poiana este [] adevrata scen , spaiul confruntrilor n spirit, al multiplicitii sensurilor posibile, cadrul privilegiat al deplinei liberti interioare, n care eroul joac rolul actorului oficiant. (Vldescu, 1993: 208)

i din nou Mihai Ungheanu: Poiana fierriei lui Iocan este un forum. Aici oamenii se strng pentru a se informa, a schimba preri i a tri cel puin cteva ore pe zi ntr-un plan sufletesc epurat de mizeria vieii zilnice. (Ungheanu, 1973: 139) Aadar, cum ar trebui s privim presa ntr-un astfel de spaiu? La prima vedere, doar ca un pretext pentru fiinarea adunrilor din Poian, fiindc un crainic cum e Moromete nu mparte informaii, ci desparte tirea de context grefndu-i sensuri proprii. i dm cuvntul Andreei Vldescu:
n scena lecturii, Moromete face din comedia cuvntului un spectacol total, marcndu-l prin micare i intonaie. La el, cuvntul nu este spus, ci interpretat. [] Moromete scoate cuvntul din context i i confer un alt sens, proiectndu-l din realitatea sa specific n lumea satului (Vldescu, 1993: 209), pentru c ameninarea istoriei este pus ntre paranteze [i] devine o comedie, dup cum nici personajele care intervin n repetate rnduri [] nu impun realitatea n jocul din poian, dei i contureaz ameninrile. Pentru lumea interioar, nu exist acum un alt univers dect cel al scenei pe care se desfoar jocul spiritului: realitatea agasant pentru eu aparine unui alt spaiu, situat dincolo de acest cadru. (Vldescu, 1993: 210)

Deci ziarul este pn la urm un instrument al ieirii din istorie; informaia timpului imediat care apare n pres este concentrat pe un spaiu mult mai mic, cel al satului, ns este adus spre un cnd fabulos, aproape atemporal. Prin urmare, dac la nivelul masei din Rscoala presa este inexistent, fiind tradus n mutani de felul unor vestitori serafici, n cazul grupului de la fierrie impactul ziarului rmne subdezvoltat n esen, nedepind stadiul de machet, de capodoper a pretextelor. Se iesc sporadice abonamente la ziar (Moromete, Iocan, Cocoil), ns e clar c schisma juvenil dintre opinii nu-i are obria defel n faptul c cei trei abonai primesc ziare diferite. Astfel de divergene media nu funcioneaz dect ca pecei ale indignrii celor din afara grupului sau ca mrci ale incertului domino de culoare politic pe care-l joac protagonitii. Mai trebuie menionate dou aspecte interesante, care mping Moromeii spre statutul de zon de tranziie rural-urban; fiindc avem n vedere tipul micului burghez/funcionar/negustor, vom evidenia cele de mai sus tot printr-o trimitere la Mihai Ungheanu, care detecteaz o arie de apropiere ntre cei doi poli:
Cu excepia lui ugurlan, Cocoil i, desigur, Iocan, eroii lui [Marin Preda] sunt n materie de politic nite puri. Cazul cel mai ilustrativ este Ilie Moromete. n felul lui de a gndi politica sunt trsturi care l pun alturi de eroii lui M. Sebastian sau Camil Petrescu. Apropierea pare exagerat, cu att mai mult cu ct acetia sunt eroi de marc intelectual i citadin ai unor scriitori de pronunat accent intelectual i, mai

38

ales, de program literar antirural. Tri de curentul absorbant al micrii politice, i unii, i alii, ns, indiferent de extracia social (s.n.), nu-i pierd trsturile sufleteti i, subliniez, cele intelectuale. Ei sfresc dezarmai, nvini, dar consecveni. Nu alta este soarta lui Ilie Moromete. [] Nu dezvluie aceeai incompatibilitate cu politica, aceeai for de a rmne integri, eroii prozelor lui Camil Petrescu? Diferenele sunt cu mult mai mici dect s-ar crede. (Ungheanu, 1973: 141-42)

n acelai ton, Ungheanu continu:

Urbanizarea literaturii se cldea teoretic pe discreditul de principiu pe care-l primea orice creaie ce ncerca s foloseasc materia lumii rurale. Manifestele citadinismului literar sunt cunoscute. Unul din cei mai febrili i consecveni combatani, dac nu cel mai proeminent, a fost Camil Petrescu. Surpriza este de a gsi coordonate comune ntre proza lui i aceea a lui Marin Preda, ntre tipologia personajelor lui i cele ale lui Marin Preda. Colocviile de la fierria lui Iocan sunt testul decisiv al acestei apropieri. (Ungheanu, 1973: 143)

Aadar, iat prima dimensiune a liniei evolutive Rscoala - Moromeii: de la ruralul pur la cel intelectualizat, de la PMNT la pmnt, de la vestitorul oral la comentariul activ al faptului de pres scris. n aceeai ordine de idei pete n lumin i a doua dimensiune, rezumat de aceast dat de ctre Andreea Vldescu; este disecat aici nu vectorul colocviilor din Poian, ci nsi viziunea moromeian asupra politicului, sub aspect discursiv. Sursa e identificat pe coordonatele trasate anterior de M. Ungheanu: Atitudinea lui Moromete i modalitatea sa de a descifra sensul ascuns sunt raportabile la memorabila scen a lecturii gazetei din O noapte furtunoas. Ca i Ipingescu, eroul acord cuvntului abstract un sens concret, prin stabilirea la nivelul formei a unei false analogii. (Vldescu, 1993: 209) Glism astfel dinspre uli spre mahala. n tratarea impactului presei, trebuie relevat mai nti extrema importan a factorului tabiet n citirea, zilnic sau nu, a gazetei. Vom merge pe mna ctorva exemple, fr s neglijm totodat fotografierea paletei de variante ale factorului n discuie. Prima dintre acestea se constituie n formarea jurnalului ca spaiu securizant, n care protagonistul evadeaz nu de puine ori. Presa ca pretext apare i aici, ns nivelul actului, ca i obiectul, sunt diferite; pretextualul nu se precipit de ast dat n umor, spre evadare, fiindc discuiile de la Iocan raportau prezentul la un alt prezent, un spaiu la altul. Vorbeam n acel caz de evadarea din realul imediat nspre unul fabricat, avnd ziarul ca intermediar. Aici, n schimb, realitatea e nsui ziarul (ca nud suport scris); acesta e folosit crunt, avnd o utilitate aproape organic, de vreme ce coninutul trece constant n plan secundar. Asistm n acest prim act urban la naterea unei linii involutive: presa scris trece de la nivelul de subiect (ridiculizat sau nu) la sub-nivelul de obiect. Vom vedea cum. Una dintre verigile cosmopolitului trio de protagoniti ai comediei Take, Ianke i Cadr, de V. I. Popa, este Ianke, tatl Anei. Cum joaca btrneasc a evreului cu Take explodeaz neverosimil ntr-un conflict (e drept, cu rdcini de scurt-circuit religios), ncercrile de evadare, formale sau nu, devin din ce n ce mai dese, indiferent de mijloace. n a patra scen a actului II citim: IANKE (enervat, desface jurnalul): Ai vzut? Iar s-au omort opt astzi! [](Ianke, furios, vr nasul n jurnal). (Popa, 1969: 246-47) Nu ne vom mira deci dac ziarul va mai rmne un moment n prim-plan i la nceputul scenei urmtoare: TAKE (intr posomort): Poft mare, jidane. (Ianke citete ziarul.) Ei, n-auzi m frate? Poft mare! (Popa, 1969: 247) Vom construi deci facil tandemul ziar (pretext)

39

stare sufleteasc (context). Citind ziarul, Ianke este mai nti enervat, apoi de-a dreptul furios; doar posomort, Take intr n scen drept n faa unui Ianke fr cap: ntre ei se interpune gazeta, contaminat (sau contaminant?!) de dispoziia toxic a celui ce o citete. Totui, i acest ultim verb poate fi decapitat extrem de uor: citete ntr-adevr Ianke jurnalul? n acest video al scenei a patra, paginile hrtiei de pres fonesc brusc, evaziv, ntr-o mitraliere de stri sufleteti. E greu de crezut, deci, c evreul citete; mult mai plauzibil pare lecturarea la repezeal a unui titlu care i sare n ochi, i acesta (cum altfel?) lipit de propriile gnduri i stri de moment. n acelai context e imperios necesar cldirea unei alturri cu romanul Moromeii, luat mai devreme n discuie. ntru justificarea acelorai coordonate ale involuiei, aparinnd acum doar crii lui Preda, l vom cita din nou pe Mihai Ungheanu: Dar fisura s-a produs. Poiana lui Iocan va mai gzdui ntruniri, dar ele i vor pierde vechea aur, deoarece furia devastatoare a obscurelor fore care au dus la cderea lui Ilie Moromete au devastat i forum-ul local. ntlnirile ce se in aici nu mai sunt dect un simulacru al fostelor ntlniri. (Ungheanu, 1973: 192) Celebra decdere a efului Moromeilor poate fi tradus nu numai tradiional (mult loptata tiere a salcmului, scena n care fiul cel mare se aaz pe locul care i aparinuse doar tatlui etc.), ci i n termenii prezentei discuii. Trecnd prin disecarea aproape gastronomic a ziarului, n fierria lui Iocan, vom avea sub ochi, spre finalul primului volum, scena urmtoare:
- Ilie! opti mama nspimntat. Ce-i facem?! Era la prnz, se aflau toi n tind i ateptau masa. Hrtia o adusese pota, odat cu ziarul. Moromete nici mcar n-o citise, i aruncase doar ochii pe plic, vzuse titulatura bncii i-l lsase pe Niculae s-l deschid. El rsfoia ziarul i cnd mama puse ntrebarea ei nspimntat, se supr i se rsti la ea (Preda, 1981: 428)

Fragmentm deliberat pasajul pentru cteva momente spre a reliefa situaia: protagonistul nu poate accepta stadiul actual n care a ajuns familia, cel al obinuitei bunstri acum ameninate. El caut s pstreze prin atitudine cadena evoluiei familiei n vechiul ritm; adiional, citirea ziarului trebuie s se desfoare pe aceleai coordonate, mpreun cu refuzul fi al celulozei de alt sorginte. Dup vechiul tipar al ridiculizrii superioare a percitorului, plicul cu titulatura bncii este scuipat spre Niculae. Tatl i arunc doar ochii pe plic, prefernd s citeasc ziarul, ns reversul e necrutor: foarte curnd, Moromete va fi constrns s-i sporeasc atenia vizavi de plicuri i tampile, astfel c ziarul cade inevitabil spre nivelul Ianke, cel de masc lipsit de raiunea literei. De altfel, pe parcursul aceluiai pasaj, Moromete a renunat deja la citirea ziarului. Analogiile de atmosfer cu piesa lui V. I. Popa sunt uimitoare:
- Ce e, fa, ce vreai tu? Nu tiai? Sau credeai c ia au uitat? Se supr i mai ru (s.n.) i continu: Credeai c au pus lact la banc i s-au dus la secere ca tine?! Se posomor, i vr fruntea n ziar (s.n.) i ncheie: Uite colo caii n grajd i oile Ne ducem la obor, vindem i gata socoteala! [] O s curg trenele de pe noi i-o s ajungem ca ofranul. Moromete se posomor, i vr fruntea n ziar i nu mai zise nimic.(s.n.) (Preda, 1981: 428-29), pe cnd Ianke, furios, i vr nasul n jurnal. Aceeai reacie defensiv n faa realitii necrutoare, avnd ca paravan ziarul, unete ranul i negustorul de trguor provincial.

Fr pretenia de a friza completul, acest material s-a vrut a fi ceva mai mult dect un inventar: anume o trecere n revist a dimensiunii media ca o component a genezei i evoluiei subiectului literar.

40

REFERINE: Popa, V. I. (1969). Take, Ianke i Cadr, Bucureti: Editura de Stat pentru Literatur i Art Ungheanu, M. (1973). Marin Preda: vocaie i aspiraie, Bucureti: Editura Eminescu Preda, M. (1981). Moromeii, vol. I, Bucureti: Editura Cartea Romneasc Vldescu, A. (1993). Marin Preda sau triumful contiinei, Bucureti: Editura Cartea Romneasc

Abstract The present study casts a few beams on the fact of press in the novel Moromeii, by Marin Preda. We shall not limit ourselves to just narrating the commentaries on the newspaper information form Poiana lui Iocan (Iocans clearing) but we intend to highlight the double role of the written press in the evolution of the main character: the history reduced to the dimensions of the rural, on the one hand and the newspaper as a pretext for claustration, for an acute state of denial, on the other hand. We shall see that the both instances belong to history: the former, no matter how goodwilling is built artificially, so it will not stand the seige of the latter which is cruel and irrevocable. Rsum La prsente tude propose quelques rayons jets sur le fait de presse dans le roman Moromeii de Marin Preda. Nous nallons pas nous limiter une description des commentaires sur linformation journalistique de Poiana lui Iocan (le bois de Iocan), mais nous voulons mettre en vidence le double rle de la presse crite dans lvolution du personnage principal : lhistoire rduite au niveau rural, dun cot et, de lautre cot, le journal en tant que prtexte de la claustration, de ltat du refus absolu. Nous verrons que les deux hypostases appartiennent lhistoire : la premire, quelque bienveillante quelle soit, est construite dune manire artificielle, de sorte quelle ne rsiste pas lassaut de la deuxime, cruelle et irrvocable. Rezumat Prezentul studiu propune cteva raze aruncate asupra faptului de pres n romanul Moromeii, de Marin Preda. Nu ne limitm la a relata comentariile pe marginea informaiei de ziar din Poiana lui Iocan, ci dorim a evidenia dublul rol al presei scrise n evoluia personajului principal: istoria redus la rural, pe de o parte, i ziarul ca pretext al claustrrii, al strii acute de refuz, pe de alt parte. Vom vedea c ambele ipostaze aparin istoriei: prima, orict de binevoitoare, este construit artificial, astfel c nu va rezista la asediul celei de-a doua, crud i irevocabil.

41

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 42 - 45

Language and Literature

ISAAC ASIMOV VS. THE FRANKENSTEIN COMPLEX Petru Iamandi To Isaac Asimov, who calls the fear of mechanical intelligence the Frankenstein complex (Warrick, 2002:170), machines just take over dehumanizing activities and thus allow humans to become more human. The [] computer, he states, is far superior at those mental tasks that are dull, repetitive, stultifying and degrading, leaving to human beings themselves the far greater work of creative thought in every field from art and literature to science and ethics. (Warrick, 2002:170) Literarily, Asimov upholds his statement by the three laws of robotics that he himself devised, analogous to the Ten Commandments in the Old Testament (Moore, 1976:101):
1. A robot may not injure a human being nor, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. 2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. 3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law. (Asimov, 1983:269-270).

These laws, which are obviously designed to protect humans from any harm resulting directly or indirectly from the action of a robot, are written into the robots positronic brain. More than that, in Asimovs stories at least, only robots with this powerful safeguard are produced and they are manufactured by the same company - United States Robots and Mechanical Men, Inc. Asimovs laws, however, are more like moral rules that can be easily broken, many of their features resembling those of traditional ethical norms, as Susan Calvin, on of the characters in Evidence (1946), says:
[] if you stop to think of it, the three Rules of Robotics are the essential guiding principles of a good many of the worlds ethical systems. Of course, every human being is supposed to have the instinct of self-preservation. Thats Rule Three to a robot. Also every good human being, with a social conscience and a sense of responsibility, is supposed to defer authority [] even when they interfere with his comfort or his safety. Thats Rule Two to a robot. Also, every good human being is supposed to love others as himself, protect his fellow man, risk his life to save another. Thats Rule One to a robot. (Asimov, 1983:530)

The main difference is that, while robots invariably submit to these rules, humans tend to break them all the time. Maybe that is the reason why the same Susan Calvin adds, I like robots. I like them considerably better than I do human beings. (Asimov, 1983:544) Although the robots behaviour seems irrational sometimes, scientific investigation proves 42

not only the opposite but also that their rationality, of a strictly mechanical nature, is the answer to social and moral problems. (Wolfe, 1979:158).

Asimovs themes Many of Asimovs robot stories explore the way in which the three laws influence the manmachine relationship, the author rarely using dramatic conflict to develop his plot. It is a puzzle or problem that he more often than not brings to the foreground and the suspense thus created moves the plot forward. The action is more cerebral than physical and follows the scientific method pattern: defining the puzzle/problem; collecting and evaluating the data; forming the hypothesis and the possible solution; testing the solution and, if this is not correct, re-examining the process until discovering the difficulty. Identity confusion. Although Asimov strongly insists that, My robots were machines designed by engineers, not pseudo-men created by blasphemers (Frude, 1984:89), he deliberately creates confusion between robots and people. Some of his characters appear as robots firs, to be revealed as people later, while in other stories the process is reversed or ambiguity is preserved until the end, leaving the reader in a state of uncertainty. In Evidence, for instance, Susan Calvin is called in to help decide whether a prominent politician is a human or a robot. Resorting to the three laws, she uses the following line of reasoning: if the politician obeys the laws, he could be either a human or a robot; if he does not obey the laws, he cannot be a robot, therefore he is a man. The minute the politician punches an opponent the problem seems to be solved, but Calvin explains that a robot might appear to break the first law only when the person harmed is not a human but a robot. Humanization. Even when their identity is not in doubt, Asimovs robots get features which humanize them. The author carefully provides not only their specific physical details but also their personality characteristics, creating essentially human personalities which push the basic function of the machines into the background. Such engaging robots often stimulate emotional attachments in the humans around them, as in Asimovs first robot story, Robbie (1940), in which the machine listens in rapt attention while Gloria, an eight-year-old girl, reads him his favourite fairy tale. Since Robbie enjoys all Glorias games, the girls mother gets worried, in spite of her husband reassuring her that, Robbie was constructed for only one purpose really to be the companion of a little child. His entire mentality has been created for the purpose. He just cant help being faithful and loving and kind. Hes a machine made so. (Asimov, 1983:171) Robbies impact on Gloria is extreme, the girl preferring to spend all her time with him and, when her mother replaces him with a dog, she screams, He was not no machine. [] He was a person just like you and me and he was my friend. I want him back. (Asimov, 1983:175) The relationship between robots and the humans they interact with can also be maternal or romantic. Susan Calvin, a psychologist specialized in robot psychology, tends to treat robots as colleagues and in Lennie (1958) she teaches a retarded robot to speak, his first words being, Mommie, I want you. I want you, Mommie (Asimov, 1983:384). And the psychologist hurries longingly toward the only kind of baby she could ever have or love (Asimov, 1983:384). Most of Asimovs robots are male and this limits the possibility for human-machine romantic relationships. There is no femme fatale robot in his stories, the explanation being indirectly offered by one of the characters in Feminine Intuition (1969): No woman wants to feel replaceable by something with none of her faults (Asimov, 1983:582)

43

In Satisfaction Guaranteed (1951), however, Asimov does not reject the possibility that a woman might fall in love with one of his robots. Claire Belamont is irresistibly attracted toward Tony, a sophisticated robot, extremely handsome and well-mannered. Soon Claire will share all his emotional problems and be impressed by the robots understanding attitude: Why did she keep forgetting that he was a machine. [] Was she so starved for sympathy that she would accept a robot as an equal - because he sympathized? (Asimov, 1983:357) But while Tony behaves according to the three laws of robotics, Clair gives vent to her passion to later discover that machines cant fall in love, but even when its hopeless and horrifying women can! (Asimov, 1983:367) The robots rights and evolution is the theme of Asimovs masterpiece, a novella called The Bicentennial Man (1976). Told in twenty-three episodes, it covers two hundred years in the life of the robot Andrew Martin. Inverting the classical approach man examining artificial intelligence Asimov has Andrew explore the nature and implications of human intelligence. At first, Andrew is a household robot that serves the Martin family, much the role of Robbie. But Andrew produces exquisite wood carvings, an unusual talent which, as a robopsychologist suggests, must be the result of a mutation of the robots positronic brain. Andrews owner realizes there might be a market for the robots works of art and opens a bank account in the robots name. Andrew uses the money to pay for his own repairs and, when he has grown rich enough, he declares he wants to buy his freedom. Since this is a legal matter, the Martin family takes the case to court. After a long struggle, the court declares Andrew free stating that, There is no right to deny freedom to any object with a mind advanced enough to grasp the concept and desire the state. (Asimov, 1983:646) Andrew has a house built near his former owners, begins to wear clothes, which make him feel human, and decides to go to the public library in order to increase his understanding of human affairs. On his way to the library two young men accost him, ask him to take off his clothes, and want to dismantle him. Saved in the nick of time, Andrew hires a lawyer and starts to fight for robot rights. In his plea, the lawyer says that, a robot is not insensible; it is not an animal. It can think well enough to enable it to talk to us, reason with us, joke with us. Can we treat them as friends, can we work together with them, and not give them some of the fruit of that friendship, some of the benefit of co-working? [] With great power goes great responsibility, and if the robots have Three Laws to protect men, is it too much to ask that men have a law or two to protect robots? (Asimov, 1983:656-657) Finally the principle of robot rights is established. Andrew writes a history of robots and intends to use the royalties to replace his mechanical body by an organic android structure. After a long series of operations his metal shell is replaced with the type of body he has longed for. Nevertheless, Andrew is far from being happy. By now generations of Martins have passed and the robot realizes that mortality is a necessary condition of humanness. And he makes the ultimate sacrifice he gives up his deathless inorganic brain to fulfil his greatest dream: to be as nearly human as possible. Asimovs novella, as Patricia Warrick points out, follows both the movement of mechanical intelligence toward human intelligence and death, and mans development of technology and movement toward artificial intelligence and immortality (Warrick, 2002:177) Knowledge eventually dies in the organic brain, but it can survive in a mechanical one. Thus the inorganic form may well be the only form for the survival of intelligence in the universe. A second implication of the novella is that the line between the organic and the inorganic seems to be extremely blurred. If the essential elements of the universe are matter, energy, and intelligence, then man is not unique, on the contrary he exists on a continuum with all intelligence, and ethical behaviour extends to all systems

44

because any organizational pattern human or nonhuman, organic or inorganic represents intelligence a sacred view of the universe, the result not of religious mysticism but of pure logic (Warrick, 2002:177).
REFERENCES Asimov, Isaac. (1983). The Complete Robot, London: Grafton Books. Frude, Neil. (1984). The Robot Heritage, London: Guild Publishing. Moore, Maxine. (1976). Asimov, Calvin, and Moses in T. D. Clareson (ed.), Voices forthe Future: Essays on Major Science Fiction Writers, vol. 1, Bowling Green: The Bowling Green University Popular Press. Warrick, Patricia S. (2002) Asimov and the Morality of Artificial Intelligence in Jesse G. Cunningham (ed.), Science Fiction, San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc. Wolfe, Gary K. (1979). The Known and the Unknown, Kent: The Kent State UP.

Abstract In his stories, Isaac Asimov rejects the fear of artificial intelligence, which he calls the Frankenstein Complex, claiming that machines, no matter how advanced they are, cannot but ease mans life by taking over the most dehumanizing activities. The author upholds this idea by putting forward the so-called laws of robotics which, being inserted in the robots minds, prevents them from affecting mans integrity. Asimovs stories, whose favourite themes are confusing identity, humanization, robots rights and evolution, ingeniously show that, no matter how hard they try, robots are not able to betray the human beings; on the contrary, their irresistable temptation is to be taken for them.

Rsum Dans ses contes, Isaac Asimov rejette la crainte de lintelligence artificielle quil nomme le complexe Frankenstein , soutenant lide que les machines, quelques volues quelles soient, ne font quallger la vie de lhomme, en prenant la charge de ses plus deshumanisantes activits. Lauteur traduit son ide par llaboration des soi-disant lois de la robotique qui, par linsertion dans le cerveau des robots, empchent ces derniers de porter atteinte lintgrit de lhomme. Ces contes o les thmes de prdilection sont la mle des identits, lhumanisation, les droits et lvolution des robots, dmontrent avec ingniosit que les robots, quoi quils fassent, ne peuvent trahir les gens mais, bien au contraire, prouvent lirrsistible tentation de se confondre avec eux.

Rezumat In povestirile lui, Isaac Asimov respinge teama de inteligena artificial, pe care o numete Complexul Frankenstein, susinnd c mainile, indiferent ct de evoluate ar fi, nu fac dect s uureze viaa omului prin preluarea celor mai dezumanizante activiti. Autorul i susine ideea prin elaborarea aa-numitelor legi ale roboticii care, prin inseria n creierul roboilor, i mpiedic pe acetia s atenteze ntr-un fel sau altul la integritatea omului. Povestirile lui, n care temele predilecte sunt confundarea identitii, umanizarea, drepturile i evoluia roboilor, demonstreaz cu ingeniozitate c, orict de mult ar ncerca, roboii nu-i pot trda pe oameni ci, dimpotriv, tentaia lor irezistibil este de a se confunda cu ei.

45

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 46 - 52

Language and Literature

OMOTETII FRACTALE N MEMENTO MORI DE M.EMINESCU Nicoleta Ifrim Exacerbnd algebricul i analiticul n defavoarea imaginii, gndirea tiinific modern se deprteaz progresiv de dinamica plural a formelor, prefernd unilateralul obiect fizic, fapt comentat de B.Mandelbrot n eseul Zbor deasupra limbajelor fractale, n Obiectele fractale, ediia a treia din 1989. Teoreticianul fractalilor aduce n discuie problematica crizei tiinifice actuale, n condiiile n care individul devine martorul genezei unei noi tiine care postuleaz primatul imaginii i care nu mai ader la absolutul nonfiguralului abstract. Gndirea prin intermediul imaginilor devine astfel o modalitate de apropriere a lumii, dar i a universului poetic; cci, dac aa cum crede Mandelbrot, geometria fractal reprezint o reacie a imaginii mpotriva ascezei iconoclaste a gndirii algebrice, atunci sperana ntr-o nou tiin revine n fond la nostalgia privind reintegrarea vechiului tip de imaginar, pe suprimarea cruia, tocmai, tiina modern se edificase [...] Poate c ceea ce este implicat n aceast nou disput a imaginilor este de fapt reintegrarea unui subiect cunosctor reconciliat cu propria sa istorie, adic, n fond, cu ntregul cuprins al ontologiei sale. Regsim astfel, la omul european, faptul c imaginalul reapare latent atunci cnd revendicarea nevoii de imaginar este mai nestvilit. (Patapievici, 2005:292) La rndul su, creatorul se afl sub incidena unor astfel de fore fenomenologicformatoare care dirijeaz tacit raportul cu transcendena, cutat mai ales n decodificarea figural a strilor interioare, poetic marcate de trirea / devenirea temporal. Intrnd n jocul cu timpul, eul nu se afl subjugat acestuia, ci i imagineaz metamorfozele, cci
virtualizndu-se, subiectul scap cte puin devenirii; el nu mai face propriuzis parte din ea, ci devine capabil dimpotriv de a o domina i integra n larg msur. Din aceeai cauz el se temporalizeaz. n loc de a fi purtat de ea, subiectul o nelege, graie virtualitilor care se constituie n mod uman. Deoarece se potenializeaz, omul devine prin intermediul gndirii survolare a timpului i capacitate de a rosti lumea. (Jacob apud Chioaru 2000: 13)

Nu altceva spune eminescianul vers din Epigonii, care sugereaz o construcie virtual, temporal marcat, a lumii drept coeren a imaginii: Ochiul vostru vedea-n lumea de icoane un palat. Pornind de la aceste premise, de la nevoia acut de potenare a setei de imagine, poemul Memento mori se decripteaz prin mecanismul fractal al complexitii figurale inculcate de starea interior-poetic a eului eminescian, care urmeaz traseul punerii n form pe direcia matrice realizat. Poemul adopt o structur conceptual fractalic ce acioneaz asupra gndirii creatoare eminesciene drept configuraie euristic (H.R.Patapievici), care modeleaz intrinsec forma intern a reprezentrilor poetice. Plonjarea

46

n istoricitate se transform n paradigm creatoare ce implic un mecanism mandelbrotian de actualizare n universul poetic, cel al generrii de forme prin reiterare fractal. Procedeul cere n subsidiar o necesar schimbare de focalizare critic, de la unitatea textual individual la observarea simetriilor recursive ntre nivelele textualpoetice. Convertind strile interioare n analogii figurale, discursul poetic din Memento mori construiete vizionar un parcurs al trecerii contemplative prin forme de civilizaie, pe baza unui generator de tip mandelbrotian, reproducerea n abis, prin diferene, a autosimilarelor sau creterea prin amplificare / difereniere i genernd, fr a-i pierde identitatea, forme i coninuturi non-identice. (Patapievici: 288) Coexistena formelor istoricizate n acelai univers al poemului, determinate de principiul mandelbrotian al expansiunii, legitimeaz subtextual figura geometric a fractalului, promovnd drept fir director al gndirii eminesciene regula identicilor diferii despre care vorbete Patapievici, n contextul mai larg al filosofiei religiilor:
Oricare secven a reproducerii similare este autosimilar n oricare din prile ei, astfel c va exista mereu o dimensiune care s pun n eviden diferitul i o alta care s evidenieze identicul. Aceast serie infinit, generat prin angrenarea de identic i diferit dup o regul a autosimilaritii, poart n matematic numele de fractal. Figura geometric a cretinismului pare a fi, astfel, fractalul. (Firete, eu nu operez aici cu identificri ontologice, de tipul cretinismul este un fractal: susin mai degrab ideea c noiunea de fractal este consecina unei anumite traduceri, n limbaj natural, a unei realiti teologice cretine, bazat i ea pe autosimilariti i solidariti de tip form / coninut, rezultate din modul n care limbajul a putut primi revelaia cretin). (Patapievici:277)

n acest sens, am putea afirma c, n Memento mori, figura geometric a imaginarului eminescian, cea care i poate surprinde complexitile dinamice dar i autosimilaritile interioare, este fractalul, ceea ce reconfigureaz morfo-genezic dominantele romantice ale onirismului de tip thanatic. Sau, viziunea fractalic devine un adevrat model cosmologic, aa cum este definit acesta de Ioana Em.Petrescu: Considerm c modelul cosmologic constituie o realitate de profunzime a viziunii, depind n adncime nivelul contiinei teoretice (tiinifice), dar i nivelul materialului mitic din care se constituie viziunile cosmogonice explicite din operele literare, pentru c modelul cosmologic este expresia sentimentului existenei n lume, a raporturilor originare pe care fiina le stabilete cu universul. (Ioana Em.Petrescu, 2005:21) Orientat spre surprinderea devenirii continue a universului, care crete imploziv prin repetitivitatea difereniat a propriilor autosimilariti, modelul cosmologic fractalic din Memento mori i revel propria esen principial n potenarea poetic a consubstanialitii fiin univers, o reintegrare a statutului ontologic n diversitatea morfogenezic a lumii la care are acces prin contemplare oniric i desctuare thanatic. Vorbim, n acest context, despre spaiul onirico-thanatic ca fundal pentru proiectarea mecanismului fractal al autosimilaritii, care permite creterea interioar a complexitii viziunilor poematice prin asumarea raportului infinit (ieire din form i plonjare n multiplicitatea istorizat) finit (actualizare i punere n form conotat temporal). Aceast relaie dinamic bi-univoc pstreaz ceva din amprenta paradigmei romantice, care opereaz cu transgresiuni vizionare ale spaio-temporalitii spre a surprinde mecanismul universal al rotirii civilizaiilor, cci
eul liric din Memento mori, pscndu-i <turma visurilor>, pune stpnire pe roata istoriei, renate din haos lumile cuprinse de moarte i devine spectatorul triumfului viitor al nefiinei. ndeosebi prin intermediul somnului i visului sunt puse n

47

valoare virtualitile ilimitrii. Graie acestora, eul capt demiurgie, forele gndului se desctueaz, se ascult i se nfptuiesc, iar poetul i subordoneaz haosul ptrunzndu-l de propria-i coeren. Trecerea din planul vigil n cel oniric este echivalent, mai totdeauna, cu ieirea din claustrare n fr margini: <Cnd omul risipitu-i, un lut fr suflare, / Sufletul n afar rmne surd i orb: / Un cntec fr arp, o raz fr soare, / Un murmur fr ape, e suflet fr corp, / Dar nuntru-i este o lume-ntins mare, / Aievea-i pentru dnsul. Cum picturi ce sorb / Toate razele lumii ntr-un grunte-uimit, / n el s toate, dnsul e-n toate ce-a gndit.> (Melian, 1987:11)

De de alt parte, coexistena avataric a lumilor circumscrise istoric din Memento mori confer esen unui Weltanschauung eminescian, din care nu poate lipsi
ideea de moarte privit ca un corolar al ideii de via. Ea nu numai c a fost una din cele patru mari teme romantice pe lng natur, iubire, i divinitate, ci chiar un sentiment, din ale crei triri s-au chinteseniat idei generale, unele care in de domeniul religiei ca ideea de rencarnare progresiv i regresiv (palingeneza i metempsihoza), ca i ideea de reminiscen (anamnesis), adesea prezent n intuiia omului de geniu. Domeniul psihologic a fost mbogit cu noiunea de archaeus, n neles monadic sau de arhetip platonic. Vieile n succesiunea lor fiind experiene n care arhetipul s-a transpus. Totalitatea acestor viei ar fi <eternitatea relativ> sau <eternitatea cu granii>, pe cnd eternitatea din arheu e <absolut> sau <nonexistent> [...]. La Eminescu, moartea nu-i definitiv pentru c geniul ei nu-i dect al unei eterniti cu granii [...]. Problema morii se poate ns ntregi n Weltanschauung-ul eminescian alturi de categorii ca devenire, unitate, infinit, timp i spaiu chemate s explice prezena unui Univers deschis. La Eminescu, sugestiile pe care le ofer poezia i preocuprile sale fragmentare de filosofie, atrag atenia asupra unor atribute fundamentale ale cosmosului, cum ar fi eternitatea i schimbarea continu pe care poetul le-a numit <Ahasverul formelor lumii>. [...] Ideea de univers nchis nu mai putea fi acceptat, i apercepia romantic l ducea fr echivoc la starea de pluralitate a lumilor, proliferant pentru fantezia romantic. Corespondenele vizibile ntre om i cosmos pe care geniile le-au intuit prin gndirea lor mitic, puteau fi sugestia unui cosmos a crui existen e numai circular, cum ntlnim n Cu mne zilele-i adaugi, Gloss, Scrisoarea I. Pe tot attea argumente pledeaz pentru un univers ce se dezvolt n spiral, idee mai aproape de evoluionismul i proteismul romantic. (Aurel Petrescu, 1985: 65-66)

Actualiznd o adevrat vocaie a visului(Ioana Em.Petrescu), Memento mori devine astfel un proiect programatico-poematic al timpului cascad n care poezia i visul se exerseaz n a ntoarce napoi <roata vremii>, trecnd prin <punctele de solstiiu> ale fiecrei civilizaii, spre timpul ei echinoxial, n care i-a gndit zeii i i-a construit miturile. (Ioana Em.Petrescu, 2005:113) Acelai mecanism al structurrii n cascad este asumat i de Mandelbrot n explicarea funcionalitii creterii fractale a formei, care i recupereaz identitatea totalizatoare prin coexistena regresiv a autosimilarelor sau, altfel spus, prin punere imploziv n form a omotetiilor interne. Tot n acelai fel este construit i viziunea oniric din Memento mori asupra temporalitii istoricizate, cele dou categorii temporale prevalente, timpul echinoxial i timpul solstiial fiind corelativele dominantelor spaiale, infinit i finit, sau, n sens fractalic, ale celor doi topoi ieirea din form i punerea n form. Apropriindu-i visul i moartea ca posibiti generice de transgresare spaial din form n form, repetnd astfel identicul, dar evideniind diferitul, discursul poetic construiete viziunea declinului ciclic al civilizaiilor ca morfo-genez temporal pe cele dou coordonate:

48

Timpul i el rotitor se rentoarce ritmic spre momentele sale aurorale, revitalizndu-se ntr-o perpetu tineree. Aici, la izvoare, <timpi rcori i clar rsar> venic, strini istoriei (adic eroziunii), ritmnd o coregrafie astral etern identic siei. Este un timp pe care l-am putea numi, metaforic, echinoxial, al cumpenei n etern echilibru, un timp care nu cunoate dramele ruperii, opririi, declinului, un timp sferic, pe care imaginaia l aseamn calotei sferice a universului platonician, ale crei puncte sunt, toate, echidistante fa de propriu-i centru. Timpul echinoxial este timp cosmic, cel n care grecii vedeau imaginea mobil a eternitii, cel pe care Eminescu l vede msurat, n adncul codrilor venici, de cntul monoton al greierilor, orologii cosmice (<Pe cnd greieri, ca orlogii, rguit n iarb sun...> Memento mori). i, tot metaforic vorbind, dar utiliznd de ast dat o metafor esenial a universului poetic eminescian, timpul i pierde caracterul cosmic de imagine mobil a eternitii i primete un caracter istoric (comportnd adic eroziunea, ruperea, stagnarea, degradarea) atunci cnd iese de sub semnul echinoxului i intr sub semnul solstiiului. Marile crize istorice ale umanitii (vzute ca tot attea amurguri ale zeilor) sunt nscrise de Eminescu n Memento mori, sub semnul <punctului de solstiiu> neles ca ruptur tragic n raport cu continuitatea perpetu a timpului echinoxial: <i-astzi punctul de solstiiu a sosit n omenire. / Din mrire la cdere, din cdere la mrire / Astfel vezi roata istoriei ntorcnd schiele ei; / n zadar palizi, sinitri, o privesc cugettorii / i vor cursul s-l abat. Combinaii iluzorii - / E apus de zeitate, -asfinire de idei.> (Ioana Em.Petrescu, 2005: 61)

Cele dou categorii temporale, n schimb, se desprind de tentaia antinomiei romantice realitate idealitate, nu mai apelez la o viziune compensatorie, de transformare utopic a unei lumi reale efemere i lipsite de autenticitate, ci se nscriu dialectic ntr-o poetic fractal a coexistenei n durat, pentru care somnia thanatic devine o soluie asumat de autentificare a complexitii n micare, n care eul i resimte integrat condiia ontologic. n acest fel, Memento mori, marele poem al naterii i morii civilizaiilor, recitit prin grila hermenuticii fractale, devine o panoramare mandelbrotian a formelor mririi i cderii vzute n succesiunea temporalitii lor, pentru care lumea cea aievea (i corolarul su timpul solstiial) i lumea-nchipuirii (cu corespondentul temporal al echinoxiului) sunt etapele omotetice ale construciei fractale i nu mai angajeaz o dichotomie structural care ar fraciona antitetic discursul. Modelul fractal al coexistenei identicilor diferii estompeaz radicala opoziie structural de sorginte romantic, n virtutea existenei unui eu care contempl lumea n diversitatea formelor ei i le urmrete geneza interioar perpetu conform desideratului mandelbrotian al surprinderii diferitului n identic: Una-i lumea-nchipuirii cu-a ei visuri fericite, / Alta-i lumea cea aievea, unde cu sudori muncite / Te ncerci a stoarce lapte din a stncei coaste seci; / Una-i lumea-nchipuirii cu-a ei mndre flori de aur, / Alta unde cerci viaa s-ontocmeti precum un faur / Cearc-a da fierului aspru forma cugetrii reci. Din alt punct de vedere, reconstruind poetic lumea sau, mai bine spus, regsind sensul istoric al formelor mundane prin permisiva dimensiune oniric-contemplativ, eul liric din Memento mori transcende individualul pentru a recupera pluralul, fiind o contiin care descifreaz limbajul formelor lumii n succesiunea lor imploziv. n acest fel, incipitul poemului traseaz cadrele estetice programatice ntre care va avea loc morfogeneza fractal a lumilor, oniricul i thanaticul constituind cele dou nivele fundamentale n reiterarea omotetiilor interne ale viziunii poetice, de altfel nelese, n sens mandelbrotian, ca baz a mecanismului creterii fractale datorit celor dou caracteristici implicite, contemplarea i eludarea limitelor individualului:
Turma visurilor mele eu le pasc ca oi de aur, / Cnd a nopii ntunerec nstelatul rege maur / Las norii lui molateci nfoiai n pat ceresc, / Iar luna

49

argintie, ca un palid dulce soare, / Vrji aduce peste lume printr-a stelelor ninsoare, / Cnd n straturi luminoase basmele copile cresc. / Mergi, tu, luntre-a vieii mele, pe-a visrii lucii valuri / Pn unde-n ape sfinte se ridic mndre maluri, / Cu dumbrvi de laur verde i cu lunci de chiparos, / Unde-n ramurile negre o cntare-n veci suspin, / Unde sfinii se prembl n lungi haine de lumin, / Unde-i moartea cu - aripi negre i cu chipul ei frumos.

Acestora li se asociaz, inedit, formula unui patriotism selenar cu funcie de transfigurare a realului istoric n mitologie personal (Mihilescu, 1982:225), punnd n relaie lumina esenializatoare a lunii i cea fenomenalizant a soarelui (Mihilescu, 1982:227), aa cum o dovedesc variantele versului Iar luna argintie, ca un palid dulce soare: Pe cnd luna de argint alearg palidul al morii soare, luna de argint a vieii somnoroase palid soare. Cunoaterea solar, pe de alt parte, marcheaz o gnoseologie a afirmrii formelor, a surprinderii lor ntr-o identitate prezentificat, recognoscibil, este o modalitate de cunoatere a punerii n form, perceptibil categorial, pe cnd cunoaterea selenar indic, dimpotriv, negarea, cutarea apofatic a formei care-i eludeaz propriile limite individuale pentru a se reflecta infinit n diversitatea lumii. Investirea lunii cu atributul solar [...] indic voina poetului de a rsturna o lume de valori i a o repune sub lumina rece a cunoaterii, n numele unei cutri neobosite, dup primordialitate i esenial, convertindu-se n sistemul imaginativ eminescian energia care msoar, supravegheaz i n-semneaz devenirea. (Mihilescu, 1982: 229) Astfel, Memento mori devine un poem fractalogonic, n care contemplarea diferitelor etape din istoria umanitii traduce un etern pelerinaj n cutarea formelor de civilizaie i gndire, ciclic-fragmentare i autosimilare. Motivul asumat romantic al lui vanitas vanitatum, cuprins n ncrctura semantic a celor dou titluri ale versiunilor poematice, Panorama deertciunilor i Memeto mori, sau n cele ale subtitlurilor gndite de Eminescu (Tempora mutantur, Vanitas vanitatum vanitas, Skepsis i Cugetri) sugereaz pentru hermeneutica fractal tocmai nostalgia mandelbrotian a surprinderii diversitii n complexitatea dinamic a formrii / de-formrii ei. Istoria ca realitate primar, ca punct de iniiere a cutrii, i formele sale fragmentare, actualizate temporal, i dezvolt un parcurs circumscris programatic ntre a istoriei hotar i uriaa roat-a vremei:
Cnd posomortul basmu vechia secolilor straj / mi deschide cu chei de-aur i cu-a vorbelor lui vraj / Poarta nalt de la templul unde secolii se torc / Eu sub arcurile negre, cu stlpi nali suii n stele, / Ascultnd cu adncime glasul gndurilor mele, / Uriaa roat-a vremei nnapoi eu o ntorc / i privesc... Codrii de secoli, oceane de popoare / Se ntorc cu repejune ca gndirile ce sboar / i icoanele-s n lupt eu privesc i tot privesc / La v-o piatr ce nsamn a istoriei hotar, / Unde lumea n ci nou, dup nou cntar msoar / Acolo mi place roata cte-o clip, s-o opresc!

Acest mecanism fractal al devenirii presupune i ocurena anumitor nuclee repetitive, semantic-autosimilare, regsibile n fiecare fragment al panoramrii civilizaiilor, observate i de ctre exegeza eminescian, dar puse sub incidena tematic a paradigmei romantice:
ns, mai mult dect o imagine a morii succesivelor civilizaii, Memento mori e o imagine a naterii i a morii miturilor, a credinelor, adic e o meditaie asupra ncorporrilor (urmate, fiecare, de o inevitabil nstrinare) a spiritului n istorie. Naterea i amurgul zeilor, ntruparea i apusul Ideii, timpul echinoxial (timp istoric auroral, n care natura i ideea fuzioneaz n beatitudinea mitului) i punctele de

50

solstiiu ale istoriei acestea sunt momentele care structureaz imaginea fiecrei civilizaii panoramate n Memento mori [...] Cu excepia Daciei mitice [...], toate celelalte civilizaii panoramate de Eminescu n Memento mori se desfoar conform evoluiei identice a raportului ntre dou elemente constitutive (Natur-Spirit), evoluie ce cunoate trei momente: aspiraie reciproc fuziune n mit ruptur, care duce la moartea civilizaiei respective. Fiecare civilizaie pare a se nate dintr-un element primordial (apa n Grecia i Egipt, pmntul n Babilon i Egipt, focul n Roma etc.), un element care i viseaz forma i i-o primete prin efortul modelator al gndirii; fiecare civilizaie conine un simbol central al gnditorului (rege sau mag); epuizat prin nstrinarea gndirii, fiecare civilizaie se rentoarce n cele din urm n elementul din care s-a nscut. (Ioana Em.Petrescu, 2005:179)

Intervine aici, pe lng aceste elemente reiterate care consolideaz construcia fragmentar-plural a viziunii eminesciene, i un alt factor de coeren, spectralitatea, ca surs a iconicitii lumilor, cci oglinzile eminesciene par menite nu att s restituie imaginea lumii fenomenale, ct s capteze imaginea lumii n Idee (Ioana Em.Petrescu, 2005:198), nct imaginarul poematic surprinde formarea unui obiect ideal mandelbrotian, o reflectare fractalic a mecanismului de intrare n fiin a lumilor contemplate. Ilustrativ este imaginea magului egiptean a crui oglind de aur dezvluie principiul cosmic de ordonare autosimilar: n zidirea cea antic sus n frunte-i turnul maur. / Magul privea pe gnduri n oglinda lui de aur, / Unde-a cerului mii stele ca-ntr-un centru se adun. / El n mic privete - acolo cile lor tinuite / i c-un ac el zugrvete crruile gsite / A aflat smburul lumii, tot ce-i drept, frumos i bun. Prin medierea oglinzii de aur, magul identific smburul lumii, un nucleu fractalic al reiterrii omotetice a formelor, metafor-analogon al smburelui de ghind, cele dou imagini sugernd un nucleu de imense virtualiti, rupt din cea mai intim zon a individualitii poetice creatoare, care s-a dezvoltat arborescent, s-a ramificat la nesfrit n variate forme. (Zamfir, 1971:227) n aceast ordine de idei, toposul oglinzii de aur poate fi redefinit, n contextul unei organizri fractale a discursului, drept metafor central revelatorie, cu extensiuni de semnificaie n tot imaginarul poematic, sugernd un locus al contemplrii vizionarfractale, manipulat de contiina spaio-temporal subiectiv eminescian. Este o reflectare, la nivelul discursului, a unei fore integratoare, capabil s unifice dimensiunile spaial i temporal ntr-o experien de ntreptrundere omogen a duratei, a continuitii i a spaialitii [...]. n momente privilegiate, contiina subiectiv poate stopa curgerea timpului, oferind experiena eternitii temporale, n care viaa este perceput n totalitatea ei [...]. i, n cadrul unor experiene cu adevrat vizionare, mintea poate chiar percepe eternitatea per se. (Ghi, 2005: 111) Privit n dimensiunea sa de cronotop central, oglinda de aur, pe lng funcia de concentrare a spaialitii ntr-un adevrat Aleph borgesian, implic i mecanismul fractal al coexistenei spaiale, al creterii n i prin spaii, cci un anumit punct n spaiu este relaionat mental cu totalitatea spaial care, n mod similar, integreaz pluralitatea de spaii ntr-un singur ntreg atotcuprinztor. n momentele vizionare, infinitul multidimensional poate substitui finitul tridimensional. (Ghi, 2005: 104) Privirea n i prin oglinda de aur d astfel un sens formator construciei vizionare eminesciene i mai ales procedeului contemplativ fractal al descoperirii pivotalrelaionare a spaiilor civilizaiilor coexistente n aceeai totalitate integratoare. I se asociaz toate figurile spectrale ale imaginarului poematic, ele nsele oglinzi reflectoare ale textului, de la oglinda acvatic sau cosmic la privire, avnd valoarea de oglinzi magice n care este revelat nu aparena, ci natura ultim, esena ncifrat n formele accesibile privirii. (Ioana Em.Petrescu, 2005:198) Avem n vedere funcia eminescian a simulrii spectrale care complic, diversific identitatea repetitiv, transformnd-o ntr-o mandelbrotian iluzie veridic.

51

Oglindirea fractal a auto-similarelor devine, n aceste condiii, nu simpl reprezentare mimetic, ci act de generare simulat a complexitilor Istoriei, acel comportament repetitiv al crui produs (fie el un obiect, fie un eveniment sau un ir de evenimente) se raporteaz la o existen prim, proclamat drept model, n asemenea manier nct, din structura sa complex, care conine att elemente de identitate, ct i elemente de diferen, un <spectator> s valorizeze cea dinti categorie, deci similitudinea. (Gorcea, 2001:278)
REFERINE Chioaru, D. (2000), Poetica temporalitii. Eseu asupra poeziei romneti, Cluj-Napoca: Ed.Dacia, Ghi, C., (2005), Lumile lui Argus, Piteti: Ed.Paralela 45 Gorcea, P. M., (2001), Eminescu, vol.I, Piteti: Ed.Paralela 45 Melian, A., (1987), Eminescu univers deschis, Bucureti: Ed.Minerva Mihilescu, D. C., (1982), Perspective eminesciene, Bucureti: Ed.Cartea Romneasc Patapievici, H.-R., (2005), Cerul vzut prin lentil, Iai: Ed.Polirom Petrescu, A., (1985), Eminescu. Metamorfozele creaiei, Bucureti: Ed.Albatros Petrescu, I. Em. (2005), Eminescu. Modele cosmologice i viziune poetic, Piteti: Ed.Paralela 45 Zamfir, M., (1971), Proz poetic romneasc n sec. XIX, Bucureti: Ed. Minerva Abstract: The fractal model identified by Mandelbrots branching process becomes relevant for Eminescus Memento mori by means of which the poetic form gains inner dynamism. Its final artistic effect lies in defining poetry as an infinitely mobile summum of formal windows which renders the same meaning reflected indefinetly within the poetic structure. Therefore, the global poetic meaning is inserted at different textual levels through a fractal development technique.

Rsum Le modle fractal, identifi par le processus de ramification propos par Mandelbrot, devient relevant pour le pome Memento mori dEminescu, o la forme potique tale un certain dynamisme intrieur. Son effet artistique final demeure dans la dfinition de la posie, celle dun summum mobile indfini douvertures formelles, reproduisant le mme sens reflt dans la structure potique. Par consquent, le sens potique global sinsre de diffrents niveaux textuels par lintermdiaire de la technique de dveloppement fractal.

Rezumat Modelul fractal identificat de procesul de ramificare propus de Mandelbrot devine relevant pentru poemul Memento mori al lui Eminescu, unde forma poetic expune un anume dinamism interior. Efectul su artistic final rezid n definirea poeziei drept un summum mobil nedefinit de deschideri formale rednd acelai sens reflectat n structura poetic. Aadar, sensul poetic global este inserat la diferite niveluri textuale prin intermdeiul tehnicii de dezvoltare fractal.

52

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 53 - 65

Language and Literature

METAPHORICAL READINGS IN THE MULTAL PARTITIVE PARADIGM Silvia Manoliu To express non-numerical imprecision, speakers of English can rely on a diverse set of vaguely quantifying items and phrases [1]. With a distribution similar to numbers, some of them are closed-class items that fit in the vague quantifier + (non)countable noun pattern and fill in the determiner slot in a noun phrase structure, eg: little / much money, many / several reasons, umpteen jobs, etc. Others, known as quantifying nouns (Biber et al, 1999: 252), partitive nouns or partitives (Quirk et al, 1985: 249; Channell, 1994: 99; Collins Cobuild, 1996: 110-113), are open-class quantifiers that enter partitive constructions / structures (Quirk et al, 1985: 249; Channell, 1994: 99; Collins Cobuild, 1996: 110). They are used to refer to a limited or to a large indefinite quantity of both masses and entities, which are specified in a following of-phrase by uncountable mass nouns and plural countables (Biber et al, 1999: 252) that refer to a single item, part of a whole, a collection of items or a group/groups of people. The division of quantifiers into non-phrasal and phrasal partitives is not so strict inasmuch as, except umpteen, all the members in the former set, can, for emphatic reasons, be optionally postmodified by a prepositional ofphrase in their pronominal function, eg: many (of the) [books], much (of the) [time], etc. Conceptually, partition can be expressed both in respect of quality (eg: a kind of [artist/weapon]; a sort of [animal/chocolate/crime/iron]) and in respect of quantity (eg: a bit of [fun] > lot of [fun]). (Quirk et al, 1985: 249) In English, the expression of quantity and of countability, implicitly, is achieved by means of general partitive nouns, eg: piece, bit, item, which are used with a large number of concrete and abstract noncount nouns, of typical or specific partitives, which are more restricted and descriptive and collocate with specific concrete noncount nouns (idem: 250), eg: a grain of [corn/logic/rice/sand/ salt/truth]; a speck of [dirt/dust/information/truth]), and of measure partitive nouns (idem: 251)/standardized measure terms (Biber et al, 1999: 253), which denote exact measurement, eg: inch, gram(me), hundred, metre, mile, million, ounce, score, yard, pound, etc.[2] Since some of them refer to a (very) small amount or number of, some to a (very) large amount or number of, and others are neutral with respect to quantity, non-numerical quantifiers have broadly been categorized as meaning: (a) (b) (c) + for quantity, meaning much or many, which are used in the plural partitive pattern plural quantifier + of + (non)count noun, eg: bags of, loads of, lots of, masses of, oodles of; a great/good/vast deal of; umpteen; - for quantity, meaning few or little, which fit in the singular partitive pattern a + singular quantifier (+ of + noncount noun), eg: a bit of, a scrap of; a touch of; neutral for quantity, eg: some, several. (Cf Channell, 1994: 96)

56

In Biber et al (1999: 248-252), partitives are subclassified into quantifying collectives/quantifying collective nouns and unit nouns, which provide alternative ways of viewing and referring with respect to countables and uncountables, respectively, tending to have marked collocational patterns. (idem: 250) Angela Downing and Philip Locke (1992: 443) distinguish between expressions of measurement (eg: four metres of cloth), certain singular and plural collective nouns (meaning many), eg: a pack of [lies], a gang of [thieves], a swarm of [photographers], herds of [tourists], loads of [ideas], and small quantities of mass entities (meaning a little), eg: a bit of [cheese/luck], an item of [news], a grain/kernel of [truth], etc.[3] Drawing on Quirk et als classification of quantifiers in terms of antonymy relations[4] and on Biber et als framework, phrasal partitives are here approached in terms of two notional paradigms: the multal partitive paradigm, which is made up of quantifying collectives/quantifying collective nouns that refer to groups of single entities, expressing a (very) large amount or large amounts of something in both their singular and plural forms, eg: heap(s) of [books/money/snow], flock(s) of [birds/sheep/ tourists], load(s) of, lot(s) of, masse(s) of, oodles (of), etc;[5] and the paucal partitive paradigm, which includes quantifying units [6]/quantifying unit nouns, that is, count nouns denoting a (very) small quantity/amount or (very) small quantities/amounts of something (eg: bit(s) of, scrap(s) of, etc). The members of the multal paradigm provide collective, neutral reference for separate entities, collocating with nouns that refer to a particular type of entity: people (e.g. crowd and gang), animals (e.g. flock, herd, shoal and swarm), plants (e.g. bouquet and clump), or inanimate objects or entities (e.g. batch and set). (idem: 249) Some of them are often used disphorically, eg: bunch, gang and pack. Among the most productive and flexible with respect to the type of entity they refer to are bunch, group and set, each of them combining with over 100 different collocates. (idem: 248). Characteristically general in meaning, and collocating with nouns that specify a type of matter or phenomenon, the paucal partitives make it possible to split up an undifferentiated mass and refer to separate instances of a phenomenon. (idem: 250) Traditionally, the semantics of most of these nominals have been handled in terms of the standard approach to non-numerical quantifiers, which shows that numerical and non-numerical quantifiers alike enter into scalar relationships and create scalar implicatures, the choice of any of them implicating meanings relevant to the others. (Channell 1994: 96-7) There is in this respect a striking similarity in behaviour between these sets and the adjective, the adverb, the verb and the noun, eg: <few, some, many, most, all> ... <a mouthful of, a cupful of, a barrelful of> ... <cold, cool, lukewarm, warm, hot> ... <never, seldom, occasionally, sometimes, often, always>... <idiot, simpleton, dunce, dullard, fool, ignoramus> (Cf idem: 97, 116) [7] The scalar semantic relations that hold between non-numerical quantifying words and phrases account for the status of degree words, which makes it possible to place them on a scale in relation to each other. Channell holds that, with the exception of oodles (eg: oodles (and oodles) of [butter / cream / presents]), plural non-numerical vague quantifiers and their iterative patterns, eg: flocks and flocks of sheep, masses and masses (of) data, pints and pints of milk, etc, fall neatly into an analysis as metaphorical extensions from original literal meanings of each word. While the literal use is a true measure or partitive, as in a load of [hay], a bag of [sand], a lot of [goods], the extended, metaphorical uses maintain the sense of quantifying, but lose the specific physical characteristics no actual loads or bags are involved in the vague uses. (idem: 104) According to Patrick Hanks, the metaphorical uses of partitives are among the prototypical syntagmatic patterns that each word is associated with in our mind. What contributes to the meaningfulness of an actual utterance in a given context is the

57

association of each pattern with a meaning potential of a word or a phrase. The corpus-based(http://www.dcs.shef.ac.uk/research/ilash/Seminars/Hanks.doc.:1) analysis of the idiomatic and metaphorical uses of the noun storm [8] has identified the set of criteria that distinguish the syntagmatic contexts which normally indicate that storm has a metaphorical meaning. Mainly drawing on Pustejovskys Generative Lexicon theory, which holds that [F]or a word to be used metaphorically, at least one of its semantic values is set aside, while some other semantic feature is emphasized, Hanks concludes that the qualia structure of the most literal sense of storm and that of the metaphorical expression a political storm, made up of a classifying adjective + storm, differ in that the latter emphasizes the telic and overrides the semantic values of the other qualia (idem: 7), as shown in the adapted qualia structure below: [9] LITERAL storm METAPHORICAL storm

CONSTITUTIVE=high winds, precipitation, thunder,etc. political interaction FORMAL=atmospheric phenomenon, violent quarrelling TELIC=disturbing effect >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> AGENTIVE=atmospheric conditions disagreement Hanks has identified the following other storm patterns which are often given metaphorical readings: causative verb (eg: arise, cause, create, provoke, raise, spark, unleash; stir up, whip up) + storm, noun modifier + storm (eg: a royal storm) and the partitive phrase a storm of something / storm + partitive of (eg: a storm of protest), which almost always involves a metaphorical violent disturbance in the social sense. The findings show that the noun protest is a statistically significant collocate ... in a standard syntactic relation with the target word, storm, usually (but not always) occurring in the phrase storm of protest. Hanks corpus illustrates four prototypical classes of storm as a partitive noun, i.e. storms of negative reactions, such as a storm of anger / controversy / criticism / discontent / objections / protest / strikes / unrest, etc, which outnumber storms of positive reactions, such as a storm of applause / cheers addressed to a successful performance, storms of emotion, as expressed by someones bursting into a storm of weeping or a storm of tears, etc, [10] and storms of other things, ... of a miscellaneous ragbag of things, both entitieslocusts, feathers, stones, etc.and eventsmovement, noise, sexual behaviour, etc. in all of which the storm is metaphorical. (idem: 11) The semantic relation between the two nouns in a Det + N1 + of + N2 partitive phrase has in the present paper been reconsidered in terms of semantic marking and the category of intensification. Literal partitive paradigms have generated paradigms of contextual, affective partitive structures (Ullmann 1967: 148) with various degrees of metaphoricity, and therefore intensifying force.[11] Organized by the connoteme or along the dimension euphoric/disphoric, the partitive paradigms confirm that expressiveness is the result of changing the traditional usage of a lexical item, of violating selection restriction rules or of semantic incompatibility. Based on the opposition between the the Source term and the Target term that has been mapped onto it, partitives evoke a certain source domain which differentiates them. It is especially the distance between the two terms, the nature of their basis of comparison, evaluated in terms of value scaling from neuter to favourable / unfavourable, as well as the size of the Source domain that matters. The more restricted the domain is, the more expressive the metaphor will be. I assume that the members of the two paradigms denote intensification values within a range of less than enough and of (much) more than enough, respectively, on a bidirectional intensification scale. Enough stands for the vague node where the multal and

58

the paucal intervals overlap and from where they extend both ways. While the members of the paucal paradigm denote (very) low / little, and sometimes infinitesimal values of the collocate (eg: a fleck / speck of [dust]), the members of the multal paradigm denote values within a range from high to the highest of their collocate on the intensification cline. In accordance with my framework for the category of intensification (Manoliu 2007), the literal / neutral, unmarked for intensification meaning of a partitive, in both its singular and plural forms, will be [-I] marked for intensification, by contrast with the metaphorically [+I] marked for intensification singular and plural forms. Compare bursts/volleys/ a burst / volley of [automatic rifle fire/water] and bursts/roars/ a burst roar of [laughter], loads / a load of [wood] and loads of [charm/fun/ideas/money/time/work], bags/a bag of [cherries] and bags of [language/people/time], tons/a ton of [fish] and tons of [letters]. Specific multal partitives combine with entities or individuals from a diversity of domains, many of which pertain to senses (sight and hearing). Mainly inspired by Biber et als collocation types (1999: 252 - 254), I have grouped quantifying nouns into several classes. Nouns denoting a multitude, or collective partitive nouns, which make the bulk of this paradigm, may refer to a large amount or amounts of things, or to a large number of things or participants, a group or groups, eg: army, band, batch, bevy, board, brood, bulk, bunch, bundle, cluster, collection, colony, constellation, convoy, covey, crowd, crew, drove, fleet, flock, gaggle, gang, heap, herd, hive, hoard, horde, host, litter, load, mass, nest, pack, pad, pile, pride, rout, school, shoal, skein, stack, stock, string, stud, swarm, troop, troupe. There are also nouns that refer to elements of nature and to geographical features, which often connote the idea of remarkably or supernaturally large, eg: cloud, mountain, ocean, sea, or to natural phenomena, often characterized by force and by a sudden and violent release of energy, eg: burst, explosion, fit, invasion, plague; avalanche, cloud, deluge, flood, rain, shower, storm, stream, surge, torrent, etc. Others denote containers and shape, eg: bag, barrel, crate, keg, pack, packet, pad, sack; cupful, handful, hatful; column, curtain, jet, stick, wad, wall, wedge, etc, [12] or standardized measures, eg: inch, ounce, pint, ton, yard. Expressing approximate numbers, such as dozens, scores, tens, hundreds, thousands, a thousand and one, etc, plural numerals are used in partitive vague expressions for large numbers (idem: 253), eg: hundreds / thousands of [times]; Weve bought tons of [beer] for the party tonight (CCD). By lexicalizing intensification to a high, or to the highest degree, the members of the multal paradigm basically mean the same, i.e. a lot of, plenty (of), a large quantity of, a great deal of, a mass of something. The sense relation of synonymy that obtains between non-numerical quantifiers accounts, for instance, for a great amount of money being referred to as a lot/bag/bulk/heap/pot of [money], or as lot/bags/bulks/heaps/pots of [money]. The propensity for metaphorization in the multal partitive paradigm in English and Romanian is illustrated in this paper by the class of nouns of multitude that express a sudden release of energy.[13] Conceptually, they may be associated with the MORE IS UP orientational metaphor, in the sense that whatever exceeds the standard limits can either excel at or fail in attaining ones goal. Axiologically, the semantic content of these metaphors implies a favourable or unfavourable evaluation of quantity. While a small quantity usually elicits a favourable appraisal, unless the quantity is felt as insufficient and may generate a devaluating judgment, a large quantity in terms of number, intensity, size, etc, usually elicits devaluating judgments that connote lack of quality. The transfer of meaning between concrete, physical entities includes mergers of different values. Besides the seme [+QUANTITY], these partitive structures contain variables such as [+/-ANIMATE], [+/-HUMAN], [+/-MOVEMENT], [+SPEED], [+SOUND], [+SHAPE], [+ITERATIVE], etc. The emotive effect of these elements is due

59

to their evoking the environment or level of style in which they naturally belong. Literally referring to bodies of water (Hanks: 18), of snow, of lava, etc, and metaphorically, by degrees, to a very large amount of or a large number of things or of people that occur or arrive at the same time, the partitives avalache, deluge, flood, stream and torrent share in their metaphorical uses semes like [+MOVEMENT], [+SPEED], [FORCE], [+SUDDEN RELEASE], [+/-SOUND]. For example, the idea of [+MOVEMENT] contained in a stream of, i.e. a long or continuous line of people, animals, vehicles, etc, travelling in the same direction; a long, continuous series of things; flood, is further amplified in the meaning of a torrent of, which additionally suggests [+SPEED] and [FORCE], i.e. a rushing, violent, or abundant and unceasing stream of anything; a violent, tumultuous, or overwhelming flow. Compare: a stream of [abuse/insults/lies/losses/memories/people/ questions/visitors/traffic] and a torrent of [abuse/criticism/hair]. An outburst of something, which is either a sudden period of violent activity or a sudden and strong expression of emotion, especially anger, and which contains the semes [+/-SOUND], [SPEED] and [+/-VIOLENCE], has been conceptualized as: a burst of (a short or sudden period of something); an explosion of (a sudden and violent expression of someones feelings, especially anger, a sudden and serious outbreak of political protest and violence); a gush of (a sudden plentiful outburst); a roar of (a very loud noise or a very noisy way of applausing or laughing); a storm of (a large amount of comment and criticism made by people who are very angry, indignant, or excited about a particular subject; a sudden loud expression of peoples feelings, which they show by clapping, laughing, shouting, etc); a surge of (a sudden and powerful increase in an emotion or feeling), a wave of (a steady increase in a certain feeling, eg: alarm, panic, sympathy, etc, which overwhelms a person, or which spreads through a place or group of people; surge, tide; a sudden increase in a particular activity or type of behaviour, boom, spate), a whirlwind of (a situation in which you experience a lot of different activities or emotions one after another), etc. The partitives cascade, cloud, rain and shower involve different types of [+MOVEMENT], i.e. a floating, flowing, or a falling mass of something: a cascade of is an amount of something that falls or hangs down in large quantities. Compare: Her hair fell over her shoulders in a cascade of [curls] ... her golden torrent of [hair] (LDCE); a mass of dust, smoke, gas, etc, moving or floating in the air, or a very large number of birds or insects flying through the air together make a cloud, eg: Way off in the distance she sees a cloud of [smoke]. (CCD) ... Clouds of [birds] rose from the tree-tops. A large number of things may fall from above at the same time and with great force in a rain, eg: Like a rain of [bullets], blobs of sulphur would pour down on us. (CCD) A falling movement of lots of light things, on the other hand, makes a shower, eg: a shower of [abuse/(falling) leaves/sparks].[14] The partitives in this class share a whole range of positively, negatively or neutrally loaded [+/-ANIMATE] and [+/-HUMAN] collocates, eg: avalache/deluge of [politicians/ tourists/volunteers; applications/data/(mis)information/opportunity], flood/floods of [people/refugees], avalache/torrents of [debris/trash]. Complaints/letters/petitions come in a deluge or in floods, attacks and drugs in an avalache or in waves, electrons in an avalanche, stream or torrent, errors in a burst or an avalanche, (un)truths in an avalanche, burst, or stream. While the force of applauses is lexicalized in partitive phrases such as roars/rounds/storms/whirlwinds of [applause], strong protest is expressed in an avalache, cascade, storm, torrent or wave. One may experience a deluge or droves of [trouble], a burst, gush or whirlwind of [activity]. Further contextual intensification is provided by the modification of partitive phrases or, less common, of the collocate only, by descriptive adjectives, which contain the

60

semes [+QUANTITY], [+DURATION] and [+SOUND]. To illustrate this I have selected the partitives within the range of applause, eg: (huge/massive/total/tremenduous/endless/ deafening/loud/thunderous) roar of [applause], (big/great/huge/polite/respectful/wild) round of [applause], (ceaseless/long/never-ending/thunderous/wild) storm of [applause]; Another (wild) round of [applause] rose... A storm of (wild) [applause] followed. In informal use, it is not uncommon for partitives to be also premodified by intensifiers such as whole, eg: ... a (whole) (new) way of [life]...This turn of events opened a (whole) (new) vista of [troubles] for me. (CCD). In Romanian also, the collocational ranges of this class of specific partitives often overlap, eg: cascad / explozie de [ciocolat]; avala/explozie de [canale TV/cancere/ case/prospeime]; explozie/torent de [informaii/bucurie/lumin]; potop/puhoi/groaz/ puzderie/val de [bani/lume/oameni]; potop de [ameninri/critici/invective/njurturi/ reprouri]; puhoi/groaz/puzderie/sumedenie de [contestaii/credincioi/dumani/filme/ inamici/informaii/microbiti/nenorociri/nereguli], etc. [15] Crosslinguistically, a shared conceptual space will enable comparisons, equivalence in form and/or content being a matter of degree rather than of meaning. The partitive class under examination reveals much overlapping both in form and collocational ranges between English and Romanian. The English specific partitives avalache, flood, deluge, wave, stream and torrent of, and their general partitive equivalents a lot of, lots of, masses of, oodles of and tons of, have as Romanian counterparts the partitives avalan, uvoi, torent, val de and the rather archaic nouns potop, puhoi, puzderie, groaz de, eg: avalache/deluge of [applications/notifications /jobs]ro. avalan/puhoi/torent/val de [cereri/contestaii]; avalache of [costs/events/sales] ro. avalan de [costuri/cumprturi/evenimente/scumpiri/vnzri]; avalache/ wave of [accidents/suicide/tourists]ro. avalan/val de [accidente/evenimente rutiere/cumprturi / scumpiri/vnzri/sinucideri/candidai/turiti]; explosion of [colour/rage]ro. explozie de [sunet, lumin i culoare/talent i culoare/mnie/preuri]; flood/torrents/volley of [words/ oaths] [16] -ro. cascad/potop/uvoi/torent de [cuvinte/njurturi/vorbe]; flood/gush of [tears] ro. puhoi / uvoi de [lacrimi]; flood of [news] vs. potop de [tiri]; wave of [love/violence] ro. val de [afeciune/dragoste/(acte de) violen]; avalache/stream/torrent/wave of [protest] -ro. avalan/val de [proteste]; a stream of [cars/people] - ro. puhoi/uvoi de [maini/oameni]; rain of [bullets] - ro. ploaie de [gloane], etc. In both speech and writing, the Romanian counterparts of these partitives vary between use and abuse. A burst/peal/ roar/round/storm/thunder/volley/wave of [applause], (out)burst/peal/roar/storm of [laughter], flood/whirlwind of [emotions], etc, are lexicalized in Romanian as furtun / ropot de [aplauze], hohot de [rs] and val de [compasiune], but also improperly rendered as ?rafal de [aplauze], ?ropot de [fluierturi / rs]. [17] The following selection from our corpus illustrates the metaphorical uses of some English and Romanian partitives in this class: Ski venders give advertizers an avalanche of [opportunity]. (www.usatoday.com/money/advertising/adtrack) ... Thanks to an avalanche of [email] Ive added a bunch of new items to ... He had set off a (terrible) avalache of [(world) events]. (CCD)... an avalanche of [misoginy] directed at Hillary Clinton (http://atypicaljoe.com/index.php/site/comments/an_avalanche_of_misogyny_directed_at_ hillary_clinton/)... Flames of [suspicion] leapt up in the breast of each man. (F / PI: 117); A TV show ... was halted after a flood of [complaints] ... a (raging) flood of [doubts]... There followed a (great) flood of [indignation] in the newspapers (CCD) ... She received a flood of (grateful) [telegrams and letters] (CCD) ... She shed floods of [tears] ... A storm of [laughter] arose... the storm of [applause] that greeted the actors ... The decision

61

provoked a storm of [criticism] from Conservative MPs. (CCD) ... They uttered a stream of (nasty) [curses] ... He sat dumb for several minutes while the stream of [insults] continued ... The Media Repeats Streams of [Lies] about Obama.... These ideas have been hammered into their heads by a stream of [movies, plays and books] ... Stream of [nonsenseness] by Adrian Jimenezb... a (steady) stream of [contributions] on a weekly basis ... a (steady) stream of [questions] ... There was a (constant) stream of [people] going both ways ... The research adds weight to a stream of [studies] that have found obesity and other health problems ... (MIKE STOBBE, AP Medical Writer Wed May 7, 11:06 AM ) (Relentless) stream of [untruths] ... A (mounting) wave of [dislike and anger] rose within me... waves of [fun] (C22: 153)... In the (general) wave of [panic], nobody thought of phoning for an ambulance.(CCD)... In Paris in May 1968 there was a (massive) wave of (student) [riots]... the recent wave of [bombings] (CCD)... There was a (strong) wave of [applause] punctuated with cheers... Waves of [applause] like ripples from a slow-grinding fracture.. permeated the subterranean gloom... (http://www.qbsaul.demon.co.uk)... Waves of [applause] washed over Nicola, swelling her with pride. (www.asstr.org/~knickers/haremd2html)... a (new) wave of [innovation] for teaching and learning... a (fresh) wave of [measles] ... Waves of (saphire)[mist] spread from it in the dusty fog... He has been trading a (new) wave of [sanctions]; In the 1920s, a Burst of American [Art and Expression] Takes Form. (http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/2006-06-14-voa4.cfm)... After a burst of [(initial) publicity], all seems to have quietened down on this front (The Financial Express, Friday, April 04, 2008)... The ingredients in this shot lead to a burst of [flavor] you wouldnt expect... Jack Kerouac, fuelled by inspiration, coffee and Benzedrine, set down at his typewriter and in one burst of [creative energy] wrote the novel that would make him the voice of his generation. (Kerouacs On the Road) (http://www.npr.org/programs/morning/features/patc/ontheroad) (5April 2008)... Verheugens visit triggers a burst of [commentaries] ... She felt a surge of [affection] for him... There has been a a surge of [people]; Deluge of (Digitally Distributed) Drama ... a deluge of [firms] in Dubai ... a deluge of [ petitions] to the vice-chancellor ... World faces deluge of (human) [trafficking] ... Rising Miss. River tricky for deluge of [barges] headed downstream ... A deluge of (new) [trouble]... he has released tons of [songs] for the consumption of the masses. (Biber et al 1999: 253); Istoria ne-a rezervat o cascad de [cacealmale]. (Jurnalul Naional-online, 15.06.2006)... o explozie de [populism i de necunoatere] ... Explozie de [copii] n lumea artistic / la Hollywood n 2007... explozie de [bebelui] n Romnia ... explozie de [sinucideri] care sperie medicii (Ziarul de Iai)... explozie de [bere] n centrul Sucevei (Crai Nou); Soprana Mariana Nicolesco, care a declanat furtuni de [aplauze] cu liedurile enesciene ... strnind o furtun de [aplauze] n rndurile celor 3.000 de spectatori (www.onlinegallery.ro/raducanu_tavitian.html) ... fiecare apariie a sa strnete un freamt care anun furtuna de [aplauze] din final; ?Rafale de [aplauze] la Chicago (Cotidianul) ... au urmat cteva aplauze discrete, anemice i neconvingtoare. Dup dans ns, au izbucnit ?rafale de [aplauze]... Din ziua aia salatele fur necate n ?potop de [oet] acru de mere. Well aware of the fact that approaching metaphoricity in the partitive paradigms involves dealing with extensive corpora,[18] I have discussed the multal metaphorical partitive structures in terms of general and specific semes, which turn them into expressive markers

62

of intensification, focusing on collocational ranges and regularities of partitives, as well as on abuse in the use of some Romanian multal partitive nouns. The study has revealed some basic issues concerning the semantics and the metaphorical uses of multal partitives: - The meaning of the multal metaphorical partitives is a combination of the common semes [+PLURAL] / [+QUANTITY] which are intrinsic to the semantic matrix of collective nouns (Cf. GA. I: 109) and of specific semes like [+/-MOVEMENT], [+SPEED], [+SOUND], etc, which convey the idea of exaggeration or of excess. - Since the semantics of partitives is a function of contiguity, varying with the semantic load of the collocate, the paradigm members cannot simply be divided into neutral, positively loaded and negatively loaded items. They have a very wide distribution, combining with nouns containing the semes [+/-HUMAN] and [+/-ANIMATE], with neutral, epiphoric and disphoric connotations; - It is more difficult to establish differences in meaning between individidual partitives than between cognitive paradigms; they can more profitably be grouped into semantic classes and subclasses in accordance with the semantic domain they belong to; - Even though English and Romanian may not have perfectly matching lexicalized counterparts, their shared conceptual space makes possible crosslinguistic comparisons, which show that equivalence in form and / or content is a matter of degree rather than of meaning. It may be held that metaphorical partitives are cases where ... that inner core of signification which the word calls up even in isolation includes affective factors, their real significance being as much emotional as it is conceptual. (Stephen Ullmann, 1967: 99) It is by evoking the environment or level of style to which they naturally belong that conveys the emotive effect. The speakers / writers choice in achieving a stylistic effect (i.e. familiar, pejorative, jocular, slangy or archaic) is, however, the keynote of any metaphorical or emotional reading. Notes
[1] Speaking about the inherent vagueness in non-numerical quantifiers, Joanna Channell (1994: 99) has pointed out that they are vague in the sense that they are in some ways rather weak as quantifiers, saying nothing absolute about the quantities involved. [2] The general partitives bit of, item of and piece of are invariably rendered in Romanian by the general partitive bucat de, in collocation with concrete nouns, eg: bucat de (crbune / cret / hrtie / metal / pmnt), and specific partitives such as felie de [prjitur / tort], articol de [mbrcminte]. Note the countability of the Romanian abstract nouns informaie, tire, sfat, cercetare, etc, which do not need reclassification by partition. [3] Noun collocates are typed between square brackets, whereas modifiers are placed between round brackets. [4] They classify much, many, several and a lot as multal quantifiers and a little, a few, respectively, as paucal quantifiers with a universal or a partitive meaning (1985: 384-6). [5] Each combining with well over 100 different collocates, unit nouns (eg: bit of and piece of) are characteristically general in meaning and, in a way, the opposite of collective nouns: rather than providing a collective reference for separate entities, they split up an undifferentiated mass and refer to separate instances of a phenomenon. Both types of noun provide alternative ways of viewing and referring, collective nouns with respect to countables and unit nouns with respect to uncountables. (Biber et al 1999: 250; Cf also Quirk et al 1985: 249) Moreover, as context-sensitive items, partitives, like intensifiers, can connote divergent values of their collocates. When used to mean the opposite of what it says, an expression of quantity indicates a violation of Grices maxim of Quality. Just as the diminisher a bit of appears to indicate a large quantity, loads of, i.e. a lot of something, may mean a (very) small amount of something. Compare: Shes done (a few) bits of [shopping] (a small amount of shopping vs. quite a lot of shopping) ... Hes done loads of [work] (has done a lot of work vs. has hardly done anything. [6] The classifying tag quantifying units has been coined on analogy to Biber et als quantifying collectives.

63

[7] The bidirectional ordering of gradable items in our intensification framework is the reverse of Channells scaling, where the highest in degree values are marked counterclockwise, i.e. leftwards, eg: <all, most, many, some, few>, <a barrelful of, a cupful of, a mouthful of>, etc (See Manoliu 2007: 26) [8] We have preserved the boldface in Hanks examples. [9] According to Pustejovsky, there are four essential aspects of a words meaning that define the qualia structure: CONSTITUTIVE (i.e. the relation between an object and its constituent parts), FORMAL (i.e. which distinguishes an object within a larger domain), TELIC (i.e. the purpose and function of the object) and AGENTIVE (i.e. factors involved in the origin or bringing about of something) (idem:7) [10] Since, in terms of the category of intensification and its markers, they all pertain to feelings, these metaphorical classes may, however, be approached as storms of emotion which denote diferent intensity values along a bidirectional intensification scale. [11] Iorgu Iordan (1975: 333) calls this process semantic derivation. [12] To form a quantifying noun, the suffix ful can be added to nouns denoting different types of container ... (idem: 254) [13] Our corpus has been culled from fiction and media, mainly from http://www.google.ro [14] Note also the intensifying eliptical prepositional phrases in clouds, in droves, in spate, in waves, etc, eg: The mosquitoes were coming up in clouds... They would come in droves to see Australias natural wonder. (CCD) [15] Note that of is almost invariably rendered into Romanian by the preposition de. [16] A volley of [words / questions / figures] is a lot of words, questions, etc, which someone says very quickly and in an agressive way, without giving anyone else a chance to reply. Remember also a sea of [words]. (Prlog 1995: 115) [17] Such collocations abound in the media, eg: ?rafal de [cuvinte / moiuni / oferte / ritmuri / sentimente], ?uvoi de [compasiune / dubii / picturi / victime], ?cascad de [apartamente], etc. [18] A great amount of computed data from many spoken and written sources compensate for the scant attention that partitives receive in lexicographic studies. It is beyond the scope of this paper to determine the grammatical role of the partitive / quantifier and of its collocate or to give a full-scale record of the collocational ranges of these partitives. We cannot but agree in this respect with Hanks, who holds that [I]t would take a full-scale lexicographical study ... to determine exactly how many words are used as metaphorical partitives and what semantic features they share.

REFERENCES Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti (2005). Gramatica limbii romne. I Cuvntul, Bucureti: Editura Academiei Romne (GA. I) Biber, D., et al .(1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber et al), London: Longman Channell, J. (1994) Vague Language, OUP Downing, A., Locke, Ph. (1992). A University Course in English Grammar, Prentice Hall International Hanks, P. http://www.dcs.shef.ac.uk/research/ilash/Seminars/Hanks.doc. Manoliu, S. (2007). Intensification of Meaning. Central Markers, Iai: Casa Editorial Demiurg Prlog, H. (1995). The Sound of Sounds, Timioara: Hestia Publishing House Quirk, R., et al. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, London: Longman DICTIONARIES Academia R.S.R. Institutul de Lingvistic din Bucureti (1975). Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, Bucureti: Editura Academiei R.S.R. (DEX) Benson, M., Benson, E., Ilson, R. (1990). The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English, John Benjamins Publishing Company. (BBI) Chambers Thesaurus. (1991). W & R Chambers Ltd. (CT) Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary. (1994). Harper Collins Publishers. (CCD) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Third Edition. (1995). London: Longman. (LDCE) CORPUS (F/PI) Forster, E.M. (1989). A Passage to India, Penguin Books (JH/C22) Heller, J. (1979) Catch-22, London: Thirty Bedford Square

64

Abstract Part of the series of articles on peripheral marks of the category of intensification, the current paper approaches the semantics the partitive-amplifying paradigm, the most significant segment which furnishes partitive metaphor in English and Romanian. Reference is mainly made to the metaphorization of collective specific partitives with a metaphorical meaming the sudden relief of an impressive quantity of energy such as avalache, deluge, flood, stream, torrent, burst, explosion, gush, roar, storm, wave of, which denote abundance and excess, which indicate, depending on the collocation a quantitively neutral, favourable of unfavourable evaluation. As in the case of intensifiers, it is more simply to establish meaning differences between cognitive partitives and the partitives themselves. A wider distribution, quite common collocations and associations quite often surprising provide metaphorical meanings with extreme hyperbolic valences to these quantitative-non-numerical phrases. Romanian, which possesses most of the lexicalizations of the English vocabulary, also reveals the presence of a set of partitives with an archaic flavour, such as groaz/potop/puhoi de, etc., also shows a tendency to improperly borrow English partitives. The corpus was extracted from dictionaries, literature, mass media and on-line sources. Rsums Sinscrivant dans la srie darticles consacrs aux marques priphriques de la catgorie de lintensification, ce travail se veut une approche smantique du paradigme partitif-amplificateur, le segment le plus significatif fournisseur de la mtaphore partitive en anglais et roumain. Nous faisons surtout rfrence la mtaphorisation des partitifs collectifs spcifiques sens mtaphorique, la livraison brusque dune quantit considrable dnergie , telles que : avalanche, dluge, flood, stream, torrent, burst, explosion, gush, roar, storm, wafe of , qui dnotent de labondance et de lexcs et indiquent, en fonction de la colocation, une valuation quantitative neutre, favorable ou dfavorable. On peut constater, tout comme dans le cas des intensificateurs, quil est plus facile tablir les diffrences de sens entre les paradigmes cognitifs quentre les partitifs eux-mmes. Une distribution ample, des colocations souvent communes et des associations parfois surprenantes, tout confre ces expressions quantitativesnon numriques des sens mtaphoriques, valences extrmes, hyperboliques. Dans la langue roumaine, o on retrouve une grande partie des lexicalisations du vocabulaire anglais et on remarque la prsence dune srie de partitifs rsonnance archaque, tels que groaz / potop / puhoi de, etc., se manifeste la tendance demprunter dune manire impropre des partitifs de langlais. Le corpus illustratif a t slectionn des dictionnaires, de la littrature, des mass media et des sources internet. Rezumat nscriindu-se n seria de articole dedicate mrcilor periferice ale categoriei intensificrii, lucrarea de fa abordeaz semantica paradigmei partitiv-amplificatoare, cel mai semnificativ segment furnizor de metafor partitiv n englez i romn. Se face n principal referire la metaforizarea partitivelor colective specifice cu sensul metaforic eliberarea brusc a unei cantiti impresionante de energie, precum avalache, deluge, flood, stream, torrent, burst, explosion, gush, roar, storm, wave of, care denot abunden i exces, indicnd, n funcie de colocaie, o evaluare cantitativ neutr, favorabil sau nefavorabil. Se constat, ca i n cazul intensificatorilor, c este mai lesne de stabilit diferene de sens ntre paradigmele cognitive dect ntre partitivele nsei. O distribuie ampl, colocaii adesea comune i asocieri nu rareori surprinztoare confer acestor expresii cantitativ-nonnumerice sensuri metaforice, cu valene hiperbolice extreme. n limba romn, unde se regsesc mare parte din lexicalizrile din vocabularul englez i se remarc prezena unui set de partitive cu rezonane arhaice, precum groaz/potop/puhoi de, etc, se manifest tendina de a prelua impropriu partitive din limba englez. Corpusul ilustrativ a fost selectat din dicionare, beletristic, mass media i surse online.

65

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 66 - 72

Language and Literature

PAST IMPERFECTS PRESENT IMAGININGS: (RE)MAKING HISTORY Ioana Mohor-Ivan In 1994, when his study on Contemporary Irish Drama was published, Anthony Roche was introducing his chapter on Northern Irish Drama in the following terms:
Since conflict is the essence of all drama, it should be no surprise that the current situation in Northern Ireland has generated a considerable number of stage plays. Catholic versus Protestant, British versus Irish, republican versus loyalist, the gun versus the ballot box: to live in the North is to inhabit a drama of conflict whose contradictions often result in lethal consequences. (Roche, 1994: 216)

If Roche was referring here to the interconnectedness between the theatrical stage and the political violence of the last twenty-five years that had become an all too inevitable sight in Northern Irish culture, the origins of the oppositional patterns referred to above lies with the historical England-Ireland axis and the fact of colonialism, which, from David Cairns and Shaun Richards perspective, has inflected the making and remaking of the Irish identity by positing it as Englands other, to the extent to which no aspect of identity [] can safely be assumed to be inherent (Cairns and Richards, 1988: 8). This proves Declan Kiberds assertion, that it was less easy to decolonise the mind than the territory (Kiberd, 1996: 6), because the clusters of imagery evolved by each community for selfrepresentation tend to fall into two categories: on the Protestant side, the basic opposition established by the colonial discourse between self and other, recast as that between civilisation and wilderness remains central, and the conflict is explained by reinforcing the stereotype of the irrational and violent Catholic, who has failed to accept the democratic will of the majority. On the Nationalist divide, violence becomes heroism, and terrorist is replaced by freedom-fighter, by means of the reciprocity principle secured by a long list of historic ills perpetrated against the natives by their oppressors, which require redress in the present, the inspiration being provided by the actions of legitimated heroes, from Cuchullain to Connolly (Buckley, 1991: 261). If history, or better said, its versions of the past remain obsessively afresh in reinforcing loyalties and asserting identities, one should not forget that, to quote John Bergers opinion:
History always constitutes the relation between a present and its past. Consequently, fear of the present leads to mystifications of the past. The past is not for living in: it is a well of conclusions from which we draw in order to act. Cultural mystification of the past entails a double loss. Works of art are made unnecessarily remote. And the past offers us fewer conclusions to complete in action. (Rabey, 1986: 188)

Among other Northern Irish playwrights, Brian Friel has, so far, provided the most coherent commitment to the investigation of the established opinions, myths and

66

stereotypes which had become both a symptom and a cause of the current situation (Irelands Field Day, 1985). As co-founder of the Field Day Theatrical Company in 1980, Friel offered in his own Translations an alternative way of looking at Ireland, or another possible Ireland (Gray, 1995: 8; Andrews, 1995: 165). Set in 1833, at the time when the Ordnance Survey resulted in the translation of the Gaelic place-names into English, Translations turned the historical event into a dramatic metaphor able to comment on present-day Anglo-Irish relations, while, at the same time, it brought into discussion the traditional nationalist myth of the cultural dispossession by the British (McAvera, 1985). Though a historical play, Translations foregrounded striking contradictions to the mythology of colonialism through reversed stereotyping, psychological character depth, instances of meaningful openness to the other that asserted the possibility of crossing the boundaries, and a basically optimistic ending, which suggested the desirability of cultural fusion between the Gaelic and English traditions. As such, the Frielian text succeeded in re-making history for the contemporary audience, and in this manner an imagined past became meaningful for the present. If, starting with its premiere, Translations has met with much acclaim, sometimes controversy, but an overall impressive host of critical commentary, the same cannot be said about the other historical play written in the 1980s, Making History (1988)1, to which Anthony Roches study of Contemporary Irish Drama devotes only a passing, and unjustly disqualifying remark that reads: Friels much awaited Making History, his first new play in six years, was a disappointment (Roche, 1994: 224). That Making History was not a disappointment can be proved by the fact that Declan Kiberd names it among his selected triumvirate of Frielian plays to appear in the synopsis of contemporary Irish literature with which his study concludes (Kiberd, 1996: 633-4). As a new attempt at writing a historical play, Making History may have been prompted by Kevin Barrys remarks on the interaction between history and fiction on which the latter was basing his appraisal of Translations:
It is certain that both history and fiction imagine and structure a past which neither could make known without sharing the images and structures of narrative. Both discourses enable the entry into what has been lost into a societys understanding of its present. (Friel, Barry, Andrews, 1983: 119)

As Friel himself has confessed in an interview, the writing of a historical play presents the apparent advantage of dealing with established historical facts that lend accessibility to the work, but also imposes particular responsibilities for the writer, to acknowledge those facts . . . but not to defer to them (Friel, Barry, Andrews, 1983: 123-4). Consequently, Making History acknowledges the facts of the recorded histories of Hugh ONeill, the 3rd Baron of Dungannon and the 2nd Earl of Tyrone, the leader of the Irish forces in the last Gaelic rebellion against the English colonisation of Ulster at the end of the 16th century. An adept politician and gifted soldier, ONeill made the most both of his position as a representative of the English Crown which had secured him the granting of an English earldom in 1585, as he did ten years later in the Rising of the Northern Earls, when he became known among his European Catholic contemporaries as the Prince of Ireland. Nevertheless, the action of Making History condenses the events bridging ONeills marriage to the English Mabel Bagenal in 1591 to the aftermath of Kinsale into a momentous episode lasting less than two years, in which the points of reference are: ONeills reciprocated love for Mabel (Act I, Scene 1), his facing the option of turning into the leader that would coalesce a national resistance (Act I, Scene 2), and the anguished confession of repentance written to the Queen when a fugitive in the Sperrin mountains

67

(Act II. Scene 1). A coda set twenty years later (Act II. Scene 2) shows ONeill, now an exile in Rome, endlessly returning to the same incidents of his life as the only means of preserving some sense of truth for his existence: That is the truth. That is what happened (66). This final scene discloses that what the play has enacted so far were the flashbacks of ONeills mind, engaged in a kind of Yeatsian dreaming back of a selective and subjective record of his life. Throughout the play, ONeills personal history is juxtaposed with the official record of his life, exemplified by Peter Lombards De Regno Hiberniae Commentarius (1632), a text in which the Catholic Archbishop had promoted ONeill as the hero of the European Counter-Reformation, becoming thus central not only to Gaelic historiography, but also to the Nationalist tradition. The whole text is structured on this opposition between the private and the public realms, the inner and the outer selves, and this doubleness is represented by dividing the stage space through the pairing of different characters. The domestic sphere of ONeills home in Dungannon places its dramatic emphasis on Hughs relationship with Mabel, highlighting not only the private dimension in his life, but also a harmonious fusion of Gaelic and English tradition, which also characterised the central love scene of Translations (Kiberd, 1996: 634). Yet this world is intruded by the arrival of another pair of characters, Lombard and ODonnell, coming as messengers of the public discourse of politics and tribal loyalties. Hugh ODonnells sensationalist report on the troubled scene surrounding Dungannon reveals a parochial and divided society, impetuous and unstable, in a permanent flux of shifting allegiances, as its Gaelic chieftains are, in Lombards words: Constantly at war - occasionally with the English - but always, always among themselves(11). However, this is part of the same world of ancient rituals and ceremonies that ONeill inherited at his birth, a way of life that my blood comprehends and indeed loves and that is as old as the Book of Ruth(28). While ODonell impersonates Hughs attachments to his native culture, the presence of Lombard enlarges the public theme by placing it into the context of European politics. The Archbishop, by profession . . . a Church diplomat(6), is the emissary of the European Counter-Reformation, speaking the impersonal and abstract language of the organisers and ideologues. As a self-appointed chronicler of the Irish situation, he has already inserted Hugh in his text in the preordained public role of a hero:
And this is a rsum of my Commentarius - a thesis Im doing on the Irish situation. Briefly, my case is this. Because of her mismanagement England has forfeited her right to domination over this country. The Irish chieftains have been forced to take up arms in defence of their religion. And because of your birth, education and personal attributes, you are the natural leader of that revolt. (7-8)

Despite Lombards claim that History has to be made - before its remade(9), the public discourse has imposed a pattern on events that were mostly casual and haphazard (8). ONeill may ponder about his options and resist volunteering to appear in the big canvas of national events (69), but the course of his actions has been pre-ordered either by policy-makers such as Lombard, the Spanish grandees or the Pope, or by the polarised language of imperialistic imagery, which, despite his Renaissance self-fashioning under the guidance of Sir Henry Sydney, will inevitably brand him Fox ONeill, because all Irishmen who live like subjects play but as the fox which when you have him on a chain will seem tame; but if he ever gets loose, he will be wild again (35). Positioned as defender of the Holy Roman Church (33) by the discourse of militant Catholicism and as the treacherous barbarian by that of colonialism, ONeill is eventually forced to conform to

68

his public role, and engage in making history, while the rupture of his bonds with his private self will be symbolised by the news of Mabels death. Years later in Rome, with his official part formally ended by the full stop placed in Lombards history after The Flight of the Earls. . . the final coming to rest(65-66) and the position of inaccin (56) assigned by the present political discourse, a broken, drunken and penniless ONeill will be left with a crippled privacy, epitomised in the frustrating marriage to Catriona. The existent history of personal failure will be once more juxtaposed with Lombards story where the former public failure has been turned into a history of success. To become a cause for celebration not only by us but by the generations that follow (62), the narrative will delete Mabel, signifying both the private and the English dimension in Hughs existence, and will turn ONeills life into a story of epic proportions where even the telling of the battle of Kinsale can . . . be a triumph (65). Refusing to be imprisoned in a florid lie (63), ONeill engages in his last and, this time, personal battle to retrieve the wholeness of his lived history, lost in the simplified narrative of Lombards book:
I need the truth, Peter. Thats all thats left. The schemer, the leader, the liar, the statesman, the lecher, the patriot, the drunk, the soured, bitter migr - put it all in, Peter. Record the whole life. (63) (underlining mine)

What Mabel has called the overall thing(68) means ultimately to reclaim the multiplicity of life, in its shifting patterns of opposite manifestations. And Making History fights its own battle to regain the overall thing, by selfconsciously fore-grounding the relativity of absolute categorisations. The glass of whiskey that Lombard holds in his hand may be both a lure to perdition and a foretaste of immortality(69). In a similar fashion, the oppositional terms of the colonial discourse resurface in various contexts and with subtle re-polarisations, in concordance with Friels dictum that a writers task is to acknowledge but not defer to established facts. While for the English Harry Bagenal, Mabels brother, the Irish will always be locked in their description as a rebellious race, so traitorous a stock that have to be repressed (6), and ODonnell will be accordingly nicknamed the Butcher ODonnell (17), truth is always made relative, and no definitions remain fixed. Bagenal, in his turn, becomes for Hugh ODonnell the Butcher Bagenal (13), and his raids in the countryside, where he slaughtered and beheaded fifteen families are described by means of the same language with which ODonnell boasts his own acts. Even Mabel, despite her openness to her husbands culture, is not spared falling prey to the language of English prejudice and, irritated by her servants, shouts at them: If you want to behave like savages, go back to the bogs! (20). But seconds later in the play, faced with her sisters retort to the convention trope of the uncivilised Irish, treacherous and treasonable. . .steeped in religious superstitions, a savage people who refuse to cultivate the land God gave us (24), Mabel crosses the border of the paradigm, and embarrasses her sister by asserting her conversion to Catholicism and relocating the terms of definition:
As for civility I believe that there is a mode of life here that is at least as honourable and as cultivated as the life Ive left behind. And I imagine the Cistercian monks in Newry didnt think our grandfather an agent of civilisation when he routed them out of their monastery and took it over as our home. (24).

Such ironic juxtaposition is a constant of a play which leaves no safe locations for pre-set oppositions. ONeill himself may make ironic references to the Gaelic wilderness (26), 69

the Italians may unexpectedly be conjured by ODonnell to fill the negative term of the matrix: Bloody savages! The only time they ever smile is when theyre sinking a sword in you! (32) and even the Spanish view of Elisabeth as the Jezebel of the North is comically reworked in Marys report on the English calling ONeill The Northern Lucifer - the Great Devil - Beelzebub (25). ONeills mind has the versatility of understanding both codes and see the values and excesses on each side. On one hand, the Gaelic culture, stretching back since before history, long before the God of Christianity was ever heard of (40) lends assurances and dignity to his people. Yet, on the other hand, the same tradition can also entrap them in the old Gaelic paradigms of thought (27), and the proud defiance of the Irish, exemplified by the fate of Maguire, may become a suicidal action. Similarly, the English culture is equally the epitome of the enlightened Renaissance mind, the necessary implement to open these peoples to the strange new ways of Europe,. . . ease them into the new assessment of things (40) and that of crude materialism, because it also represents the plodding Henrys of this world which are the real empire makers (27). Still, straddling both worlds, ONeill proves by his own example that their reconciliation and fusion is possible, as long as the openness to the other is preserved, an openness also asserted by the meaningful relationships, be them of love or friendship, established with Mabel and ODonnell. Moreover, the Other can be enriching, because, as Mabel says, his strength lies with him being both Irish and English, becoming thus the most powerful man in Ireland and an enigma to the Queen, the antithesis of what she expects a Gaelic chieftain to be. (38) The balance is broken the moment ONeill is compelled to side with the Gaelic pieties against his English half. Yet, despite severed attachments and amidst the rash of battle plans, Mabels presence restores her husband to his characteristic calculation deliberation - caution (37 Nonetheless, his carefully designed scheme of operations is nullified by the Spaniards wrong choice of place, and ONeill has the instant apprehension of the fore-coming defeat:
ONeill: Where do they land? ODonnell: Keen-sall. ONeill: Where - where? ODonnell: Keensall - Kinsale, I suppose. ONeill: Oh, God, no. (42)

After the debacle of Kinsale the fiction of a nation state collapses into the chaos (44) of the former quagmire of squabbling tribesmen (38), and ONeill is confronted once more with the imperative of opting between the Gaelic paradigm, represented now by his joining the Flight of the Earls and living the life of a soured migr whingeing and scheming round the capitals of Europe (48), or the pragmatism of his Englishness, which tells him to follow Mabels advice and submit to Elizabeth:
I should accept almost any conditions, no matter how humiliating, as long as Id be restored to my base again and to my own people (48).

It is at this moment that ONeill professes his loyalty to the English Crown and surrenders the last remnants of independence, but he does so fully aware of the consequences of this act, which would render him one great fraud (49) to both sides alike:
ONeill: Belief has nothing to do with it. As Mabel says, shell use me if it suits her. ODonnell: And your people?

70

ONeill: Theyre much more pure, my people. Oh, no, they wont believe me either. But theyll pretend they believe me and then with ruthless Gaelic logic theyll crucify me for betraying them. (50)

ONeills willed confession is done in full recognition that he will be forever considered an impostor, but it is the only reasonable response to the devious world around him, and becomes thus as important a chapter in his history as the other glorified events selected by Lombards book:
ONeill: And the six years after Kinsale - before the Flight of the Earls - arent they going to be recorded? When I lived like a criminal, skulking round the countryside - my countryside! - hiding from the English, from the Upstarts, from the Old English, but most assiduously hiding from my brother Gaels who couldnt wait to strip me out of every blade of grass I ever owned. And then when I could endure that humiliation no longer, I ran away! If these were my people then to hell with my people! (66)

All the same, this episode will be dismissed by the Archbishop as unfit for the story of a hero (67) and because, as Kiberd notes, history is not written by winners or losers, but by historians (Kiberd: 1996, 633), the final lines in the play will be given to Lombard to seal the divine stature of his character:
A man, glorious, pure, faithful above all Who will cause mournful weeping in every territory. He will be a God-like prince And he will be king for the span of his life. (71)

It is a truism that history depends upon the the surviving documents, which are the pasts versions of itself (Friel, Barry, Andrews, 1983: 118). The large brown book placed centrestage throughout the last scene, Lombards Commentarius, is one such surviving record, freezing ONeill into a messianic hero. But Friels character breathes alive from the pages of this imagined narrative of his life precisely because it has replaced the repressive disjunctive co-ordination of the past with the liberating apposition. ONeill can be a hero, as well as a famished refugee, as well as a deserter to his nation, as well as many other things in a play about multiple identity and dual forms of belonging that expose the shallowness of all stereotypes. The challenge undertaken by the play, namely to bypass the authority of official texts by its own fiction has been resolved at the structural level, where the audience were tricked to dismiss as inauthentic the testimony of an approved document like Lombards Commentarius by linking ONeills corrective reminiscences with their images, which had been actually enacted during the previous three scenes. Notes
1 For the analysis of this play all references are made to Brian Friel, Making History, London, Boston: Faber and Faber, 1989, hereafter cited parenthetically in the text.

REFERENCES Andrews, Elmer (1995) The Art of Brian Friel, New York: St. Martins Press.

71

Buckley, Anthony (1991) Uses of History among Ulster Protestants in Dawe, Gerald; John Wilson Foster (eds.) The Poets Place: Ulster Literature and Society. Essays in honour of John Hewitt, Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, pp 259-271. Cairns, David and Shaun Richards (1988) Writing Ireland: Colonialism, Nationalism and Culture, Manchester: Manchester U.P. Friel, Brian (1989) Making History, London, Boston: Faber and Faber. Friel, Brian; Barry, Kevin; Andrews, Joseph (1983) Translations and a Paper Landscape: Between Fiction and History, in The Crane Bag: Perspectives on Irish Culture, The Forum Issue, pp. 118-124. Gray, John (1985) Field Day Five Years On in Linenhall Review, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp 5-10. Irelands Field Day (1985) London: Hutchinson. Kiberd, Declan (1996) Inventing Ireland: The Literature of the Modern Nation, London: Vintage. McAvera, Brian (1985) Attuned to the Catholic Experience in Fortnight No. 3/ March Issue, pp 18-21. Rabey, David Ian (1986) British and Irish Political Drama in the Twentieth Century: Implicating the audience, London and Basigstoke: Macmillan. Roche, Anthony (1994) Contemporary Irish Drama: from Beckett to McGuinness, Dublin: Gill & Macmillan.

Abstract Brian Friels third original Field Day play, Making History, is indicative of the playwrights rejection of the oppositional binaries on which both the colonialist and the nationalist definitions of Irishness are based, and his search for a middle-ground, where the mechanics by which forms of identity are asserted and problematised may be subjected to a critical investigation. The paper aims to disclose the various strategies by means of which Friels play continually brings such oppositional constructs into question and opens thus both the colonialist and the nationalist paradigms to critique. Rsum La troisime pice originale de Brian Friel pour la companie Field Day, Making History, tmoigne de la rejection de lauteur en ce qui concerne les paires de concepts opposes qui constituent lessence des definitions colonialists et nationals de lidentit du people dIrlande, et de sa recherch pour une voie de compromise o la mchanique travers de laquelle des formes didentit sont expose et mises en question peut faire lobjet dune investigation critique. Cet etude a comme objet de reveller les strategies diffrentes laide desquelles la pieces de Friel met toujours en question de telles conbstructions opposes et elle ouvre galement les paradigms colonialists et nationals la critique. Rezumat Making History, cea de-a treia piesa original scris de Brian Friel pentru a fi produs de compania teatral Field Day, reia explorarea spaiul identitii irlandeze n contextul revoltei lui Hugh ONeill, unul dintre evenimentele cruciale din istoriei colonizrii Irlandei. Lucrarea i propune s demonstreze c textul frielian rescrie naraiunea istoric n registru imaginativ unde modelele dihotomice de reprezentare a conceptului de Irishness, (caracteristice att discursului colonialismului britanic ct i celui al naionalismului irlandez) pot fi destabilizate i revizuite. Un veritabil text postmodern, piesa aduce in centrul ateniei suspiciunea fa de naraiunile totalizatoare, accentund natura discursiv a reprezentrilor trecutului i, implicit, a identitii i subliniaz instabilitatea, relativitatea i provizoratul acesteia.

72

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 73 - 80

Language and Literature

EFECTUL PERLOCUIONAR EFICIENT I COMUNIUNEA FATIC N TEXTUL LITERAR DIN PERIOADA COMUNIST Gina Necula

Preliminarii Ocupndu-se de aciunea i interaciunea comunicativ din perspectiva pragmaticii, Liliana Ionescu-Ruxndoiu subliniaz aspecte de interes pentru demersul nostru: Comunicarea verbal pune n funciune nu numai filtrul gramaticalitii [], ci i filtrul reuitei i eficienei. Exist deci enunuri corecte sau incorecte sub aspect gramatical, dar enunurile corecte pot fi reuite sau nereuite, dup cum formularea aleas de E permite sau nu R s sesizeze inteniile cu care au fost rostite, iar enunurile reuite, la rndul lor, pot fi eficiente sau ineficiente, dup cum au sau nu asupra R efectul dorit de E, modificndu-i n mod corespunztor comportarea, ideile sau sentimentele (IonescuRuxndoiu, 1991: 11). Dup autoarea citat, fiecare enun constituie un act de comunicare n a crui structur pot fi identificate: o component locuionar actele verbale, avnd o structur fonetic, gramatical i semantic, independente de situaia de comunicare obiectul de studiu al gramaticii; o component ilocuionar asociaz coninutului propoziional al enunurilor o for convenional specific, determinat de inteniile comunicative ale E i recunoscut ca atare de ctre R (acte reprezentative, directive, comisive, expresive, declaraii; - o component perlocuionar efectele produse de enunurile cu for ilocuionar asupra R definesc actele perlocuionare. Trebuie precizat faptul c nu orice act ilocuionar are consecine perlocuionare directe, ci doar actele eficiente. Ne intereseaz n mod deosebit efectul perlocuionar, component al oricrui act de vorbire. Efectul perlocuionar putnd fi eficient sau ineficient, ambele efecte perlocuionare pot fi definite prin prisma inteniilor vorbitorului: efectul perlocuionar eficient este efectul pe care vorbitorul vrea s-l aib asupra asculttorului, n timp ce n cazul efectului perlocuionar ineficient inteniile vorbitorului nu se materializeaz . Fenomen de limbaj, literatura nu este numai o construcie de cuvinte, ci ea implic o serie ntreag de referine extralingvistice. Din perspectiva teoriilor comunicrii Corti afirm c: La baza formelor de comunicare literar, chiar i a celor mai originale, exist o arie comun de competen a emitentului i a destinatarului, constituit de lectur, ca sistem informativ i comunicativ (Corti, 1981 : 24). Fiecare text are un loc n literatur, deoarece intr n relaie cu celelalte texte. De fapt, nici literatura, cum de altfel, nici vorbirea obinuit, nu transmite de fiecare dat idei noi, ci doar repet teme, motive, tipare. n acelai fel se realizeaz i decodificarea mesajului unei opere literare, fiind nevoie ca cititorul s pun textul n relaie cu alte texte la care a avut acces, pentru a stabili legturile de sens necesare. 73

n literatur posibilitile semnificative i comunicative se actualizeaz altfel dect n limb pentru c limba literar e un sistem de comunicare conotativ, cu acumulare diacronic, iar sintagmele au un plus semantic care le vine din contextele artistice precedente n care s-au actualizat. n Principiile comunicrii literare, Maria Corti aprecia c artistul are pe de o parte asprul destin de a surprinde obscuritatea profund, indescifrabil, a realului, iar pe de alt parte de a asocia ntr-un mod nou semnele emise de refereni n universul cultural i ideologic al propriei epoci, proces prin care el particip la natura social a structurilor literare, de care este condiionat, fie c favorizeaz sistemul de ateptri ale societii, fie c se pune n antagonism cu acesta. Literatura apare aadar ca un loc de ntlnire sau confruntare ntre contiina individual i cea colectiv, ntlnire ce se schimb odat cu schimbarea istoriei ei (Idem. : 39). Comuniunea fatic n textul literar din perioada comunist Propaganda a ales calea cea mai scurt i mai eficient: activarea instinctelor. Sursa energetic i persuasiv a propagandei prin literatur este manipularea unor modele binecunoscute omului simplu. Activarea resentimentelor, aarea sunt cele mai bune instrumente folosite n controlul mulimii. Instigarea la ur a dat via unei literaturi ce, n mod normal, ar fi trebuit s fie hrzit morii rapide prin intoxicare cu cliee. Felul n care este citit/perceput un text n interiorul unei culturi are semnificaie politic. Istoria literar este presrat cu exemple de texte care au fost considerate, la un moment dat, periculoase pentru un anumit regim politic. Sarcina criticilor, n astfel de cazuri este s sancioneze i s corecteze abuzurile. Sensul orientat al unei opere literare este o invenie a politicii. Limba i impune singur regulile: trebuie s ne conformm unui sistem gramatical dar i unui set de convenii stabilite prin tradiie pentru a putea fi nelei de alii. Exist ntotdeauna n mesaj o serie de insinuri ale societii n care autorul i cititorul se integreaz. n aceast idee se nscrie i afirmaia lui Green: we read within traditions of reading, and our assumptions are based on those traditions (Green, LeBihan, 1996: 187). Subliniem astfel faptul c ateptrile neexprimate ale unui text sunt parte a istoriei pe care textul respectiv o poart. Textele par s propulseze cititorul pe un drum predestinat/predeterminat, dar ele pot fi citite i interpretate n diverse scopuri ideologice. Trebuie fcut precizarea c lectura literar este diferit fa de orice alt tip de lectur pentru c cititorul trebuie s ajung la o anumit atitudine care s permit reiterarea tuturor valenelor textului. Wolfgang Iser, n eseul Interaction Between Text and Reader, analizeaz comunicarea prin literatur n urmtorii termeni: a process set in motion and regulated, not by a given code, but by a mutually restrictive and magnifying interaction between the explicit and the implicit, between revelation and concealment. What is concealed spurs the reader into action, but this action is also controlled by what is revealed; the explicit in its turn is transformed when the implicit has been brought to light. Whenever the reader bridges the gaps, communication begins. The gaps function as a kind of pivot on which the whole text/reader relationship revolves. Hence, the structured blanks of the text stimulate the process of ideation to be performed by the reader on terms set by the text (Iser, 1989:106). Astfel textul este vzut ca o imagine fragmentar a crei pri lips trebuie reconstituite de ctre cititor. Abordarea textului literar se face din perspectiva funciilor limbii, interesndu-ne aici, n mod deosebit, funcia fatic, o funcie neglijat n majoritatea lucrrilor de

74

specialitate datorit accepiei i rolului secundar pe care i le acord Roman Jakobson. Ne ntoarcem aadar la accepia lui Bronislaw Malinowski (Malinowski, 1923: 313) asupra faticitii unui mesaj. Plecnd de la premisa c funcia principal a limbii nu este aceea de a exprima gndirea, Malinowschi identific drept funcie fundamental a comunicrii aceea de a juca un rol pragmatic n comportamentul uman. Este vorba aici despre limba folosit ca instrument de comuniune social demonstrnd c oamenii se adun i comunic ntre ei pentru a arta c fac parte dintr-un grup. Schimbul zilnic, banal de amabiliti care se ntlnete n comunicare este numit de autor cu termenul sociabilities pentru a sublinia nevoia omului de socializare. There can be no doubt that we have here a new type of linguistic use phatic communion. I am tempted to call it, actuated by the demon of terminological invention a type of speech in which ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words( Idem: 315). Din observaiile lui Malinowski reiese c limba este folosit, n primul rnd, pentru a ndeplini funcii sociale, adic relaiile i interaciunile sociale sunt negociate prin intermediul expresiei lingvistice. Ne referim aici la ceea ce autorul numete comuniune fatic i pe care autorul o descrie ca fiind: a feeling of belonging to a community (ibidem). Comuniunea fatic implic meninerea sentimentului apartenenei la o comunitate, a solidaritii ntre membrii grupului, dar i un sentiment de acceptare a celorlali i de acceptare de ctre ceilali. Astfel relaiile ntre membrii unei comuniti lingvistice pot fi descrise, n termenii lui Malinowski, astfel: contact / relaii ierarhice / sentimente pozitive = comuniune fatic solidaritate comuniune fatic statut social relaii sociale Toi aceti factori definesc limba ca un fenomen dinamic pentru c interaciunea fatic presupune acordul n privina semnificaiilor, iar faticitatea poate fi negociat i construit prin expresii. Comuniunea fatic st la baza proceselor interpretative la care cititorul trebuie s participe n scopul identificrii corecte a semnificaiilor intenionate de ctre autor dar neexprimate explicit. Asistm n cazul literaturii la un tip de comunicare orientat puternic ctre cellalt. Cele ase funcii ale limbii sunt prezente n orice mesaj n anumite proporii n funcie de natura mesajului i de scopul urmrit. Importana funciilor n cadrul interaciunii sociale determin o ierarhizare a acestora pentru c fiecare mesaj este dominat de o anumit/anumite funcii n timp ce celelalte sunt doar secundare. Georgeta Ghica preia de la Mannheim o serie de observaii privitoare la abordarea semiotic a acestui fenomen, constatnd faptul c acest tip de abordare a dus la considerarea funciilor referenial, conativ, fatic i expresiv ca fiind semiotic- extrovertite, deoarece obiectul mesajului este n afara lui, pe cnd funciile metalingvistic i poetic sunt considerate semioticextrovertite, deoarece obiectul lor este nsi activitatea semnului (Cf.Ghica, 1999: 140 ). Referindu-se la relaia dintre funcia fatic i alte funcii ale limbii, Georgeta Ghica consider c: Exercitndu-se la nivelul canalului, care reprezint conducta material sau legtura psihologic (cf. Jakobson) dintre emitor i receptor, funcia fatic se raporteaz inevitabil la funciile emotiv i conativ, orientate asupra celor doi factori menionai mai sus. Caracterul explicit sau, dimpotriv, estompat al acestui raport este o consecin fireasc a diversitii situaiilor de comunicare (Ghica, 1999: 140 ).

75

Funcia fatic ntlnete funcia emotiv n zona interjeciilor. Acestea au dublu rol: pe de o parte, atrag atenia interlocutorului, pe de alt parte, poart ncrctur afectiv, aducnd informaii cu privire la starea emotiv a vorbitorului. Funcia fatic i cea conativ interacioneaz mesajele trebuie s fie percepute corect pentru a fi decodate de ctre receptor. Ghica consider c un asemenea rol dublu fatic i conativ se observ mai ales la elementele care contribuie la declanarea / stimularea comunicrii. Intrate n structura mesajelor, aceste elemente aduc receptorului informaii suplimentare, cum ar fi rolul sau statutul pe care vorbitorul l acord receptorului; natura relaiei pe care emitorul o propune, ajutndu-l astfel pe receptor n opiunile pe care urmeaz s le fac (Idem: 145 ). Relaia dintre funcia fatic i cea metalingvistic este prezentat n lucrarea citat astfel: Adesea, n verificarea codului, vorbitorul recurge la ntrebri de tipul m nelegi?, tii? care, n acelai timp, atrag sau fac s creasc atenia interlocutorului, ndeplinind, deci, un rol fatic (Idem: 148). Funcia fatic are n comun cu cea metalingvistic faptul c, n timp ce una verific dac exist comunicare, cealalt este folosit de ctre participanii la procesul de comunicare pentru a verifica dac se folosete acelai cod n vederea unei bune comunicri. n literatur posibilitile semnificative i comunicative se actualizeaz altfel dect n limb pentru c limba literar e un sistem de comunicare conotativ, cu acumulare diacronic, iar sintagmele au un plus semantic care le vine din contextele artistice precedente n care s-au actualizat. Unele aspecte care intereseaz aici in de pragmatica textului, adic acelea legate de cooperare. Cooperarea este definit de ctre Umberto Eco ca fiind acel aspect al pragmaticii textului care l determin pe destinatar s extrag din text ceea ce textul nu spune (dar presupune, promite, implic i impliciteaz), s umple spaiile goale, s pun n legtur ceea ce se gsete n acel text cu estura intertextualitii n care i are originea acel text i cu care se va contopi (Eco, 1991: 25 ). Comunicarea fatic este o trstur specific conversaiei zilnice. Efortul de a menine comunicarea demonstreaz faptul c o conversaie trebuie s fie dinamitat cu mrci afective pentru c relaiile sociale sunt negociate i controlate prin asemenea mijloace. Stabilirea unei legturi ntre participanii la procesul de comunicare poate semnaliza raporturi de incluziune, definete relaiile i raporturile. Dup cum declaram la nceput, intenia acestei lucrri este s demonstreze importana comuniunii fatice n cazul unui tip de comunicare pndit de tentaia clieului i aflat sub ameninarea cenzurii. Nevoia de a congrega, de a face parte dintr-un grup poate fi urmrit n textul literar, mai ales n acele texte care, pndite de pericolul cenzurii, trebuiau s stabileasc contactul cu cititorul prin diversiuni care s nele vigilena ideologiei de partid. Unul dintre maetrii disimulrii nregimentrii este Marin Preda, autor la care stabilirea comuniunii fatice se poate face doar cuun cititor care poate citi ironic sau parodic clieul lingvistic subminat.
Bine, continu Moromete adresndu-se prietenilor lui liberali, dat fiind c statul are nevoie de parale fiindc nu mai suntem ca pe vremea regimului burghez al moierului de moieri, cu smna lor, de unde i-au mai scos i pe-tia, care tii i voi alde Costache i alde Matei c se lu moia a mare a coanei Marica ndat dup llalt rzboi, i nu acuma, dar dat fiind c numai ei au nevoie de bani, noi n-avem, s zicem c fonciirea trebuie achitat (Preda Moromeii II, 126)

Textul acesta atrage atenia asupra unei trsturi specifice discursului ideologic: - e vorba de un discurs unic, difer doar persoana care l rostete i patima, 76

asculttorii/cititorii avizai se lmuresc repede c aa stau lucrurile; - discursul nu are n vedere un referent real ci doar reproduce cliee; funcia sa principal este s-i fac s nu priceap, s manipuleze. n ceea ce privete modalitile de inserare n discurs a clieelor constatm, aa dup cum afirm i Rovena-Frumuani, bivalena funcional a clieului: valoarea sa de introductiv al replicii i rolul su fatic (Rovena-Frumuani, 1994: 12). Fie c este asumat sau nu, clieul este un element care contribuie la realizarea comuniunii fatice, constituindu-se n liantul care marcheaz apartenena la o anumit clas social sau legtuirle cu o anumit ideologie. La Buzura, preluarea sloganului se face cu intenie demistificatoare, cu att mai mult cu ct i contextul trimite ctre ironizarea tendinei de nivelare social prin limbaj. Personajul din Vocile nopii, Pintea triete o experien limit, este supus la interogatorii pentru o culp necunoscut. Reacia n faa torionarului probeaz dorina autorului de a obine aprobarea cititorului:
Avei voi ndrzneala s batei un om al muncii, puior? Pe un frunta n producie? Se pomeni Pintea ntrebndu-l cu o neateptat siguran. Pi, cine credei c v d vou pine? N-ai citit c e interzis btaia chiar i n snul familiei? Pi, ai habar ci in eu n spate, eu acesta pe care de-abia atepi s-l legi? ase micimane! Dar eu cred c sunt mai muli. Confundai oamenii, i sculai din somn. i tocmai acum? Pi, ara triete cu minile suflecate, produce oel, pine, carne, i voi ce facei? M scoatei din ritm, m obosii, m enervai. Nu v dai seama c ntrziai cu voia construirea noii societi? Se poate? i tai raia, nelegi? ncepnd de azi mi aleg pe alii care s m clreasc. (Buzura, Vocile, p. 27)

Identificm aici, pe de o parte, nevoia de a afirma apartenena la un grup prin asimilarea i asumarea de cliee i, pe de alt parte, nevoia de a submina aceste bariere lingvistice care ajung s devin bariere sociale. Nevoia de socializare a individului i impune s se supun unui anumit ritual lingvistic, dac societatea impune aceste tipare, dar ironia amar, care se degaj din astfel de citate, demonstreaz dorina de transmite cititorului mesaje subliminale.
Pentru astea va avea grij colectivul s fac nite comitete de batere la cap. Ei o smi dea sfaturi, eu, spit, pe un ton dramatic, o s-mi iau nite angajamente i gata. Zgomot mare pentru o nimic toat. Dac o s fiu cuminte, m vor coopta i pe mine ntr-un asemenea colectiv i voi fi dat de pild c am ajuns la fel de cenuiu ca alii, bun de arbitru la concursul Cine-i cel mai incolor ctig!

(Buzura, Vocile, p. 34) Distingem pe de o parte, intenia autorului de a fi cu ceilali prin intermediul textului creat i, pe de alt parte, strdania cititorului ca, prin acelai text, pe care ncearc s-l decodeze adecvat, s capteze un mesaj din nenumratele mesaje care l asalteaz. Recunoatem totodat, n ceea ce Malinowski numete atmosfer de sociabilitate, cooperarea pe care o realizeaz cititorul cu autorul textului n procesul lecturii, cooperare care decurge din funcionarea solidar a comprehensiunii i a evalurii( Ghica, 1999: 135 ). Exist ns i situaii n care ridicolul suprancrcrii semantice a unui cuvnt iese foarte uor n eviden. Prin personajul su, Ilie Moromete, Preda ironizeaz cuvintele de acest gen sugernd intenia de a le nva cnd, de fapt, e vorba doar de mimarea acestui efort:
Moromete surdea: Auzi, m, Matei, ce zice lipoveanul sta, c tu i cu Giugudel (i l-a mai adugat i pe Crstache la rnd) cic suntei uneltele mele. Adic cum unelte? (Era un cuvnt din ziare, prin care erau desemnai astfel acei rani care

77

continuau nc s fie n relaii panice cu chiaburii, cuvnt necunoscut n sat prin care erau desemnai cei cu stare.) Prin unelte, Moromete ddea de neles c se gndete la o furc, o sap, o grebl (Preda, Moromeii II: 124).

Interesat fiind de sociologia limbii, Fishman consider c limba nu este doar un instrument de realizare a comunicrii interpersonale i de influenare, sau doar purttoarea de semnificaii, fie ele manifeste sau latente, ci: Language itself is content, a referent for loyalties and animosities, an indicator of social statuses and personal relationships, a marker of situations and topics as well as of the societal goals (Fishman, 1997: 27 ) . Dominique Mangueneau susine c n calitate de discurs, literatura nu poate s se plaseze n exteriorul cerinelor principiului cooperrii sau a legii modalitii, dar, n calitate de literatur, ea se supune, n funcie de economia sa proprie, de raportul pe care fiecare oper sau tip de oper l instituie cu utilizrile nelimitate ale discursului (Maingueneau, 1990: 121). Concluzii Ideea de comuniune fatic ne ajut, n cazul de fa, s nelegem mai bine felul n care sunt negociate relaiile autor-cititor n cazul discursului literar, putnd meniona, din aceast perspectiv, dou tipuri fundamentale de comuniune identificabile n textele studiate: o comuniune care are la baz ideologia asumat i una care se stabilete prin disimulare, urmrind de fapt subminarea limbii de lemn. Identificm astfel dou tipuri de autori/cititori: un tip naiv, care se identific cu textul ideologic i ader la el doar din nevoia integrrii ntr-un grup i un alt grup care stabilete comuniunea fatic tocmai prin recuzarea unui discurs considerat ilogic. Sntatea unei naii poate fi apreciat dup starea n care se afl literatura care o reprezint. Limbajul literar este diferit de cel comun pentru c finalitatea lui nu este aceea de a exersa competenele limbii, ci aceea de a exprima cultura i civilizaia, pe care le poate modela. Limbajul standard are funcie comunicativ, iar cel literar vizeaz intelectul pentru c exprim esena unei gndiri i este centrat pe funcia estetic. Din aceast cauz punctul de vedere al unui scriitor nu poate fi dect unic, nicidecum colectiv. Un scriitor nu este purttorul de cuvnt al grupului social din care face parte, ci vocea unei contiine. Discursul literar devine, prin infuzia ideologiei, o form a culturii populare, propovduind, n mod intens, principiile realismului social i ale poporanismului. El dobndete un caracter militant, servind atingerii celor mai sfinte idealuri ale poporului. Scriitorii sunt numii de Stalin ingineri ai sufletelor omeneti, avnd responsabilitatea de a lupta cu armele specifice domeniului lor de activitate mpotriva culturii burgheziei. Distingem aadar, pe de o parte, intenia autorului de a fi cu ceilali prin intermediul textului creat i, pe de alt parte, strdania cititorului ca, prin acelai text, pe care ncearc s-l decodeze adecvat, s capteze un mesaj din nenumratele mesaje care l asalteaz. Recunoatem totodat, n ceea ce Malinowski numete atmosfer de sociabilitate, (cooperarea pe care o realizeaz cititorul cu autorul textului n procesul lecturii, cooperare care decurge din funcionarea solidar a comprehensiunii i a evalurii. Nevoia de a congrega, de a face parte dintr-un grup poart, n termenii lui Malinowski, denumirea de comuniune fatic. Comuniunea fatic st la baza proceselor interpretative la care cititorul trebuie s participe n scopul identificrii corecte a semnificaiilor intenionate de ctre autor dar neexprimate explicit. Asistm n cazul literaturii la un tip de comunicare orientat puternic ctre cellalt.

78

Specific comunicrii literare este faptul c unei competene lingvistice a autorului i corespunde o competen a destinatarilor, pentru c acetia din urm sunt pui n situaia de a descoperi n mesaj semnificaiile intenionate de autor. Astfel constatm c opera conine n ea nsi imaginea cititorului cruia i este destinat ns raportul destinatarului cu opera nu poate fi niciodat acelai pentru c destinatarul, ca i emitentul, sunt o sum de relaii psihologice, istorice, socio-culturale, semiologice. De interes deosebit, aadar, n ceea ce privete receptarea, conform unor dezvoltri i aplicaii ale unui alt adept al teoriei lui Vron, contractul de lectur servete pentru a caracteriza funcionarea, n orice tip de suport de pres, a dispozitivului de enunare, adic a modalitilor de a spune, cuprinznd: a) imaginea celui care transmite un mesaj, locul pe care i-l atribuie acesta fa de ce spune; b) imaginea celui cruia i este destinat discursul, locul ce-i este atribuit acestuia; c) relaia dintre emitor i destinatar, care poate fi, de fapt, altul dect receptorul real.
REFERINE: Corti, Maria (1981), Literatur i comunicare, n Principiile comunicrii literare, Bucureti, Editura Univers, p. 21-33 Dumistrcel, Stelian (2006), Limbajul publicistic romnesc din perspectiva stilurilor funcionale, Iai, Ed. Institutul European Eco, Umberto (1991), Cititorul model, n Lector in fabula, Bucureti, Editura Univers Fishman, Joshua A. (1997), The Sociology of Language, n Sociolinguistics a Reader and Coursebook, London, Edited by Nickolas Coupland and Adam Jaworski Ghica, Georgeta (1999), Exprimarea funciei fatice n operele literare, n Elemente fatice ale comunicrii n romna vorbit, Bucureti Editura ALCRIS-M94 Green, Keith, LeBihan, Jill (1996), Language, linguistics and literature, n Critical theory and practice, A Coursebook Routledge, New York & London Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana (1991), Pragmatica domeniu al aciunii i interaciunii communicative, n Naraiune i dialog n proza romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne Iser, Wolfgang (1989), Interaction between text and reader, n S.R. Suleiman and I. Crossman (eds.), The Reader in the Text: Essays on Audience and Interpretation, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 106-112 Maingueneau, Dominique (1990), Pragmatique pour le discours littraire, Paris, Bordas Malinowski, Bronislaw (1923), The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages, n The Meaning of Meaning A Study of the Influence of Language Upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism by C.K. Ogden & J.A. Richards with supplementary essays by B. Malinowski & F. G. Crookshank, A Harvest Book, Harcourt, Brace & Company New York Minet, Pierre (1997), Le contrat de lecture dans les journaux tlviss belges: comparaison entre science et football, n Sciences et Mdias, p. 223 231 Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela (1994), Introducere n teoria argumentrii, Bucureti, Editura Universitii Surse literare: Buzura, Augustin, Vocile nopii, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1980. Preda, Marin, Moromeii, vol. II, Bucureti, E.S.P.L.A., 1967. Abstract Human communication is seen as a very complex reality. Bronislaw Malinowski is the one who identifies the phatic function of language as fundamental for understanding the communication principles. Among the first conclusions drawn from his observations Malinowski states that language is used to perform social functions; in other words, social relationships and interaction were geared to the use of linguistic expressions. One of such functions consists of what he called fatic communion. Language is used to maintain fatic communion - a feeling of belonging to a community. Fatic communion involves the maintenance of a sense of community, of solidarity with other members of the group, of a particular status within the hierarchies of the group, and at the same time a feeling of accepting others and being oneself accepted by others. The present

79

article tries to identify the way fatic communion works within literary discourse, especially within censored literary text that supposed to make use of extra means in order to communicate with its reader This article aims to prove that literature has a significant role in exposing the manipulating policy of the communist boilerplate language. In this respect, intertextuality proves to be an appropriate instrument of communication between author and reader. Such contexts help to de-constructing this language and showing up its phonines. Our interest focuses on verbal irony which is to be illustrate through literary texts belonging to the communist era when the freedom of speech, thought and action was just a dream, so that the only way to really communicate was by twisting the clichs. Rsum La communication humaine est saisie comme une ralit complexe. Bronislaw Malinowski identifie la fonction phatique de la langue jouant un rle fondamental dans la comprhension des principes de la communication. Malinowski sappuie sur ses observations et en extrait ses premires conclusions : la langue est utilise afin daccomplir ses fonctions sociales ; autrement dit, les relations et les interactions sociales ont t organises pour lusage des expressions linguistiques. Une de ces fonctions reprsente ce que lauteur nomme la communion phatique. La langue est utilise pour entretenir la communication phatique le sentiment dappartenance une communaut. La communion phatique inclut le maintient dun certain bon sens de la communaut, de la solidarit avec les autres membres du groupe, le maintien dune position spciale dans lhirarchie du groupe et, en mme temps, du sentiment dacceptation des autres et du sentiment dtre accept par les autres. Larticle essaie didentifier la manire dont la communion phatique fonctionne au niveau du discours littraire, du texte littraire censur de prfrence, suppos utiliser des moyens supplmentaires dans la communication avec le lecteur. Larticle veut dmontrer que la littrature joue un rle significatif dans le rcit de la politique de manipulation du langage de bois communiste. Par consquent, lintertextualit devient un instrument appropri la communication entre lauteur et le lecteur. De tels contextes vont contribuer la dconstruction de ce type de langage et la mise en relief de son haut degr de fausset. Notre intrt porte sur lironie verbale illustre par des textes littraires appartenant lpoque communiste. A cette poque-l la libert de lexpression, de la pense et de laction ntaient quun rve et, la communication ntait possible que par la modification des clichs. Rezumat Comunicarea uman este perceput ca o realitate complex. Bronislaw Malinowski identific fucnia fatic a limbii ca jucnd un rol fundamental n nelegerea principiilor de comunicare. Pe baza observaiilor sale, Malinowski include printre primele sale concluzii faptul c limba este utilizat pentru ndeplinirea funciilor sociale; cu alte cuvinte, relaiile i interaciunile socialeau fost pregtite pentru utilizarea expresiilor lingvistice. Una dintre aceste fubcii const din ceea ce autorul numete comuniunea fatic. Limba este utilizat pentru a ntreine comunicarea fatic sentimentul de apartenen la o comunitate. Comuniunea fatic implic pstrarea unui sim al comunitii, al solidaritii cu ali membri ai grupului, al unei poziii speciale n ierarhiile grupului i, n aceli timp, i unsentiment de acceptare a celorlali i de a fi acceptat de ceilali. Articolul de fa ncearc s identifice modul n care funcioneaz comuniunea fatic la nivelul discursului literar, cu deosebire n textul literar cenzurat, presupus a utiliza mijloace suplimentare n comunicarea cu cititorul. Articolul urmrete s demonstreze c literatura joac un rol semnificativ n expunerea politicii de manipulare a limbajului de lemn comunist. Astfel, intertextualitatea se dovedete un instrument adecvat pentru comunicarea dintre autor i cititor. Astfel de contexte contribuie la deconstrucionalizarea acestui limbaj i la sublinierea naltului su grad de falsitate. Interesul nostru se concentreaz asupra ironiei verbale ilustrat prin texte literare aparinnd epocii comuniste cnd libertatea exprimrii, a gndirii i a aciunii era doar un vis, astfel nct singurul mod de a comunica, ntr-adevr, era doar prin modificarea clieelor.

80

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 81 - 90

Language and Literature

BODY LANGUAGE: SOMATIC IMAGERY IN WOMENS POETRY

Lidia Mihaela Necula

Body language and somatic imagery are two issues that have been dealt with quite a lot lately. The answer for this might be that women writers nowadays have been making poetry labeled as extravagant by some and outrageous by others. It should be mentioned that what we nowadays call shocking has in fact three subspecies: what strikes the imagination the extravagant; what strikes the senses the repulsive; what torments and tortures the feeling the terrifying. Women poetry is trapped somewhere in between the extravagant and the repulsive. The aim of the paper is to examine three sorts of representative attitudes discernable in women poets who explore female bodily experience associated with three sorts of verbal strategies. In the work which is referred to, the familiar vertical standard has shattered; body is not assumed to be inferior to some higher principle. The attitudes are rejection, ambivalence and affirmation; the verbal devices are irony, comedy and revisionist symbolism. Of special interest are the emotions, the forms employed and the reinterpretations of other matters which follow from interpreting the body. During the last three decades, America poets have been employing anatomical imagery both more frequently and more intimately than their male counterparts. Their female audiences enjoy this. Male readers, unsurprisingly, tend to be more uncomfortable by female candor and to feel that it is inartistic. The American artist sometimes avoided her femininity by getting her mental hysterectomy early. She will often not speak for female experience even when the men do. She will be the angel-artist, with celestially muted lower parts. Sometimes, in any of the arts, where womens work remains beautifully mandarin or minor, it may not be because of their womanhood but from their lack of it. It is of course difficult for any of us to evade the mental yardstick which seems to have been let down from heaven like Jacobs ladder, governing thousands of years of religion, philosophy and literature, according to which the mortal and corruptible flesh imprisons the immortal and incorruptible soul, the body is base and the mind exalted. If anatomy is destiny, we all want to escape it. From Plato to Freud, and beyond Fred to Simone de Beauvoir, civilization means vertical mobility: one transcends the body in order to achieve something o public worth. In The Second Sex (1972) Simone de Beauvoir develops this idea more explicitly than any other writer, in the course of a argument designed to show that male biology, because its strength and independence encourage the masculine deeds of control, acts relatively to mans advantage, while female biology, because it is organized to serve the iron grasp of the species (ends of procreation) rather than the individual, is a handicap. For de Beauvoir, the inferior life of immanence associated with the body must become superior life of transcendence willed by the striving individual ego; this, she believes, will improve the lives of individuals of both sexes, and the quality of civilized life.

81

As to woman, woman in mythology is the flesh when men write about her as she has not been required to write about the flesh herself. From pleasure to pain If, traditionally, the flesh has been either overlooked or disregarded, that has happened due to two main reasons. The flesh is both corrupt and corruptible; that is, both inherently sinful and inherently subject to change and death. The former grievance is expressed morally, the latter lyrically and with the understanding that in the youth and prime of life, the flesh is a source of pleasure. A large number of women poets since the 1960s appear to view the body as a source essentially of pain, not pleasure. The topicality of such issues as: abortion, breast surgery, rape have become part of womens poetic repertoire. There exists a subgenre of poems in which a womans flesh and blood are manipulated by a condescending doctor figure. The damaged bodies of war victims, the hungry bodies of famine victims are important images in the work of Adrienne Rich, Muriel Rukeyser, and Denise Levertov. Women also seem drawn to describe psychic hurt in somatic terms.
We sat across the table,/ he said, cut off your hands,/ theyre always poking at things,/ they might touch me./ I said yes./ Food grew cold on the table,/ he said burn your body,/ it is not clean and smells like sex,/ it rubs my mind sore,/ I said yes./ I love you, I said,/ thats very nice, he said,/ I like to be loved,/ that makes me happy./ Have you cut off your hands yet? (Piercy Marge, The

Friend, 1973: 65). The very beginning lines point to an idea of distance and coldness between the two protagonists who have already engaged themselves in an incessant love battle for supremacy: both of them have clearly marked their own territories across the table. The hands have turned into lifeless/ loveless objects that are always poking at things: they no longer are the mouth of the body which once kissed, touched and felt and comforted the beloved one. The lines are filled with images that describe the metamorphosis of pleasure into pain: love is the food which grew cold on the table with the passing of time and the two lovers have obviously lost the passion which de-flamed their bond. The idea that love is not only painful but filthy thus requiring purification by fire is in the line he said burn your body, which, paradoxically enough might be seen as a solution to the riddle of love if we are to translate it into go and inflame you body, go and fill it with life, with fire and passion. The imagery created is so strong and powerful that we can almost picture the two lovers sitting across the table while poking at each other, and smell the strong stench of sweat gliding down the two bodies after having had animalistic sex. The woman seems to be mentally crippled since she is unable to take attitude and react against her being turned into a mere (sexual) object: I said yes. With Anne Sexton, the body is turned into a protagonist of the poem: there is a suggestion of self-abandonment into comfort, into tranquility, the tranquility that one needs to flee back from all the ado of the modern world.
Oh, darling, let your body in,/ let it tie you in,/ in comfort / What I want to say, Linda,/ is that there is nothing in your body that lies. (Little Girl, My String Bean, My Lovely Woman, 1973: 124).

Most women writers make use of powerful somatic imagery in their poems to render the idea of psychic hurt and scorn of the flesh: there is always a strong connection between physical vulnerability and ironic self-rejection.
Stop bleeding said the knife./ I would if I could said the cut./ Stop bleeding you make me messy with this blood./ Im sorry said the cut. (Swenson May, Bleeding, 1978: 54).

The normal as well as the abnormal in a womans life may feel like imprisonment, as in Lisel Muellers Life of a Queen (1975: 134) which summarizes the biological cycle of 82

cognate species: They build a pendulous chamber/ for her, and stuff her with sweets A crew
disassembles/ her royal cell, or the opening of Anne Sextons Snow White: No matter what life you lead/ the virgin is a lovely number,/ cheeks fragile as cigarette paper,/ arms and legs made of Limoges,/ lips like Vin du Rhone,/ rolling her china blue eyes/ open and shut (1973:84).

To understand the connection between physical vulnerability and ironic selfrejection, we may consider Sylvia Plath. Plath work is filled with body images both internal and external: skin, blood, skulls, feet, mouths tongues, wounds, bone, lungs, heart and veins, legs and arms. She writes of both male and female bodies. She also projects human anatomy into the natural world. The moon is a face in its own right, / White as a knuckle and terribly upset (1973: 142). Goldfish ponds being drained collapse like lungs, an elm speaks like a woman pregnant, or cancer-ridden one cannot tell the difference: Terrified by this dark thing/ That sleeps in me; / All day I feel its soft, feathery turnings, its malignity (145). When the poet is hospitalized, tulips breathe: Lightly through their swaddlings, like an awful baby,/ their redness talks to my wound, it corresponds/ They are opening like the mouth of some African cat (146). The organic, for Plath, is approximately identical with suffering. Her poetry offers fragments of beings, not whole persons. In The World as Icon (1970:73) the critic Annette Lavers notices that the living flesh is felt as a prey to axes doctors needles, butchers and surgeons knives, poison, snakes, tentacles, acids, vampires, leaches and bats, jails and brutal boots. Similarly, small animals are butchered and eaten, mans flesh can undergo the final indignity of being cut to pieces and used as an object. Subjects and metaphors include a cut, a contusion, the tragedy of thalidomide, fever, an accident, a wound, a paralysis, a burial, animal and human sacrifice, the burning of heretics, lands devastated by wars, and extermination camps. Therefore, Plaths poetry is a garden of tortures in which mutilation and annihilation take nightmarishly protean forms. A number of persistent motifs are particularly feminine. Plaths imagery for strangulation implies in extreme form the woman fatally imprisoned and stifled by her own body. Attacks by miniature enemies evoke the idea of a womans body as a parasite, feeding from her life. Children are hooks sticking in ones skin, and placenta and umbilical cord threaten to poet in Medusa. Most painfully, her imagery of laceration suggests womans essential anatomical condition, shameful to endure, difficult to confess as in Cut where the poet runs through a series of brilliant metaphors for the thumb she has just sliced with a kitchen knife instead of an onion. All the metaphors are masculine and military: Little pilgrim , redcoats , homunculus , kamikaze man before the final How you jump -/ Trepanned veteran./ Dirty girl,/ Thumb stump (1973:149). What, after all, is more humiliating than being a bleeding dirty girl? At the same time, the landscape of war and mutilation in a poem like Getting there, the references to Jews and Nazis in Daddy and Lady Lazarus, the Hiroshima Ash of Fever 103 and even the sour commercial comedy of The Applicant in which a wife is sold like a household appliance and only the mutilated man can be normal enough to marry, reinforce Plaths vision of worldly existence as at worst holocaust, at best tawdry sideshow. The drama of social and political life plays out, on a nightmarishly large scale, the victimization of the body. Plath demonstrates a will toward detachment from body and word in two ways, of which the first is Art the distancing of experience through poetic manipulation. Her early verse employs tight formal structures, bookish diction, a harmony of allusions to sanctioned works of art and literature, and a consistently ironic impersonality of tone, which has everything to do with rising above experience, little to do with dwelling in it. The looser, less traditional forms of her late work rather intensify than relax our sense of the poets control. She manipulates rhyme and off rhyme, regular and irregular mater, with

83

the casualness of a juggler tossing knives, and her mature mastery of colloquial idiom illustrates her contempt for the vulgar and cruel social relations which generate such idiom. She becomes a mocker of the vernacular, using language against itself: The peanutcrunching crowds shoves in to see/ Them unwrap me hand and foot - /The big strip tease (Lady Lazarus, 1973:152). But Dying/ Is an art, like everything else. The implicit equation is clear as early as Two Views of a Cadaver Room, which places a real-life scene with corpses next to the panorama of smoke and slaughter in a Breughel painting. In The Disquieting Muses, Plath rejects her mothers cheery songs and stories for the three bald and faceless figures she accepts as artistic guides. And in Ariel, as in poem after poem, the poet unpeels herself from her body, lets it flake away, annihilates the trash of flesh which disgusts her because it would make her kin to the ogling peanut-crunching crowd as she transforms herself from the gross matter to a pure acetylene virgin rising towards heaven, or to dew evaporating in the sunrise transcendence always means death. And if she fears and scorns deaths perfection: Perfection is terrible. It cannot have children, This is what it means to be complete. It is horrible (153), self annihilation is nevertheless the ultimately ironic response to humiliation. Plath is an extreme example. One may view her work aesthetically as a radical extension of the mode of disenchanted alienation in the Eliot Auden Lowell line. One may view it morally as a capitulation to weakness, self-indulgence. Perhaps it is both. In any case, the identification of woman and body, body and vulnerability, vulnerability ad irony which in effect responds to the implacable indifference or cruelty of the external world by internalizing it is a common phenomenon in womens poetry of the last thirty years or so. Advertising women As W. B. Yeats has his beautiful mild woman (actually Maude Gonnets sister) observe in Adams Curse, to be born a woman is to know / Although they do not speak of it at school /Women must labor to be beautiful (1983:56). The idea of vulnerability and self annihilation appears not only in the poems marking the passing from pleasure to pain but also in such poems dealing with the womans permanent concern to do away with the stereotype of exchange value created and kept alive by men. In reply, one may imagine a chorus of not-so-mild women poets remarking: you said it. The labors of loveliness have not been traditionally spoken in poetry, beyond misogynist attacks on the foulness of the painted woman. But they are now, commonly to hilarious effect. Honor Moores poem M Mothers Moustache (1988:67) gives a wry and detailed account of adolescence with and without depilatories. Karen Swenson tells of a bosom which never attains movie star amplitude, and hopes (with oral metaphors in the Spenser Keats tradition) to find a man who will settle for dumplings at the feast of life. Kathleen Fraser writes A Poem in Which My Legs are Accepted (1993:89). The opening poem of Diane Wakoskis Motorcycle Betrayal Poems (1971: 78) complains about this ridiculous face/ of lemon rinds/ and vinegar cruets. Grumbling with the voice of multitudes in Woman Poem (1973:69), Nikki Giovanni summarizes: its a sex object if youre pretty/ and no love and no sex if youre fat. Beauty, when a woman stops to think about it, mans bondage. In A Work of Artifice, Marge Piercy compares the feminine fate with that of a bonsai tree, artificially miniature. It is your nature/ to be small and cozy,/ domestic and weak;/how lucky little tree / within living creatures/ one must begin very early/ to dwarf their growth:/ the bound feet,/ the

84

crippled bran,/ the hair in curlers,/ the hands you love to touch. (1973:153). Obviously, as a woman, there seems to be a continuous interest for keeping up with some beauty standards as early as the adolescence days. The feminine fate is compared to that of a bonsai tree the symbolism of which sends us to the idea of limitation: it is its (her) innate nature not to grow and say dwarf, small and cozy all its (her) lifetime. In Pro Femina, Carolyn Kizer advertises women and forwards the idea that there are commercial-economic and emotional reasons that lead to a womans entrapment and psychological handicapping.
Our masks, always in peril of smearing and cracking,/ In need of continuous check in the mirror or silverware,/Keep us in thrall to ourselves, concerned with our surfaces.// So sister, forget yourself a few times, and see where it gets you:/ Up the creek, alone with your talent, sans everything else./ You can wait for the menopause, and catch up with your reading.(1980:42)

The adaptation of advertising language in the opening lines grimly indicates that a womans face is not her own but someone elses fortune. But what can she do? She needs to be loved. Further on Carolyn Kizer talks about women of letters and addresses the unique dilemma of the lady with the brains and ambition. Is our perpetual concern of always wearing masks and pretending to be something that we are not derived from our wrong ideas that we might not think ourselves worthy of a mans love? Is this frailty ego, deception? Could this be a demystification of the woman? If beauty is just refraction, a distorted one, into the mirrors of our minds, why cant we do away with the bondage we have crated? We should remember Luce Irigarays Speculum of the Other Woman (1985) where the mirror, used in its connotative meaning, is the instrument of penetration in gynecology, but it also triggers off the process of specularization speculation (phalocentric thinking) and specularization looking into a mirror, therefore a narcissistic act. While quizzical poems on the topic of beauty versus truth as applied to cosmetics will admittedly weigh lightly in most literary scales, they typically embody two interesting stylistic decisions. First, the poems are not openly autobiographical and factual, but antiliterary, even anti-aesthetic, in the sense that they refuse, rather than cultivate, formal distance. In the volume of womens poetry Making the Park, Marina La Palma wrote Holding Fast, a poem on the woman-flower theme:
In a shop there are dark red/ and purple flowers growing from a pot./ My fingers hesitate, then press against their/ folds which yield only a little/ and give no sign that theyve been touched/ Like intestines he woman says./ To me they are inside/ vagina convoluted folds./ I hesitate before I say it/ thinking it might shock her/ obvious and careful point of view. (1981: 76)

No persona, no gloss of verbal refinement intervenes between the poet and the sense of personal inadequacy, or between herself and her audience. There is no extension of personality here. As readers, we are asked to participate in the predicament of someone who wants to be beautiful while challenging, implicitly or explicitly, the standards or value of beauty for a woman, and who does not pretend to transcend the situation. It would be inappropriate to make the poem itself too beautiful. But the poem must be comic. Comedy enables writer and reader to agree that the predicament is, after all, innately absurd. Not a life-or-death matter, is it? Clowning shows that we have perspective. Or perhaps we laugh that we may not show the frown lines to the mirror? He rollicking meter and jaunty-to-blustery tone of Pro Femina, unlike Kizers more usual lyric style, serve the same function as a womans preening: they make a disguise for a naked emotion, as paint for a womans naked face.

85

Possibly, the funniest, certainly the most outrageous poem of this subgenre is Erica Jongs tour de force Aging, subtitled Balm for a 27th Birthday. Jong at the outset presents herself as: Hooked for two years now n wrinkle creams/ creams for crowsfeet ugly lines (if only they were one)/ any perfumed grease which promises youth beauty/ not truth but all I need on earth (1978: 67). She imagines through several lines the advancing track of the wrinkles as ruin proceeds downwards and the face begins to resemble the tragic mask. Her tone grows increasingly nervous, but the poem is undergoing a transformation of its own, from self- mocking panic to self-loving acceptance. Though the neck will give you away and the chin in spite of face-lifts will never love your bones as it once did, the belly may be kept firm through numerous pregnancies/ by means of sit-ups jogging dancing (think of Russian/ ballerinas) and the cunt/ as far as I know is ageless possibly immortal becoming simply/ more open and more quick to understand more dry-eyed than at 22/ which/ after all is all that you were dying for(67). If a woman is naturally narcissistic, she might as well go the whole hog. Beauty is, Jong reminds us, as beauty does. Incidental amusements like the play on lines and plotting in a womans face or her writing (both of which show promise of deepening) occupy the reader through the first part of the poem. The four-letter term at the poems crux has been cunningly prepared for by suggestions that decline in on aspect may bring ascendance in another. The close gracefully offers the pun on what you were dying for and concludes with a deft inversion of a centuries-old poetic convention. Time, the enemy of love in lyric poetry since the Greek Anthologia, has become sequence of lovers-blundering, presumably young and inexperienced lovers at that to whom a woman, ripe with herself, can condescend. Jong writes less successfully when she attempts to make narcissism look sublime rather than ridiculous, and poems of self examination in this surface sense do not easily survive the comic mode. Because humor can effectively spotlight problems and conflicts which are naggingly real and ostensibly trivial, the comic-autobiographical mode has become a major opinion in womens writing. Female body symbolism When women write to praise the body rather than attack or joke about it, their most significant technique is symbolism. Water, moon, earth and living things, the natural as opposed to the artificial, provide the strongest sources or imagery for women poets engaged in commending the basic physical self, just as they always have for men describing women. Nevertheless, there are differences. The identification of woman with flowers, for example, is as least as old as the Le Roman de la Rose. Elizabethan poets agreed that Beauty is but a flower/ Which wrinkles with devour. Keats urged the melancholic lover to glut his sorrow on a rose, a wealth of globed peonies, or his mistresss peerless eyes, all of which with beauty that must die. Poets have seen both woman and flower from without, whether in erotic poetry, poetry of witty seduction, or poetry of reflection on the transience and mutability of life. But, when Diane Wakoski compares an armful of roses first with skin and then with internal organs the, focus changes.
The full roses with all their petals like the wrinkles of laughter/ on your face as you bend to kiss someone/ are bursting on the bush,/ spotting my arm, as I carry a bundle of them,/ to my friends;/ they seem to have come out of my skin/ on this fragrant night,/ and I imagine the inside of my body/ glowing, phosphorescent, with strange flower faces/ looking out from the duodenum/ or the soft liver,/ white as my belly, the eyes are

86

always disbelieving/ the ugly processes that make a living body. (In Gratitude to Beethoven, 1968: 54)

In their particularized detail-color, texture as well as dramatic quality, these flowers resemble Plaths poppies and tulips. One experiences not beauty but an overwhelming vividness, energy and terror in the sense of self as living organism. The rapid and radical alterations of focus in Wakoskis lines blur spatial distinctions between night and roses, ace, arm and the inside of the body, until everything seems equally bursting, hot, fragrant and in flux. The extreme vitality of flowers and body approaches the obscene, as in Plath it approaches the predatory. Though wrinkled, there is nothing frail or weak in the blossoms of either poet. The personalism and particularism of women writers can provoke both disapproval and approval given that, on the one hand, the female tendency to define the self in terms of relationships with others is a defect, and on the other, a virtue, since relationship, communication and identification are primary devices for women writers. Again, when Adrienne Rich writes of dividing into the wreck, or Sharon Barba of entering that dark watery place, both poets accept a woman-water identification held in common with Shakespeares Cleopatra, identified with the fertile and capricious Nile, or with Miltons Eve whose first act in Paradise Lost is to kneel and behold her own image in water, where Adam at the moment of his creation sprang upright and looked at the sky. One also recalls the sea-mother in Whitmans Out of the Cradle, and the Mermaids of Prufrocks plunge into memory, into fantasy, into that brief moment of womblike ease before he wakes and chokes on mortal air. Throughout western tradition, descent into waters signifies danger or death, consistently associated with the feminine. Women who make the same plunge also evoke the dangerous and the unknown, but they tend to evoke at the same time a sense of trust. The destructive element is their element. It is alien, and yet it is home, where one will not be hurt. Rich notes that relaxation rather than force is required to maneuver here, and she is confident of finding treasure as well as devastation. At the deepest point in the poem she becomes her deepest self, the androgyne: I am she I am he. Barba anticipates, from these waves, the birth of a new Venus, closer to nature than Boticellis. Still again, if our most celebrated and compendious symbol for woman is earth, adored as mother, revered as virgin, earth is of course other than the celebrant; she is always the principle of passive material life divided from the mental or spiritual and she is always subject to conquest. Women who identify with earth, however, include Margaret Atwood who in her Circe/ Mud Poems (1973) taunts Odysseus: Dont you get tired of saying Onward? and Yosana Akiko who in Mountain Moving Day (1983) makes the mountain a symbol both of womens bodies and of their awakening consciousness. The idea of a consciousness invisible from the earthy body appears in Anne Sextons notorious In Celebration of my Uterus, written on the occasion of a medical reprieve which has defied rational diagnosis. Sextons opening is euphoric, buoyant, and hyperbolic. They wanted to cut you out/ but they will not/They said you were sick onto dying./ but they were wrong./ You are singing like a schoolgirl (1989:68). The poems central portion compares the uterus with soil of the fields roots and the poet announces, in an engaging combination of insouciant self-confidence and generosity: Each cell has a life./ There is enough her to feed a nation(68). The abundance and fertility of the poets imagination in inventing her group of women of all types, from all religions of the globe, must be understood as a parallel to, or an extension of, her uterine health. Moreover, this chorale of far-flung women cannot be

87

perceived from without, precisely as the continued vitality and fertility of the womb has evaded external discernment:
Many women are singing together of this:/ one is in a shoe factory cursing the machine, // one is tying the cord of a calf in Arizona,/one is straddling a cello in Russia,/ one is shifting pots on the stove in Egypt,/ / one is staring out the window of a train/ / anywhere and some everywhere and all/ seem to be singing although some cannot/ sing a note.(68)

As matter, so spirit. Both, according to this poem, lie within, in the realm of the immanent rather than the transcendent. The function of spirit is to celebrate matter, not to subdue or escape it, and women become mutually connected beings by the participation of spirit in the principle of flesh they commonly share. (Sherry Ortner, Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture? 1974: 98) Sexton has used a conventional fertility-and-harvest symbolism to lure us into a set of convictions here presented as perceptions entirely opposed to those of the vertical standard. For a woman, perhaps the most decisively difficult act is to think of herself as powerful, or as more powerful than a man, and capable of influencing the outward world without sacrificing femaleness. One poet who has asserted hat female biology equals power, and has found a set of symbols to state is nature, is Robin Morgan. In the series of poems entitled The Network of the Imaginary Mother (1977), Morgan describes a conversion from flesh-loathing to flesh-affirmation while nursing her dying mother, and defines her biological capacities in terms of goddess-figures Kali, Isis, African and Pre-Columbian madonnas representing a triumphant will to love and nurture. Her husband in this poem is Osiris, a consort and her son teaches the simple secret of delight. For Morgan is not the god-man of the Gospels, but a nursing woman who says to her own son, and by extension, all children, envisioning a world un-threatened by violence and famine: Take. Eat. This is my body,/ this real milk, thin, sweet, bluish,/ which I give for the life of the world / as honest nourishment/ alone able to sustain you. (Lady of the Beasts, 1977:82) Biological facts and spiritual interpretation here become indistinguishable. He poets fantasy of a maternal politics would eliminate the burden of conflict between humanity and nature, between individual and species, between womans body and social change. Self as world Poets have perennially occupied themselves with discovering analogies between the macrocosm of the world and the microcosm of the self. For many women poets at present, the microcosm means, emphatically, a physical self from which it is neither possible nor desirable to divide mental or emotional existence. A particular endeavor of twentieth-century thought has involved a questioning of distinctions between private and public life, in order to understand how each influences and reflects the other. Here too, women poets seem inclined to insist that we begin with the body to understand the body politic. None of these poets seems disposed to celebrate a world of transcendent public action at the cost of minimizing the physical self. For some, the dominant experience of life in the flesh is suffering. One can scarcely deny the public validity of such an apprehension in the light of history. For other writers, the relation between private and public means a conflict between what used to be called appearance and reality. To cosmetize or not to cosmetize? This is a battle fought on the fields of the skin, as well as on more dignified terrain. For still others, the body is felt as strength, a

88

kind of connective tissue uniting human beings at a level beneath the particularities of individual ego or circumstance, a set of capacities both socially and personally valuable. Compared with the variety and richness of works by omen in this area, the works of most male poets in the 1970s appears inhibited and unoriginal. If we may say that women have contrived to make a continental landscape out of the secret gardens to which they have been forcefully confined, we may say by the same token that men have endued a certain self-imposed exile. Distance remains a virtue in the male poetic establishment, almost like a corollary of the training which defines the masculine body exclusively as tool or weapon, forbids it to acknowledge weakness or pain, and deprives in accordingly of much potential sensitivity to pleasure a sensuous man is an effeminate man apart from the pleasures associated with combat or conquest. The discourse of male bonding may derive from big and little, game hunting and the tennis court, or from allusions to the responses of women in bed. These are the safe, sane, blush proof topics. Men also look in mirrors, experience troublesome and delicious sensations contribute to the generation of species and ride throughout life the tide of emotions influenced by glandular secretions. They too get ill, grow old and withered, and are, in sum, precisely as rooted in nature as women. Will they in due time acknowledge this condition? Will women begin comparing the bodies of men to flowers? Confronting old age, Yeats divided himself into two beings: a old man craving fiery purification from the flesh and an old woman Crazy Jane raucously declaring her satisfaction with it. One must assume that the discoveries women poets are making about bodily experience, and the verbal tactics employed to name their discoveries, will enter common usage and become readily available to men as well as women. Crazy Jane stands at the foot of the tower, inviting the man to come down. References
Akiko, Y. (1983), Mountain Moving Day in Gill E. (Ed.), Mountain Moving Day: Poems by Women, Trumansburg & New York; Atwood, M. (1973), Circe/ Mud Poems in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; Barba, S. (Ed.), (1983), A Cycle of Women in Rising Tides: 20th Century American Women Poets, Random House, New York; Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.) (1973), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; De Beauvoir, S. (1972), The Second Sex, H. M. Parshley (Trans.), Penguin Books, London & New York; Fraser, K. (1993), A Poem in which my Legs are Accepted in DiYanni R. & Rompf, K. The McGraw-Hill Book of Poetry, The McGraw-Hill Companies, New York; Giovanni, N. (1973), Woman Poem in Black Feeling, Black Talk, Black Judgment, Pocket Books, New York; Irigaray, L. (1985), Speculum of the Other Woman, Gillian C. G. (Trans.), Cornell University Press, New York; Jong, E. (1978), Aging. Balm for a 27th Birthday in Fruits and Vegetables, The Holt, Rinehart and Winston Publishing House, New York; Kizer, C. (1980), Pro Femina in Knock Upon Silence, Random House, New York; La Palma, M. (1981), Holding Fast in Making the Park, University of California Press, Berkeley; Lavers, A. (1970), The World as Icon: on Sylvia Plaths Themes in Charles Newman (Ed.), The Art of Sylvia Plath, Indiana University Press, Bloomington; Morgan, R. (1977), Lady of the Beasts in The Network of the Imaginary Mother, Random House, New York; Moore, H. (1988), Mothers Moustache in Memoir: Poems, Chicory Blue Press, Connecticut, US Ortner, S. (1974), Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture? in Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo & Louise Lamphere (Eds.), Women, Culture and Society, Stanford University Press, California; Piercy, M. (1973), The Friend in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; *** (1973), A Work of Artifice in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA;

89

Plath, S. (1973), Ariel in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; ***(1973), Cut in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; ***(1973), Daddy in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; ***(1973), Fever 103 in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; *** (1973), Getting There in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; ***(1973), Hiroshima Ash in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; ***(1973), Lady Lazarus in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; ***(1973), Medusa in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; *** (1973), The Applicant in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; ***(1973), The Disquieting Muse in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; Rich, A. (1975), Women in Poems Selected and New, Norton & Company, New York; Sexton, A. (1973), Little Girl, My String Bean, My Lovely Woman in Barbara, S. & Rainey C. (Eds.), Psyche. The Feminine Poetic Consciousness. An Anthology of Modern American Women Poets, Dell Publishing, USA; ***(1989), In Celebration of My Uterus in Love Poems, Mariner Books, New York; Suckenick , L. (1975), The Poster in Laura Chester and Sharon Barba (Eds.), Rising Tides: 20th Century American Women Poets, Random House, New York; Swenson, M. (1978), Bleeding in Things Taking Place: Poems Selected and New, Little Brown & Co., Boston; Wakoski, D. (1971), I Have Had to Learn to Live with My Face, in The Motorcycle Betrayal Poems, Touchstone, New York; *** (1968), In Gratitude to Beethoven in Inside the Blood Factory, Garden City: Doubleday, New York; Yeats, W.B. (1983), Adams Curse in Finneran R.J. (Ed.), The Collected Poems of W. B. Yeats, Oxford University Press, London. Abstract The present paper aims at examining three sorts of representative attitudes discernable in women poets who explore female bodily experience associated with three sorts of verbal strategies.

Rsum Cet article essai dexaminer trois catgories reprsentatives qui peuvent tre identifies dans la posie des potesses qui explorent lexprience sensorielle du corps en lassociant aux trois catgories de stratgies verbales. Rezumat Lucrarea de fa i propune spre analiz trei tipuri de atitudini reprezentative ce pot fi identificate n poezia scris de poetese care exploreaz experiena corpului feminin asociindu-i trei tipuri de strategii verbale.

90

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 91- 98

Language and Literature

UTRAQUE LINGUA BILINGVISMUL GRECO-LATIN I IMPLICAIILE SALE Mihaela Paraschiv Expresia utraque lingua, cu sensul "ambele limbi", apare i n variantele sinonimice utraque oratio, uterque sermo la autorii latini care recomand sau elogiaz exprimarea curent n limbile greac veche i latin, indispensabil formrii omului cult. n introducerea tratatului De officiis, dedicat fiului su Marcus, Cicero l ndeamn s-i imite exemplul pentru a deveni la fel de capabil s se exprime n ambele limbi: ut ipse ad meam utilitatem semper cum Graecis Latina coniunxi, idem tibi censeo faciendum, ut par sis in utriusque orationis facultate (aa cum eu nsumi am mbinat mereu cele latine cu cele greceti) la fel cred c trebuie s faci i tu pentru a deveni deopotriv de abil n exprimarea n cele dou limbi).[1] Tot Cicero recomanda oratorului s vorbeasc sau s scrie n care dintre cele dou limbi ar voi: aut dicat aut scribat utra voles lingua.[2] ntr-o od dedicat lui Maecenas [3], Horatius i se adreseaz cu apelativul docte sermones utriusque linguae (iscusitule n literaturile celor dou limbi), iar ntre sfaturile nelepte adresate tinerilor de Ovidius n Ars amatoria figura i acesta: Impodobete-i mintea cu artele frumoase,/ nva i latina i graiul lui Homer.[4] Pedagogul Quintilianus recomanda nvarea paralel n coal a celor dou limbi; e bine s se nceap cu greaca, opina el, dar imediat i apoi paralel trebuie s urmeze latina, pentru ca nici una s nu-i duneze celeilalte "atunci cnd vom ncepe s ne preocupm cu aceeai grij de ambele limbi" (cum aequali cura linguam utramque tueri coeperimus) [5] Recomandarea sa vizeaz tendina devenit curent n rndul pedagogilor (n majoritate de origine greac) de a-i nva pe copii s vorbeasc doar grecete: N-a vrea totui s se procedeze att de pedant, nct <elevul> s vorbeasc sau s nvee mult vreme doar grecete, aa cum obinuiesc cei mai muli.[6] De la istoricul Suetonius aflm c n primele coli nfiinate la Roma, pedagogi precum Livius Andronicus i Ennius (unul grec din Tarent, cellalt bun cunosctor al limbii greceti), i instruiau pe copii n utraque lingua, nlesnind de timpuriu (sec.III a.C.) formarea unor generaii bilingve. O preocupare de seam a filologilor clasiciti a fost stabilirea unui terminus a quo al bilingvismului latino-grec. A.Meillet, studiind lexicul comediilor plautine, crede c n secolul al III-lea a.C., publicul lui Plautus din pturile inferioare ale societii romane era capabil s neleag numeroasele grecisme din comediile acestuia, ntruct cunotea limba greac.[7] i n opinia lui Johannes Kramer, prezena exclamaiilor, a adverbelor i imprecaiilor de origine greac n comediile plautine este un detaliu semnificativ pentru msura n care circula vocabularul grec n pturile inferioare; acest bilingvism popular se va regsi n romanul lui Petronius, fapt care demonstreaz, crede Kramer, c, la fel ca Roma, i Italia meridional a fost bilingv.[8]

91

P.Boyanc contest aceast interpretare, opinnd c numai ncepnd cu secolul al II-lea a.C. i numai n mediile culte se poate vorbi de bilingvism; el remarca ns faptul c magistraii romani bilingvi selectau cu mult atenie circumstanele n care i permiteau s vorbeasc n limba greac, pentru a nu-i submina prestigiul de reprezentani oficiali ai poprului roman nvingtor.[9] i Pierre Grimal e de prere c doar din secolul al II-lea a.C. gndirea i limbile celor dou naii, greac i roman, au trit ntr-o simbioz aproape total, deoarece, prin educaie, tinerii romani, mai ales din pturile superioare, ajung a poseda cele dou limbi de cultur i, implicit, o dubl formaie spiritual.[10] Tot n mediile aristocrate e de prere i J.Marouzeau c a nceput a fi cunoscut i vorbit la Roma limba greac, dar cu mult nainte de secolul II a.C.; unul dintre argumentele sale sunt acele cognomina Graeca pe care le-au primit aristocraii elenofili nc din secolul IV a.C., precum consulul Paulus Sempronius care a fost numit n 304 a.C. Sophus. [11] n propagarea elenismului n mediul roman un aport precumpnitor l-a avut Cercul Scipionilor, ntemeiat de Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus n secolul II a.C.; despre membrii acestui cerc cultural elenofil, Cicero spunea cu admiraie: Aceast cetate <Roma> nu a dat oameni mai renumii prin glorie i mai desvrii prin cultur, dect P. Africanus, C.Laelius, L.Furius, care nu s-au ferit s aib mereu n anturajul lor pe cei mai nvai oameni din Grecia.[12] Informaia lui Cicero "nu s-au ferit s aib" (palam habuerunt), alude, desigur, la opozanii faciunii filoelene romane conduse de Scipioni, ntre care cel mai vehement a fost Cato Maior. n calitate de censor acesta a avut dou iniiative xenofobe, motivate, n opinia sa, de necesitatea imperioas de a ndeprta influena nefast a grecilor, care, spunea el indignat chiar i pe noi, romanii, ne numesc barbari [13]: n 173 a.C. au fost alungai din Roma filosofii i retorii greci, iar n 155 a.C. este expulzat delegaia atenian condus de filosofii Carneades, Critolaos i Diogenes. P.Grimal crede c totui Cato nu ar fi refuzat sistematic tot ceea ce era grecesc, mai ales dac provenea din tradiia atic i c ar fi nvat limba greac nu la btrnee, cum se spune, ci n tineree, n timpul campaniilor militare din Graecia Magna. [14] n pofida unor atitudini ostentativ naionaliste, precum cea a lui Cato Maior, bilingvismul se va nceteni la Roma, n rndul reprezentanilor clasei superioare, fapt atestat de mrturiile autorilor: Cicero l numea pe epicureicul roman Titus Albucius, plane Graecus (grec sadea) [15]; despre Titus Pomponius Atticus, prietenul lui Cicero, Cornelius Nepos afirma c "aa <de bine> vorbea grecete, nct prea c s-a nscut la Atena" (sic enim Graece loquebatur, ut Athenis natus videretur) [16]; dup informaia lui Quintilianus, omul politic roman Licinius Crassus cunotea bine cinci dialecte greceti, astfel c, n calitate de guvernator n Asia, era capabil s dea o sentin n oricare dialect ar fi cerut cineva s i se fac dreptate. [17] Msura cunoterii limbii greceti de ctre Cicero poate fi dedus mai ales din corespondena sa, presrat cu numeroase expresii, versuri, proverbe de origine greac; totui, observ pe bun dreptate Marouzeau, Cicero nu recurge la elenisme dect n corespondena cu prietenii mai apropiai, dintr-o anume cochetrie (lascivia), specific stilului familiar. [18] Aceasta, ntruct, cu toat admiraia sa pentru limba i cultura greac, Cicero consider ca pe o datorie civic folosirea limbii materne i i se pare ridicol abuzul de elenisme n vorbire: sermone eo debemus uti, qui innatus est nobis, ne ut quidem Graeca verba inculcantes, iure optimo rideamur (se cuvine s ne folosim de limba care ne-a fost dat prin natere, ca s nu ne facem, pe bun dreptate, de rs, precum cei care intercaleaz <n vorbire> cuvinte greceti).[19] Totui, Cicero, la fel ca ali autori latini, n pofida naionalismului lingvistic profesat oficial, i-a scris unele lucrri n limba greac; el l informeaz pe Atticus c i-a redactat n greac memoriile despre consulatul su, pe care le-a trimis spre lectur filosofului grec Poseidonios i c acesta a fost uimit de expresia lui curgtoare i limpede, cu nimic mai prejos de cea a unui grec: Poseidonios mi-a scris, nu de mult, c citind acele memorii, nu numai c n-a fost

92

ndemnat s mai scrie, ci a fost descurajat de-a binelea. Ce vrei? Am speriat tot neamul grecesc. [20] n ce privete opiunea romanilor bilingvi de a se exprima ocazional n greac, mai ales n scrisori i n conversaiile intime, Pabn e de prere c ea sugereaz un ton de ncredere, de familiaritate, o anume intimitate cu destinatarul. Un caz mult discutat de istorici i filologi au fost vorbele adresate nainte de moarte de Caesar lui Brutus, rostite n limba greac, spune Suetonius: tradiderunt quidam Marco Bruto irruenti dixisse Caesarem K , . (Unii <autori> au transmis c Caesar i-a spus lui Marcus Brutus cnd se npustea asupra lui: i tu, fiule?) [21] Explicaia dat de R.Flacelire acestui fapt este destul de anost: "muli romani cultivai se exprimau spontan n greac, mai ales pentru c preferau s fie nelei de cei din jur." [22] ntr-un articol dedicat acestei celebre replici, M. Dubuisson afirm c prima limb nsuit, numit n mod curent matern, las o amprent de neters n subcontientul vorbitorului bilingv, ea rmnnd limba viselor, a exclamaiilor instinctive, a cuvintelor pronunate ntr-un stadiu incitativ de mnie, delir, spaim, nelinite. Or, aa cum ne informeaz Quintilianus, greaca reprezenta pentru tinerii romani din elita societii, dac nu limba matern propriu-zis, cel puin cea dinti limb nvat. Explicaia lui Dubuisson privind opiunea romanilor pentru greac ca limb a intimitii este susinut i de observaiile ironice ale satiricului Iuvenalis referitoare la tentaia femeilor de neam italic din Roma, de a o face pe grecoaicele n conversaiile lor intime: tiu femei care cu toate c-n Toscana sunt nscute,/ Socotesc c-s mai distinse dndu-se din neam elin./ i pretind c-s din Atena, cnd de la Sulmona vin./ Toate-s dup moda greac i nici una nu roete/ c nu tie cum se cade s vorbeasc latinete./ Tinuiesc, glumesc, se ceart pe grecete: limba lor! Pe grecete le e fric, pe grecete fac amor.[23] Despre Octavianus Augustus, Suetonius ne informeaz c iubea literatura greac, c primise o bun educaie retoric i filosofic de la dasclii si greci, dar c nu vorbea cu uurin limba greac (Augustus, 89). n vremea imperiului, folosirea limbii greceti cunoate o vog nemaintlnit pn atunci la Roma, ora care devenise, spune Iuvenalis o urbs quasi Graeca; n consecin, se va recurge uneori la o intervenie oficial pentru a impune o anumit decen n uzul grecismelor. Suetonius relateaz c mpratul Tiberius, dei era un abil vorbitor de limb greac, a cerut excluderea cuvintelor greceti din decretele senatoriale, acceptnd doar n cazuri de strict necesitate un mprumut lexical sau semantic; el nsui a cerut n prealabil scuze senatului atunci cnd a fost constrns de lipsa unor echivalente latine s foloseasc ntr-un discurs cuvintele greceti monopolium i emblema (Tiberius, 71). Acelai istoric ne informeaz ns c ali mprai nu s-au sfiit s-i etaleze public bilingvismul. mpratul Claudius recunotea n orice mprejurare frumuseea limbii greceti, pe care o considera limba naional a romanilor, ludndu-l pe un sol strin c vorbea curent "ambele noastre limbi" (uterque sermo noster Claudius, 42); el a scris n limba greac 20 de cri despre etrusci i 8 despre cartaginezi. i despre Nero Suetonius spune c la o vrst foarte tnr pleda la procese att n latin ct i n greac (Nero, 7). n studiile moderne consacrate implicaiilor bilingvismului latino-grec [24], se face apel la conceptele de contact i de interferen; primul se refer la contextul spaial i temporal al utilizrii celor dou limbi, al doilea vizeaz consecinele fenomenului istoric al contactului asupra evoluiei lor. n legtur cu nceputurile contactului latino-grec, prerile lingvitilor sunt diferite: E.Peruzzi e de prere c primele contacte ntre greci i latini ar data din epoca talasocraiei miceniene (mileniul al II-lea a.C.) [25]; F.Biville [26] accept n principiu aceast teorie care urc mult n timp preistoria contactului latino-grec, fa de cronologia acestuia propus de G.Devoto (secolul al VIII-lea a.C.). [27] n cele ce urmeaz

93

vom pune pe scurt n discuie principalele aspecte ale interferenei, ocazionate de bilingvismul latino-grec, prelund reperele taxinomice ale lui Fr.Biville. A. Interferena prin relaionare comport dou variante principale: textual i metalingvistic. a. Intereferena textual este reprezentat de texte bilingve n care cele dou limbi coexist independent; noiunea nsi de text biling acoper, n fapt, realiti diferite: 1) texte bilingve propriu-zise constnd n acelai text scris n ambele limbi, precum Res gestae divi Augusti; 2) glosare bilingve care pun n relaie cuvinte sau fraze tip, un precedent antic al ghidurilor de conversaie; 3) nserarea unor cuvinte i expresii greceti n textele latine, frecvent, cum am menionat, n corespondena lui Cicero. b. Interferena metalingvistic const n contientizarea asemnrilor i deosebirilor dintre cele dou limbi, a limitelor i lipsurilor sistemului lingvistic latin comparativ cu cel grec. Lucretius era nemulumit de "srcia limbii strmoeti" (patrii sermonis egestas De rerum natura, I, 139), care fcea imposibil exprimarea unor concepte filosofice greceti; i Seneca recunotea imposibilitatea de a echivala n latin un concept fundamental exprimat prin grecescul ( nullo modo Latine exprimare possim Epistulae ad Lucilium, 56, 6), cu toate c Cicero propusese calcul essentia. Ia natere n urma acestor reflecii lingvistice precedentul antic al lingvisticii contrastive, care pune n lumin specificul structural al fiecrei limbi; iat n aceast privin cteva opinii ale lui Quintilianus [28], edificatoare pentru contientizarea diferenelor frapante ntre latin i greac de ctre un roman perfect bilingv: "chiar n privina sunetelor limba latin este mai dur, deoarece nou ne lipsesc cele mai armonioase litere greceti, anume o vocal i o consoan care au cea mai plcut sonoritate din alfabetul lor [literele i - n.n.]; dar i accentul nostru att din cauza unei anumite rigiditi, ct i pentru monotonia lui, este mai puin plcut; inferioritatea limbii noastre se remarc mai ales prin faptul c foarte multe idei nu au n limba noastr termeni proprii, nct trebuie s recurgem la metafore i perifraze. Observaiile lui Quintilianus sunt obiective dar nu pesimiste, cci el i invit semenii la o adevrat emulaie expresiv cu grecii: Nu putem fi att de delicai ca ei; s fim mai viguroi! Suntem nvini n finee, s fim mai tari prin gravitate! B. Interferena prin transfer comport i ea dou importante aspecte: a. Aportul masiv de elemente aloglote de origine greac la toate nivelele limbii latine, cel lexical fiind cel mai privilegiat: se mprumut lexeme care servesc la denotarea unor concepte i realiti strine , fapt mai evident n limbajele specializate i n limba popular.[29] Cele mai vechi elenisme n limba latin dateaz din epoca preliterar i, n privina lor, trebuie fcut diferena ntre mprumuturile indirecte i cele directe: primele au avut loc n secolul al V-lea prin intermediar etrsuc, comportnd trsturi ale limbii etrusce, precum nlocuirea consoanelor sonore prin surde ( > triumpus; >amurca); [30] mprumuturile directe provin mai ales din coloniile doriene sud-italice din Graecia Magna i asupra lor i-au pus amprenta unele trsturi ale latinei arhaice, precum apofonia vocalei n silab post-tonic ( > machina; > camera). Apariia primelor opere literare latine, create dup model grec, a ocazionat un nou aport de elenisme care vor suferi o adaptare fonomorfologic n limba latin i, pentru a le putea transcrie, apar grafemele y,z i diagrafele ch, ph, rh, th. O reacie purist, naionalist, se va manifesta ns la Roma ncepnd cu sfritul secolului al II-lea a.C., explicabil i prin motive de ordin psihologic: mndria naional i oprea pe romani s imite limba grecilor nvini (n 146 a.C. Grecia devenise provincie roman); prestigiul limbii greceti era diminuat i de faptul c la Roma, muli sclavi elenofoni, prizonieri de rzboi, exercitau profesiuni prea puin nobile. Nu se mai dorete mprumutarea direct a

94

cuvintelor greceti ci echivalarea lor prin crearea unor calcuri lexicale i semantice. Cicero este n secolul I a.C. reprezentantul cel mai de seam al acestei tendine i lui i se datoreaz acele calcuri care s-au impus n limba latin precum qualitas pentru , humanitas pentru , essentia pentru , veriloquium pentru .[31]. Cicero a fost ns un purist rezonabil, ntruct el nu contest n bloc elenismele, ci doar pe cele care nu erau necesare; pentru cele necesare i utile, intrate deja n uzul curent, recomand naturalizarea lor n limba latin (nostra ducamus s le socotim ale noastre). Epoca Principatului este din nou favorabil uzului elenismelor, conform declaraiei de principiu a lui Quintilianus: confessis quoque Graecis utimur verbis, ubi nostra desunt (ne folosim de cuvinte curat greceti, cnd ne lipsesc ale noastre). [32] Latina epocii imperiale cunotea dou tipuri de pronunie a cuvintelor greceti, care reflect i o stratificare social a bilingvilor: de o parte ptura superioar, cult, deprinsese prin instrucie o pronunie fidel limbii greceti, de cealalt parte, straturile sociale, inferioare adaptaser pronunia grecismelor sistemului fonologic latin. Un nou val de elenisme irumpe n limba latin odat cu penetrarea cretinismului n lumea roman, ntruct terminologia cretin era greac la origine. Autorii latini cretini, buni cunosctori ai limbii greceti, vor forja un vocabular latin de specialitate, "culegnd cte ceva din ambele limbi", cum afirm Tertullianus (si quid utriusque linguae praecerpsi) [33], mrturie relevant pentru mijloacele lingvistice de care s-au servit autorii cretini: mprumut, adaptare, resemantizare. b. Traducerea, ca ipostaz a interferenei prin transfer, a prilejuit confruntarea a dou puncte de vedere: 1.cel al traducerii literale, verbum e verbo, de a crei imperfeciune Cicero era contient atunci cnd afirma: perturbationes animi ... Graeci appelant; ego poteram morbos et id verbum esset a verbo, sed in consuetudinem nostram non caderet (grecii numesc ptimirile sufletului; eu puteam s le numesc morbi i acest cuvnt ar fi conform celui grec, doar c nu e conform cu uzul nostru) [34]; 2. cel al traducerii literare, practicate de Cicero i recomandate i de ali autori latini: traducnd unele discursuri ale lui Demosthenes i Eschines, Cicero spune c nu a considerat necesar s traduc cuvnt cu cuvnt, ci s pstreze tonul de ansamblu i fora expresiv a cuvintelor greceti (non verbum pro verbo necesse habui reddere, sed genus omne verborum vimque servavi) [35]; Horatius i recomand oricrui tnr autor dramatic s nu se preocupe a reda, ca traductor fidel, cuvnt cu cuvnt modelul literar grec, dac vrea s abordeze un subiect poetic cunoscut (nec verbo verbum curabis reddere fidus/ interpres) [36]; la acest ndemn horaian pare s fac aluzie Aulus Gellius, atunci cnd afirm: Cnd este nevoie s se traduc sau s se imite pasaje mai nsemnate din operele poetice greceti, nu trebuie s ne strduim ntotdeauna, se spune, s redm cu orice pre cuvnt cu cuvnt textul original, cci pierde din elegan i frumusee. Sunt anumite construcii i expresii care refuz o astfel de traducere gramatical. [37] c. Interferena prin fuziune vizeaz trei tipuri de conexiune lingvistic: a. Hibridizarea produs mai ales la nivel lexical, constnd fie n crearea unor derivate de la un cuvnt latin cu sufixe greceti (fratrissa < lat. frater + sufixul grecesc issa pentru formarea unor feminine), fie prin combinarea unor sufixe (-itanus < lat. anus + gr. <>); b. Apariia unor cuvinte bastarde, numite de lexicografii latini notha verba, prin "coruperea", adic prin integrarea latin a cuvintelor greceti (nomen nothum, ex parte corruptum), precum leo, leonis pentru , , Achilles pentru A [38]. i Varro spune despre aceste cuvinte c i-au pierdut identitatea, nefiind nici greceti, nici latineti (parum similia videntur esse Graecis ... parum similia nostris). [39] c. Intersecia celor dou coduri lingvistice, latin i grec, n baza motenirii lor comune, indoeuropene i a evoluiei paralele. La nivel lexical e vorba de acele communia 95

nomina, communia verba, cum le numeau lexicografii latini, precum domus/ ; fero/ ; ago/ ; ego/ ; tu/ , etc. n contiina romanilor cele dou limbi ajung a fi att de intim legate nct se ajunge uneori la a i se atribui unui cuvnt grec o etimologie latin sau invers, ba, lucru i mai important, la a se invoca proveniena latinei din greac, idee pe care o exprim Quintilianus [40], dar care-i are cel mai probabil originea n mediul grecesc. Ca o concluzie la aceast sumar investigaie a problematicii bilingvismului latinogrec, vom spune c influenele lingvistice i culturale ale elenismului asupra limbii i culturii latine nu au dus la o pierdere de identitate a acestora n cursul fenomenului de aculturaie i c fenomenele de contact i interferen mai sus discutate au constituit un incontestabil factor de progres, profitabil n posteritate pentru cultura i spiritualitatea european. Note:
[1] Cicero, De oficiis, I, 1, tr.n. [2] Idem, Orator, 235 [3] Horatius, Carmina, III, 8, v.5 [4] Ovidius, Ars amatoria, II, vv.123-124, trad.Gr.Tnsescu n vol. Antologia poeziei latine, Bucureti, Ed. Albatros, 1973, p.167 [5] Quintilianus, Institutio oratoria, I, 1, 14 [6] Ibidem, I, 1, 13, tr.n. [7] A.Meillet, Esquisse d'une histoire de la langue latine, Paris, 1945, pp.108-111 [8] J.Kramer, L'influence du grec sur le latin populaire. Quelques rflexions, "Studii clasice", XVIII, Bucureti, Ed.Academiei R.S.R., 1979, p.131. [9] P.Boyanc, La conaissance du grec Rome, "R.E.L.", 34, 1956, pp.111-116 [10] P.Grimal, Literatura latin, trad. de Mariana i Liviu Franga, Bucureti, Ed.Teora, 1997, p.20 [11] J.Marouzeau, Quelques aspects de la formation du latin litteraire, Paris, 1949, p.133 [12] Cicero, De oratore, II, 154, tr.n. [13] Apud Plinius Maior, Naturalis historia, XXIX, 7 [14] P.Grimal, op.cit., pp.99-100 [15] Cicero, Brutus, 131 [16] Cornelius Nepos, De viris illustribus, XXV, 4, 1 [17] Quintilianus, op.cit., XI, 2, 50; vide et Valerius Maximus, Memorabilia, III, 7, 6 [18] J.Marouzeau, op.cit., p.175 [19] Cicero, De officiis, I, 3, tr.n. [20] Cicero, Ad Atticum, I, 20, tr.n. [21] Suetonius, Caesar, 82, 2 [22] R.Flacelire, Istoria literar a Greciei antice, Bucure ti, Ed.Univers, 1970, p.462. [23] Iuvenalis, Satirae, VI, vv.191-197, trad. T.Minescu i A.Hodo n vol. Persius, Iuvenal, Marial, Satire i epigrame, Bucureti, Ed. pentru literatur, 1967, p.126. [24] James Noel Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, Cambridge University Press, 2003; M.Dubuisson, Le contact linguistique grco-romain: problmes d'interfrences et d'emprunts, "Lalies", 10, 1992, pp.91-109; Fr.Biville, Contacts linguistiques, "Studii clasice", XXVIIXXXIX, 2001-2003, Bucureti, Ed. Academiei Romne, pp.189-201. [25] E.Peruzzi, Aspetti culturali del Latio primitivo, Firenze, 1977; idem, I greci e le lingue del Latio primitivo, Roma, 1978. [26] Fr.Biville, L'emprunt lexical, un rvlateur des structures vivantes des deux langues en contact (le cas du grec et du latin; "Revue Philologique", 65 (1991), pp.45-58. [27] G.Devot, I primi grecismi nella storia della lingua latina, n Mlanges E.Boisacq, I, 1937, pp.327332; [28] Quintilianus, Institutio oratoria, XII, 10, 27-36, trad. Maria Hetco. [29] Cf.Fr.Biville, Grec et latin: contacts linguistiques et cration lexicale. Pour une typologie des hellnismes lexicaux du latin, "CILL", 15, 1989, p.1-40. [30] J. Kramer, op.cit., p.128; G. Devoto, Storia, p.88. [31] G.Devoto, Storia, p.148. [32] Quintilianus, op.cit., I, 5, 58, tr.M.Hetco. [33] Tertullianus, Adversus Praxean, III, 2.

96

[34] Cicero, Tusculanae disputationes, III, 7. [35] Cicero, De optimo genere oratorum, V, 14. [36] Horatius, Ars poetica, 133-134. [37] A.Gellius, Noctes Atticae, IX, 9, 1-2, trad. David Popescu. [38] Isidorus din Sevilla, Etymologiae, 12, 2, 3. [39] Varro, De lingua latina, X, 69-71. [40] Quintilianus, op.cit., I, 1, 58.

Abstract
This paper deals with an essential issue in the making of the European linguistic and conceptual community, namely, Latin and Greek bilingualism. First acknowledged by the Latin writers phrase utrasque lingua, the fusion of Latin and Greek elements was commented upon in modern exegeses, which refer to the concepts of contact and interference. The former has a historical dimension, denoting the use of the two languages within a particular spatial and temporal context, whereas the latter addresses the consequences of this contact for the evolution of the two languages. We have approached both concepts, but insisted on the latter, drawing on the taxonomic criteria established by the French linguist Fr. Biville, and further elaborating on the typology of interference: A. Relational interference, which is either textual, in bilingual texts, or metalingual, which reveals the Latin authors awareness of the limits and flaws of their linguistic system, compared to Greek, an attitude that provided the basis for modern contrastive linguistics; B. Interference by transfer, which involves an impressive number of Greek loans in Latin and the translation of Greek texts into Latin; C. Interference by fusion, manifest in the following three types: hybridization (i.e. Latin derivatives suffixed on a Greek or a hybrid basis), the coining of hybrid words (by phonologically and morphologically adapting Greek loans to Latin) and a common stock of words, by virtue of the Indo-European origin of the two languages. The linguistic and cultural contact and interference between Greek and Latin contributed not only to their growth but also to fostering European cultural and spiritual communion.

Rsum
Le travail aborde un problme essentiel pour la cration de la communaut linguistique et conceptuelle europenne, notamment le bilinguisme latin et grec. Reconnue tout dabord par les crivains de langue latine, sous la forme de lexpression utrasque lingua, la fusion entre les lments dorigine latine et ceux dorigine grecque, a t longtemps commente par les exgses modernes qui font rfrence aux concepts de contact et dinterfrence. Le premier concept a une dimension historique, dnotant lemploi de ces deux langues dans un certain contexte spatial et temporel, tandis que, le second rfre aux consquences du concept sur lvolution des deux langues. Nous avons attaqu les deux concepts - avec un plus dattention pour le second en tenant compte des critres de classification tablis par le linguiste franais Fr. Biville et, laborant la typologie de linterfrence : A. Linterfrence relationnelle qui peut tre soit textuelle, soit mtalinguistique dans les textes bilingues et relve du fait que les auteurs latins connaissaient les limites et les dfauts de leur systme linguistique, par comparaison au systme grec, attitude qui a mis les bases de la linguistique contrastive moderne; B. Linterfrence par transfert qui compte un nombre impressionnant demprunts grecs dans le latin et la traduction des textes grecs en latin; C. Linterfrence par fusion, caractrise par trois types : lhybridisation (les drivs latins obtenus par la suffixation dune racine grecque ou dune base hybride), la cration des formations hybrides (par ladaptation morphologique et phontique des emprunts grecs aux caractristiques de la langue latine) et lexistence dun fond commun de mots, rsultat de lorigine indo-europenne commune des deux langues.

97

Le contact et linterfrence linguistiques qui caractrisent les langues grecque et latine ont contribu non seulement lenrichissement de ces deux langues mais aussi lextension de la communion spirituelle et culturelle de lEurope.

Rezumat Lucrarea abordeaz o problem esenial n crearea comunitii lingvistice i conceptuale europene i anume, bilingvismul latin i grecesc. Recunoscut mai nti de ctre scriitorii de limba latin, sub forma expresiei utrasque lingua, fuziunea dintre elementele latineti i cele greceti a fost comentat n exegeze moderne care fac referire la conceptele de contact i interferen. Primul are dimensiune istoric, denotnd utilizarea celor dou limbi ntr-un anume context spaial i temporal, pe cnd cel de-al doilea se refer la consecinele acestui contact asupra evoluiei celor dou limbi. Am abordat ambele concepte, ns am insistat asupra celui deal doilea, innd cont de criteriile de clasificare stabilite de lingvistul francez Fr. Biville, i elabornd tipologia interferenei: A. Interferena relaional, care este fie textual, fie metalingvistic n textele bilingve i care relev faptul c autorii latini erau contieni de limitele i defectele sistemului lor lingvistic, comparativ cu cel grecesc, atitudine ce a asigurat fundamentul lingvisticii contrastive moderne; B. Interferena prin transfer, care implic un numr impresionant de mprumuturi greceti n limba latin i traducerea textelor greceti n limba latin; C. Interferena prin fuziune, manifest n urmtoarele trei tipuri: hibridizarea (derivatele latineti obinute prin sufixarea unei rdcini greceti or o baz hibrid), crearea unor formaiuni hibride (prin adaptarea morfologic i fonetic a mprumuturilor greceti la caracteristicile limbii latine) i existena unui fond comun de cuvinte, ca urmare a originii indo-europene a celor dou limbi. Contactul i interferena lingvistic caracteriznd limbile greac i latin au contribuit nu numai la mbogirea acestor limbi ci i la extinderea comuniunii spirituale i culturale europene.

98

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 99 - 106

Language and Literature

THE FASCINATION WITH THE WOR(L)D. (RE)PRESENTATION OR CREATION Stelua Stan Introduction Before going into the analysis proper of the way in which the metafictional text articulates, we consider it necessary to mention that, in our opinion there are at least two types of postmodernism that differ from one another both through organization of the narrative material and their vision: a playful, self-ironical and parodic postmodernism, the features of which are narrative discontinuity, open, even ostentatious, display of the narrative strategies and compositional procedures, parody of the literary conventions and the challenging of the reader (as in Barth, Pynchon, Vonnegut or Barthelme), and a second postmodernism, one that Carmen Muat (2002) labels as imaginative/ anthropocentric, concentrating on the human being, in an attempt at recovering the symbolic imagination and visions (as in Fowles, Murdoch or Styron). Heterogeneity being one of the characteristics of postmodernism, most often than not the two types contaminate each other, so that none of the writers mentioned for either of the types is unfamiliar with the devices used by their co-workers in the other category. The distinction is necessary only if we consider the dominant of the text, the authors preference for one series of devices or the other. Metafictional novels are the ones to overtly reveal their fictionality and reflect on their own status and narrative procedures. Within this self-reflective category, Linda Hutcheon distinguishes between overt, diegetic, metafiction (that takes as main theme its own status, rules and the very process of narration) and covert, linguistic, metafiction (that suggests through language games, parody and intertextual references, the inability of language to function as a means of communication or, even more important than this, its ability to create other worlds, alternative to and more meaningful than the real one). (Hutcheon, 1980) This second category of novels, of a bewildering type, unlike the traditional realistic one, breaks the illusion that what it tells about is an objective reality, truthfully reflected in language; instead, its purpose is to raise questions and pose problems, to tease the readers out of their easy acceptance of the traditional and pre-established modes of thinking, to invite them to take part in the literary game. As the area that explores the relationship between fiction and reality is concerned, however vigorous the post-structuralist insistence to see fiction (as well as literature, in general) as a free game of signifiers with no signifieds, the metafictional novel makes an open invitation at finding answers for a set of unexpected and startling questions:
Is there a reality ontologically separate and different from our linguistic consciousness? And if there is, can we know it without altering it by our knowledge? And if we can, can we render it in language? And if we can, does

this rendering correspond to or give a truthful view of that ontologically different reality that we have assumed to exist? Or are we fooling ourselves in believing that there is such a reality, when in reality we are locked up in the prison-house of language, in the reading gaol? (Kums in Bignami and Patey, 1996: 151)

The borders become even more fluid and obscured due to the juxtaposition of a number of possible worlds: the real, the fictitious, the fictionalised fictitious and metafiction itself, all of which seeming to fall on Baudrillards four phases of the image. Ultimately, the central and most relevant issue, intimately and necessarily linked to this set of questions, remains that of truth. Factual or fictional Regarding the distinction between factual and fictional discourse, Peter Lamarque offers the following solution for the existence or inexistence of reference and truth: we either admit that the objects in fiction match the existence of objects in the real world, or consider that the only objects that exist are those of the real world, thus denying any existence to the ones in fiction. Therefore, the very ground for the distinction between fictional and factual discourse disappears: Fiction is whatever is man-made (conceptually or linguistically). Truth is man-made (conceptually or linguistically). Therefore, truth is just a species of fiction. (Lamarque in Nash, 1994: 137) In an interview, Fowles claims that all novelists are liars because fiction is the business of telling falsehoods about people who do not even exist. (Fowles in Ciugureanu and Vlad, 1998: 73) Through lies, stories born sometimes from the desire to embellish a monotonous, thus boring, reality, another world is born, different from the existing one, the same as Bagdhad (before the war that brought a sad fame upon it), meant the city of the one thousand and one nights, or, as Barth puts it in Chimera (1972), some fictions were so much more valuable than fact that in rare instances their beauty made them real. Bringing to focus the gap between art and life that conventional realism tries to conceal, metafictional discourse appears in the work of English novelists in the form of asides (from prefaces and mottoes to direct, authorially intrusive, passages) in novels primarily concentrated on traditional means of conveying the message, portraying character and describing action; such passages are considered manipulative as they use the conventions of realism and, in the same time, acknowledge their artificiality even as they employ them; they disarm criticism by anticipating it; they flatter the reader considering them their intellectual equal, a reader sophisticated enough to be familiar with the conventional fictional representation, the intricacies of weaving a text, and aware that the work of fiction is a verbal construction rather than a slice of life. As to metafictional writers, Lodge, was saying that they have a sneaky habit of incorporating potential criticism into their text and thus fictionalize it. (Lodge, 1992: 208) From the logical point of view, fictional discourse is defined in terms of zero denotation[1]: the linguistic constituents that, in factual discourse, have a denotative function (proper names, deictics, demonstratives) lack any denotation proper. The fictional statement has a meaning without having a referent. If we are to think how much, for example, we care if Ulysses existed or not, we would realize that, beyond the issue of the presence or absence of the denotation of fiction in the real world, a special attention deserves the cognitive richness that fiction offers. A statement that lacks denotation because it is read literally can become true (can denote) if read

100

metaphorically. Don Quixote never existed but his name applies metaphorically to a certain category of people. Therefore, the intrinsically literary characteristics as well as the expressive qualities of writing are part of the referential structure of both the symbolic system and the denotative one: if a piece of writing does not denote because it is fictional, it does not necessarily lose its referential dimension. With metafiction, what is non-denoted, but real-ised, is fiction itself. This way, the discussion about the construction of the text becomes the content proper. On the other hand, the same as we move in everyday life from a kind of world to another, fiction allows us free access to different and successive worlds, parallel to the ones the human being is aware of historically and socially; consequently, the structure of fiction should be understood as resembling to the one of a ladder on which, more or less real and more or less fictional worlds define human reality by inter-action and inter-reflection: Strangely enough, [] when using the term world one is using a space term [] But narrative fiction calls our attention to time and a sequence in time [] Literature is generally to be classed as a time-art (in distinction from painting and sculpture, space-arts).(Wellek and Warren, 1993: 147) As a result, the world of a novel is a structure or a complex organism made up of a wide range of constitutive elements, combined to create the illusion of reality; this illusion depends on the effect it has on the reader to be assimilated as the reality of a work of fiction. It is the task of narratology to analyse these elements and establish the manner in which they contribute to the presentation of the events. The wave of metafictional novels in the 60s and 70s may have lost its force in the 80s, but it did not disappear as its critics, who used to see in this kind of writing just a futile attempt of the novel at postponing its own death, heralded. Those who attacked metafiction accused it of self-flattering narcissism (a term that Hutcheon transforms in her 1980 essay in grounds for pride), of elitism (novelists talking to themselves and to one another about how great and how utterly important their writing practices are), of narrowness, circularity and repetitivity (resembling dogs chasing their own tail as if it were the most important thing in the world). From this perspective, metafictional novels are those in which the epic respiration gives way to the self-annihilating experiment. Beyond all these accusations lies the assumption that the novel should tell about people and reality, taking over the tradition of social realism, in a clear message. Thus, metafiction becomes, to use Barths words in a somehow distorted interpretation, a literature of exhaustion, the last stage before its death. The reaction of rejection towards this type of literature is also triggered by its labeling, without any further distinctions, as postmodernist, even deconstructivist. Consequently, the latters critics transferred their accusations upon metafiction: the lack of a final, stable meaning of the text[2], its refusal of any forms of closure, the ignoring of literary tradition and of the cannon; as in the case of deconstructivism, the critics of metafiction consider it to sin by taking pleasure in ambiguity and contradiction, by incorporating heterogeneous material (fantasy, fairytale, documents, fiction, journalism)[3], and this way, erasing the boundaries between the genres, by incorporating its own criticism and reading instructions, by toying with the printing conventions etc. In short, the novel (by the judgment of its dissenters) tends to become an unrecognizable category, downgraded to a kind of jumbled and jangled text. Taking out the exaggerations, one cannot ignore such reactions, at least because they exist, even if coming from conservative positions, resistant to change.

101

Mimesis[4] or diegesis[5] It is true that, although metafiction and deconstructivism are not the same (the latter being a critical attitude, a practice of approaching any linguistic expression, literature included), what they have in common is a certain, permanent, self-search and selfquestioning, and the refusal to accept existing forms and hierarchies as such and for ever. Among the critics who embarked upon offering counter-arguments, mention must be made of Patricia Waugh (Metafiction, 1984), Linda Hutcheon (Narcissistic Narrative, 1980), Steven Kellman (The Self-Begetting Novel, 1980). They showed that self-questioning in fiction is not a symptom of exhaustion but a necessary and very important stage in the development of the analysis, and that the value of metafictional literature resides exactly in this self-scrutiny, sometimes playful, some other times painful. It would be absurd to suppose that metafiction sets as its goal to demonstrate its own futility and irrelevance; the message it carries is, nevertheless, different from that of the traditional realist novel, because, unlike this one, metafictive writings do not want to preserve the illusion that they reflect reality objectively and truthfully. However deep this undermined the fictional conventions, and however confusing the avoidance of the final meaning, the metafictional novel always has an implicit intention (even explicit many times): to challenge the reader into giving up their final formulations, and accepting that posing questions with no easy, even impossible, answers, is beneficial. As for the question about the possibility to represent the world into the literary fiction, the metafictional novel has a negative answer: what can be represented is the discourse of that. (Waugh, 1984: 3) If the novel uses language, either to represent a world or even create it, then it becomes very clear that the fundamental theme of metafiction is the linguistic paradox: novelists are permanently confronted with the inability of language to express the richness of their visions; in consequence, they fight a constant battle with the limits/prison of language in order to achieve appropriate expressiveness. Despite all this, by the very means of this language, poor as it may be, they create the most coherent and spectacular fictional worlds and completely expose their transparency as worlds of words, not worlds haunted by the stubborn and rejecting resistance of reality:
What is to be acknowledged is that there are two poles of metafiction: one that finally accepts a substantial real world whose significance is not entirely composed of relationships within language; and one that suggests that there can never be an escape from the prison-house of language and either delights or dispairs in this. (Waugh, op. cit.: 53)

Here is Lodges novelist at a crossroads! In what the British one is concerned, he chooses, most of the times, the road of the realist novel, the road to the compromise between the fictional and the empirical modes of writing, although admitting that the pressure of skepticism on the esthetic and epistemological premises of traditional realism is so intense that many novelists feel confronted with a choice, the one mentioned above, between the non-fictional novel and fabulation, as Robert Scholes names it, giving as examples Gnter Grass, William Burroughs, Thomas Pynchon etc. What Lodge recommends, himself with a leg in the boat of criticism and one in that of literary creation, is that writers take at least the time of hesitation, or, as many already

102

did, build that hesitation within the criture itself, to which he attaches the following label:
[t]he novel-about-itself, the trick-novel, the game-novel, the puzzle-novel, the novel that leads the reader (who wishes, navely, only to be told what to believe) through a fairground of illusions and deceptions, distorting mirrors and trapdoors that open disconcertingly under his feet, leaving him ultimately not with any simple or reassuring message or meaning but with a paradox about the relation of art to life. (Lodge, 1971: 105)

Not exactly the same thing happens across the Atlantic. American novelists repeatedly approach the issue of the words as a unique system for the translation of reality into fiction in their novels, primarily in the self-reflective ones. The process of the trespassing of ontological barriers is summarized by Bellerophon in Barths Chimera: Loosed at last from mortal speech, he turned into written words: Bellerophonic letters afloat between two worlds, forever betraying, in combinations and re-combinations, the man they forever represent. (Barth in Toma, 2004: 80) This growing fascination with words is part of the similar growing introversion of the postmodernist novel, being yet another mark of the fact that this one is aware of it being an invented reality, opposed to the real reality. This attitude towards language, its use to attract attention upon itself, not upon external reality, expresses, as we could expect, the refusal of the literature of our times to immortalize the symbols of reality, the loss of confidence in its stable values and the transformation of this loss into a supreme faith. Todd Andrews, the barthian character in The Floating Opera (1956), offers the only possible solution:
So, reader, should you ever find yourself writing about the world, take care not to nibble at the many tempting symbols she sets squarely in your path, or youll be baited into saying things you dont mean and offending the people you want most to entertain. Develop, if you can, the technique of the pall-bearer and myself: smile, but walk on and say nothing, as though you hadnt noticed. (Barth in op. cit.: 85)

The focus on fictionality becomes essential in the attempt to playfully order the (seemingly) random, the accidental, attach some significance to it or ironically ignore it. Even if sometimes and only for a while the illusion of reference to the real world is maintained, the reader is permanently brutalised with passages that violate the code of realism. Lodge mentions in this respect Joseph Hellers novel Good as Gold (1979), where one of the numbered chapters begins like this:
Once again Gold found himself preparing to lunch with someone [...] and the thought arose that he was spending an awful lot of time in this book eating and talking. [...] Certainly he would soon meet a schoolteacher with four children with whom he would fall madly in love, and I would shortly hold out to him the tantalizing promise of becoming the countrys first Jewish Secretary of State, a promise I did not intend to keep. (Heller in Lodge, 1992: 42)

The above-mentioned trespassing is achieved in two ways: on the one hand, admitting that Gold is a character in a book, not someone in the real world; on the other,

103

underlining the fact that he has no autonomy whatsoever, being, simply and completely, at the disposal of a creator who is not sure what to do with him. About the same thing happens in Vonneguts Slaughterhouse Five, an intrusion like This was I. That was me. That was the author of this book being a usual one. Such gestures are labelled as breaking the frame or revealing the device or, more simply, metafiction. By itself, the procedure is not new at all and similar examples of exposure of the fictionality of fiction can be easily found in Cervantes, Fielding, Sterne, Thackeray or Trollope, but not in the modernist ones, because such a foregrounding of the authors existence, the very source of diegesis, is contrary to the modernist principle of impersonality and the mimesis of consciousness. Quite paradoxically, metafictional devices might appear as a way to continue the exploration and exploitation of the sources of realism, simultaneously to the admittance of their conventionality. The more the authors reveal themselves in such texts, the more they become a voice, function of their own fiction, a rhetorical construct; not privileged authority, but object to interpretation. A possible conclusion is that postmodernist literature re-affirms diegesis; not harmoniously interweaved with mimesis (as in the classic realist text), not subordinate (as in the modernist one), but foregrounded, through contrast, by mimesis:
The stream of consciousness has turned into a stream of narration which would be one way of summarizing the difference between the greatest modernist novelist, Joyce, and the greatest postmodernist, Beckett. When the Unnamable says to himself, You must go on. I cant go on. Ill go on, he means, on one level at least, that he must go on narrating. (Lodge, 1992: 44)

Also in reference to the British writers and their relationship with postmodernism (especially some of its attributes such as the questioning of metanarrative, the decentring of cultural authority, and the ironic disruption of the self-contained fictional world), Dominic Head (2002) agrees that their novels also convey a conviction about the moral and emotional function of narrative fiction, and its ability to make readers reengage with the world they know. In this way, the writers offer a re-working of the realist contract, involving the readers willing acceptance that the text provides a bridge to reality. Much the same as Lodge, Head considers that the British authors are not postmodernist in the meaning of experimentalist only, but their writings should be viewed as the expression of a mode of writing capable of generating an emotional response, beyond the distractions of self-conscious trickiness; this understanding of postmodernism, as a hybrid form of expression that renegociates tradition, is the one that could make a case for British Postmodernism, and that could account for the work of practitioners such as Margaret Drabble, Martin Amis, Graham Swift, Peter Ackroyd, Salman Rushdie, Martin Amis or Angela Carter. As about the metafictional writing, the self-conscious fiction that underlines its own fictionality, Head says:
This degree of playfullness is self-deprecating in the sense that it has the effect of devaluing the role and function of literature. No longer capable of high seriousness, the literary object colludes in its own debunking, participating in the cultural logic that blurs the distinction between high and low culture. The consequence of this is a culture of pastiche, with no vantage point from which value can be assigned with authority. [...] It is this kind of ludic postmodernism that has failed to gain a purchase in British literary culture. (Head, 2002: 229)

104

A further consequence, in Heads oppinion, is a waning of affect, the production of self-conscious culture in which powerful emotion can no longer be communicated without mediation, qualification, or reservation. This kind of ludic postmodernism seems to have failed to gain a purchase in British literary culture, unlike in the American one.
Notes [1] Roland Barthes expresses in Writing Degree Zero (1967) the hope that language can be used in an utopic way and that there are cultural codes that can be trespassed. At the beginning of the 70s, he began to see language, the same as Derrida, as a space the metaphoric character of which remains unknown. In Empire of Signs (1970), Barthes gives up any claim to describe or analyze reality., mixing cultural forms of an extreme diversity, from haikus to different machines, pieces of a sort of anti-utopic landscape in which everything is surface, nothing is form. Writing becomes a goal in itself. In his last text, Barthes by Barthes, concepts do not count for their validity or invalidity, but for their efficiency as a writing tactic. [2] The two alternative endings in The French Lieutenants Woman are an excellent illustration of the forking paths technique that McHale (1987: 106-10) considers to be postmodernist par excellence. [3] Arguing in favour of the metafictional novel and referring to its connections and affinities with other genres, Guido Kums says: It is also evident that these novels all to a greater or lesser extent display this magpie tendency to collect other genres of writing: they all contain letters, diaries, documents with political, philosophical or sociological discourse, and they all parody various styles and fashions of writing. (Kums in Bignami, 1996: 153) [4] In the Republic, Plato distinguishes between diegesis (the poet represents the actions in his own voice) and mimesis (the actions are represented in the voices of the character or characters), and considers that in the epic genre we meet an alternation of the two discoursive types, the poets and the characters. Bakhtin, in his turn also makes the distinction between the authors direct speech diegesis, the represented speech of the characters mimesis, and the double-oriented speech referring not only to something that exists in the world but also to the speech act of another charater, neither diegesis nor mimesis, nor a mixture of the two, but, as Lodge calls it, a sort of pseudo-diegesis; for example, in the last episodes of Ulysses, the narrator-author disappears and he is replaced by the voice of the reviews for women. Lodges conclusion is that: the classic realist text is charaterized by a ballanced and harmonious mixture of diegesis and mimesis, the authors speech and represented speech; the modern novel, by the domination of mimesis over diegesis, impersonality and dramatization; the postmodernist novel, by the re-introduction of the author exiled by the modernists into the text and a revival of diegesis. [5] In postmodernist fiction, Lodge distinguishes the following categories: transfiction, surfiction, metafiction, new jurnalism, non-fictional novel, faction, fabulation, le nouveau roman, le nouveau nouveau roman, irrealism, magic realism etc. In his opinion, the British postmodernism ignores modernist experiments that Joyce, Woolf and Co. thought had despatched for good. (Lodge, 1990: 25) References Barthes, R. (1967). Writing Degree Zero, Annette Lavers, Collin Smith (trans.), London: Cape. Baudrillard, J. (1983). Simulations, Paul Foss et al. (trad.), New York: Semiotext(e). Bignami, M. & C. Patey (eds.) (1996). Moving the Borders. Milano: Edizioni Unicopli. Ciugureanu, A. & E. Vlad (1998). Multiple Perspectives, Constana: Ex Ponto. Head, D. (2002). The Cambridge Introduction to Modern British Fiction. 1950-2000, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hutcheon, L. (1980). Narcissistic Narrative: The Metafictional Paradox, London: Methuen. Lodge, D. (1990). After Bakhtin. Essays on Fiction and Criticism, London: Routledge. Lodge, D. (1992). The Art of Fiction, London: Penguin Books. Muat, C. (2002). Strategiile subversiunii. Descriere i naraiune n proza postmodern romneasc, Piteti: Paralela 45. Nash, Ch. (ed.) (1994). Narrative in Culture, University of Warwick Centre for Research in Philosophy and Literature, Great Britain: Routledge. Toma, I. (2004). Uses and Abuses of Tradition in Postmodernist Fiction, Iasi: Premier. Waugh, P. (1984). Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction, New York & London: Methuen. Wellek, R. & A. Warren (1993). Theory of Literature. London: Penguin Books.

105

Abstract Most postmodernist novels ceased to even pretend they believe in the direct mirroring in the text of a purely linguistic construction of reality. In metafictional writings, the focus is on the plurality of meaning due to the inherent plurality of language, effect of a plural reality, the negociation being made between the text and the reader, the (re)producer of meaning. Fictionalising the world via the media makes the realistic attitude of postmodernist writers presuppose acknowledgment and assumation of the constructed character of reality; thus, however paradoxical it may seem, postmodernist prose becomes mimetic but in a completely different way than the realistic prose of the 19th century.

Rsum La majorit des romans postmodernistes ne prtendent m me plus quils croient la mise directe de la ralit dans le texte, la ralit devenant une construction purement linguistique. Dans les critures mtafictionnelles, laccent est mis sur la pluralit de sens due la pluralit inhrente la langue, effet de la pluralit de la ralit. La ngociation est faite alors entre le texte et le lecteur, le (re)crateur du sens. La fictionnalisation du monde par les mdias remoule lattitude raliste des crivains postmodernes qui parvient reconnatre et assumer le caractre construit de la ralit. La prose postmoderniste devient, de la sorte, quelque paradoxale que cela puisse paratre, mimtique, mais dans un sens compltement diffrent de la prose raliste du XIXe sicle.

Rezumat Majoritatea romanelor postmoderniste nici mcar nu se mai prefac c ar crede n oglindirea direct a realitii n text, realitatea devenind o construcie pur lingvistic. n scriiturile metafic ionale, accentul cade pe pluralitatea nelesului datorat pluralitii inerente limbii, efect al pluralitii realitii, iar negocierea se face ntre text i cititor, (re)productorul de sens. Ficionalizarea lumii prin mass media face ca atitudinea realist a scriitorilor postmoderni s presupun recunoaterea i asumarea caracterului construit al realitii, proza postmodernist devenind, orict de paradoxal ar putea suna, mimetic, dar ntr-un sens complet diferit de cel al prozei realiste a secolului al XIX-lea.

106

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 107 - 111

Language and Literature

WHAT MAISIE KNEW UNDER LINGUISTIC STYLISTIC LENS Daniela orcaru Henry James significantly contributed to the criticism of fiction, particularly in his insistence that writers be allowed the greatest freedom possible in presenting their view of the world. His imaginative use ofpoint of view, interior monologue and possibly unreliable narrators in his own novels and tales brought a new depth and interest to narrative fiction. He is one of the major figures of trans-Atlantic literature. His works frequently juxtapose characters from different worlds the Old World (Europe), simultaneously artistic, corrupting, and alluring; and the New World (United States), where people are often brash, open, and assertive and explore how this clash of personalities and cultures affects the two worlds. James favored internal, psychological drama, and his work is often about conflicts between imaginative protagonists and their difficult environments. His earlier work is considered realist because of the carefully described details of his characters physical surroundings. However, throughout his long career, James maintained a strong interest in a variety of artistic effects and movements. His work gradually became more metaphorical and symbolic as he entered more deeply into the minds of his characters. In its intense focus on the consciousness of his major characters, Jamess later work foreshadows extensive developments in 20th century fiction. The prose of the later works is marked by long, digressive sentences that defer the verb and include many qualifying adverbs, prepositional phrases, and subordinate clauses as James seeks to pin down the bifurcating streams of his characters consciousness. Henry James, coming to fiction through an apprenticeship in criticism, brought an attitude more consciously that of the artist. His restricted personal experience as well as his special interests imposed upon him a more narrowed range of material and themes. His great concern became the revelation of thought and emotion, the penetration into the meaning of human relationships and concerns. More and more he devoted his art to revealing such fine shades of meaning as completely as possible. The author relied on the more involved, psychological approach to his fiction in What Maisie Knew (1897), the story of the sensitive daughter of divorced and irresponsible parents. The novel has great contemporary relevance as an unflinching account of a wildly disfunctional family. The book is also a notable technical achievement by James, as it follows the title character from earliest childhood to precocious maturity. Its not surprising from the books title that knowledge and education form a major theme in this bittersweet tale of Maisies development. Her keen observation of the irresponsible behavior of almost all the adults she lives with eventually persuades her to rely on her most devoted friend, Mrs. Wix, even though the frumpy governess is by far the least superficially attractive adult in her life. The common reading of What Maisie Knew is that of a species of bildungsroman, as the story of Maisies emotional and intellectual development at the hands of her divorced parents, and the subsequent machinations of their various partners and surrogate107

figures, is undoubtedly the core theme of the novel. The realization of such dimensions of the novel relies heavily on the linguistic devices employed to create a certain message meant to reach the reader. Nevertheless, the focus of the present study is laid on the intricate ways of pleating stylistic functions, analyzing the artful manipulation that James exerts on the language used in the novel, with a view to discovering the stylistic effects created at text level and accounting for his being a step closer to the stream-of-consciousness linguistic techniques. The excerpts taken into consideration for analysis are grouped according to the purpose of the present study to prove how stylistic functions of the language pleat at the level of the text in order to create the desired impact on the reader. Another reason behind the grouping of the text is the need to show how Jamess dependence on tradition and the linguistic cannon already turns into what the stream-of-consciousness represents. He takes a further step closer to the linguistic and graphological techniques involved in the textual realization of the trend under discussion. Text 1. Miss Overmore considered; she coloured a little; then she embraced her ingenious friend. You are too sweet! Im a real governess. And couldnt he be a real tutor? Of course not. Hes ignorant and bad. Bad ? Maisie echoed with wonder. Her companion gave a queer little laugh at her tone. Hes ever so much younger But that was all. Younger than you? Miss Overmore laughed again; it was the first time Maisie had seen her approach so nearly to a giggle. Younger than no matter whom. I dont know anything about him and dont want to, she rather inconsequently added. Hes not my sort, and Im sure, my own darling, hes not yours. And she repeated the free caress into which her colloquies with Maisie almost always broke and which made the child feel that her affection at least was a gage of safety. Parents had seemed too vague, but governesses were evidently to be trusted. Maisies faith in Mrs. Wix, for instance, had suffered no lapse from the fact that all communication with her had temporarily dropped. (James, 1985:59) Text 2. You must allow me to reply to that, cried Mrs. Wix, that you knew nothing of the sort, and that you rather basely failed to back me up last night when you pretended so plump that you did! You hoped in fact, exactly as much as I did and as in my senseless passion I even hope now, that this may be the beginning of better things. Oh yes, Mrs. Wix was indeed, for the first time, sharp; so that there at last stirred in our heroine the sense not so much of being proved disingenuous as of being precisely accused of the meanness that had brought everything down on her through her very desire to shake herself clear of it. She suddenly felt herself swell with a passion of protest. I never, never hoped I wasnt going again to see Mrs. Beale! I didnt, I didnt! she repeated. Mrs. Wix bounced about with the force of rejoinder of which she also felt that she must anticipate the concussion and which, though the good lady was evidently charged to the brim, hung fire long enough to give time for an aggravation. Shes beautiful and I love her! I love her and shes beautiful! (p. 209) Text 3. Here again they were delayed by another sharp thought of Mrs. Wixs But what will she live on meanwhile? Maisie stopped short. Till Sir Claude comes?

108

It was nothing to the violence with which her friend had been arrested. Wholl pay the bills? Maisie thought. Cant she? She? She hasnt a penny. The child wondered. But didnt papa ? Leave her a fortune? Mrs. Wix would have appeared to speak of papa as dead had she not immediately added: Why he lives on other women! Oh, yes, Maisie remembered. Then cant he send ? She faltered again; even to herself it sounded queer. Some of their money to his wife? Mrs. Wix gave a laugh still stranger than the weird suggestion. I daresay shed take it! They hurried on again; yet again, on the stairs, Maisie pulled up. Well, if she had stopped in England ! she threw out. Mrs. Wix considered. And he had come over instead? Yes, as we expected. Maisie launched her speculation. What, then, would she have lived on? Mrs. Wix hung fire but an instant. On other men! And she marched downstairs. (p. 224) The first group of three texts considered may be regarded as displaying the highest degree of Jamess traditional dimension, although stream-of-consciousness techniques already sabotage the text, in that the stylistic pleating of functions hinders meaning recovery on the part of the reader at times. Most of the vocabulary is formal, but intrusions of the consultative and the informal, corresponding to everyday conversation register especially in Masies lines and her interlocutors, when engaged in speaking to the child. Thus, until is replaced by till and contracted forms work their way in the body of the formal text, e.g. Im, couldnt, Hes, dont (Text 1); wasnt, didnt, Shes (Text 2); Wholl pay the bills? (Text 3). The nouns in the texts reveal a subtle stylistic play upon the real world and the inner world of human thought and mind. In our case, the former is employed so as to identify Maisies relationships to other people and their place in her life, whereas the latter displays a rich array of needs, sensations, feelings and experiences that the child undergoes: friend, governess, tutor, wonder, companion, laugh, tone, giggle, caress, colloquies, child, affection, safety, gage, Parents, governesses, faith, lapse, fact, communication (Text 1); night, passion, things, heroine, sense, meanness, desire, protest, force, concussion, lady, brim, aggravation (Text 2); thought, violence, friend, bills, penny, child, papa, fortune, women, money, laugh, suggestion, stairs, speculation (Text 3). Along the same line of opposing inner universe to reality, the adjectives in the texts, apparently dominated by the graphologically marked real, are use to qualify parts of the childs world as opposed to pieces of the real one, e.g. ingenious, sweet, real, ignorant, bad, queer, little, younger, free, vague (Text 1); senseless, better, sharp, disingenuous, swell, good, beautiful (Text 2); sharp, dead, queer, stranger, weird (Text 3). The obvious repetition of the synonymic series queer, stranger, weird may stylistically signal the childs confusion about matters in the real world and her trying to grasp how things work. Moreover, the abundance of adverbs, either making up superlative degrees or setting space and time boundaries for actions, also serve the stylistic purpose of rendering the Maisies attempts to make sense of the real world, e.g. too, so much, ever, again, inconsequently, almost always, evidently, temporarily (Text 1); so, even, so much, precisely, very, never, again, evidently (Text 2); again, immediately (Text 3).

109

The great number of verbs in the excerpts enhances the dynamic dimension of discourse, while also corresponding to the pattern of human speech, which makes up most of the body of the texts, e.g. considered, coloured, embraced, are, Im, couldnt he be, echoed, gave, was, laughed, had seen, approach, dont know, dont want, added, repeated, broke, made, feel, had seemed, were, to be, had suffered, had temporarily dropped (Text 1); must, allow, to reply, knew, failed, to back me up, pretended, did, hoped, may be, was, stirred, had brought, to shake, felt, wasnt going, to see, didnt, repeated, bounced, anticipate, to give (Text 2); were, live, stopped, comes, was, had been arrested, pay, thought, Cant, hasnt, wondered, Leave, would have appeared, to speak, had she not immediately added, lives, remembered, cant he send, faltered, sounded, hurried, pulled up, threw, expected, launched, hung, marched (Text 3). Thus, James takes a step further in depicting human behaviour as speech and thought. The sentence structure also observes the rules of human speech, i.e. the sentences are short, simple sentences most often. A clear distinction is imposed, as the authorial intrusions are marked by longer simple, compound or complex sentences. Furthermore, the human speech dimension of discourse is even better rendered by the elliptical sentences that seem to have suddenly been cut off, as interlocutors often break communication all of a sudden or are interrupted abruptly, e.g. Of course not. Hes ignorant and bad. Bad ? Maisie echoed with wonder. Her companion gave a queer little laugh at her tone. Hes ever so much younger But that was all. (Text 1); The child wondered. But didnt papa ? Then cant he send ? She faltered again; even to herself it sounded queer. Well, if she had stopped in England ! she threw out. (Text 3). The disruptions register at a further graphological level, considering the choice of the author to write the three words in italics in the three fragments analyzed, e.g real, never, she. The option of the author in the contexts the words in italics are used is meant to emphasize the importance of the entity or concept in the narrative thread. Thus, much like Forster but taking a step closer to the stream-of-consciousness, Jamess discourse displays the same linguistic battle between tradition and the cannon, on the one side, and the desire to set language free from any constraints. Disruptions of traditional discourse are more obvious with James at various levels of the text. Thus, the formal register is at times (violently) interrupted by intrusions of the informal up to the colloquial vocabulary, even insults. Moreover, the traditional long, well-formed sentences alternate with short, sometimes abruptly cut off simple sentences, which struggle to render human thought and speech. Graphological disruptions are not to be neglected either, as there are numerous instances of graphic emphasis achieved by the authors use of italics for specific words that play an important role in the context or that may help render the intonation of everyday speech. Last but definitely not least, Jamess use of barbarisms and of what we dare call erudisms, i.e. larger fragments encoded in foreign languages that disrupt the body of the English text, anticipates the complex Joycean encoding. The numerous texts in various foreign languages to be found in Joyces discourse represent the linguistic climax of selecting readership according to the knowledge they possess. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Avdanei, t., Teaching (Literature) as a Literary Genre, University English, no.2, 1995. Banta, A., Descriptive English Syntax, Institutul European, Iai, 1996. Barry, P., Beginning Theory. An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory, Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York, 1995. Brooker, P. (ed), Modernism/Postmodernism, Longman, London and New York, 1992. Creescu-Goglniceanu, C., The Negotiator, Institutul European, Terra Design, Iai, 2001.

110

Croft, S., Cross, H., Literature, Criticism and Style A Practical Guide to Advanced English Literature, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1997. Crystal, D., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996. Ducrot, O., Schaeffer, J.-M., Noul dicionar enciclopedic al tiinelor limbajului, Editura Babel, Bucureti, 1996. James, H., What Maisie Knew, Penguin Books, London, 1985. Leech, G., M. Short, Style in Fiction, Longman, London and New York, 1990, eighth impression. Praisler, M., On Modernism, Postmodernism and the Novel, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 2005. Sandig, B., Selting, M., Discourse Styles, in Discourse as Structure and Process, vol. I, SAGE Publications, London, 1998. Wales, K., A Dictionary of Stylistics, Longman, London and New York, 1991, second impression.

Abstract The essence of this approach finds itself in the complex ways of putting together the stylistic functions investigating the artistic manipulation by means of which Henry James influences the language he makes use of in this novel, trying to discover the stylistic effects created at the text level and to consider which of these ways is the closest to the stream-of-consciousness technique. The fragments which were selected for analysis are grouped according to the aim of this approach, i.e., to reveal the assembling procedures of the language stylistic functions at text level in order to create a certain impact on the reader. The excerpts structuring is also accounted for by the necessity of showing how Jamess depending upon the tradition of the linguistic canon has already become the essence of the stream-of-consciousness technique. One more step need to be taken to get closer to the graphic and linguistic techniques involved in the technical achievement of the trend in discussion.

Resum Le noyau de cette tude-ci est reprsent des modalits complexes dassembler les fonctions stylistiques, en analysant la manipulation artistique avec laquelle Henry James influence le langage utilis dans le roman, en essayant de dcouvrir les effets stylistiques crs au niveau du texte, et de considrer quil est plus proche des techniques linguistiques du stream-ofconsciousness . Les fragments choisis pour lanalyse sont groups en conformit avec le but de cette tude-ci pour dmontrer la modalit dassemblage des fonctions stylistiques du langage au niveau du texte, pour crer limpact dsir avec le lecteur. Un autre motive justifiant le groupage du texte est le besoin de montrer comme la dpendance de James de la tradition et du canon linguistique se transforme dj en lessence du stream-of-consciousness . Il fait encore un pas pour sapprocher aux techniques linguistiques et graphologiques impliques dans la ralisation technique du courant en discussion.

Rezumat Acest studiu are ca element esenial analizarea complexelor modaliti de asambalre a funciilor stilistice, analiznd manipularea artistic prin care Henry James influeneaz limba folsit n roman, ncercnd s descopere efecte stilistice create la nivelul textului. Fragmentele selectate pentru analiz sunt grupate conform obiectivelor prezentului studiu, pentru a crea impactul dorit asupra cititorului. Un alt motiv care justific gruparea propus a textelor l constituie nevoia de a descrie maniera n care dependena lui James de tradiie i de canonul lingvistic se transform deja n esena tehnicii curentului de contiin. Nu mai este nevoie dect de un pas pentru ca autorul s se apropie de tehnicile lingvistice i grafice implicate n realizarea tehnicii curentului n discuie.

111

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 112 - 118

Language and Literature

SINCERITY: TEXTUAL CLAIMS TO VALIDATION Daniela uchel Sincerity emerges in modernity as a moral quality in which the avoidance of dissembling is a positive virtue associated with plain speaking. Sincerity is congruence between avowal and actual feeling or a number of other definitions [1], ranging from a mere trustworthiness claim to the mapping of text onto thoughts. A possible framing of the whole issue is the interior state of S (the abbreviation to be read further down as sender/speaker of a message) matching an outward textual form to be decoded by R (the abbreviation henceforth for recipient/reader of the encoded message). Problems connected with the not-exactly-linguistic notion of sincerity (except for pragmatic areas) are of a diverse nature. Sincerity is more easily discussed in public discourse, being based on solid textual evidence. For ordinary verbal intercourse, it is ungraspable, unless paralinguistic factors contribute to guesswork in this respect. For the text of newspaper articles, there are additional difficulties of diagnosis, unless we pick on some more special manifestations, such as, let us say, scare-quotes. As for who they are intended to scare, an example will suffice: [...] explicit, analytical, retrievable and scientific procedures. If they are intentional and strategically placed, the single quotes around one particular attribute will cast doubt on the truthful content thus marked off, and one can even suspect irony. Actually, when a writer disagrees, (s)he should stand by what they write and be sincere with no need for words in quotation marks, except the convention to underline by means of them. In prose literature, the printed word amounts to nothing more than a mimetic illusion of speech and thought. Biber and Finegan [2] state that they have chosen to exclude third person reference when analysing affective language to convey the emotion at hand. They claim the third person presentation is primarily descriptive rather than directly expressive of the speakers own feelings. It seems, however, reasonable to avoid making such a distinction with prose literature, as all the utterances or thoughts of the characters, be they presented in first or third person, are an artifice, an expression of the authors intent, not that of the character at hand. Maybe it is not misplaced to attempt a precis of more recent research on sincerity values in literary or non-literary communication. The co-authors cited above have studied the lexical and grammatical marking of two concepts: evidentiality and affect. By the former term, they refer to a speakers attitude to knowledge and its reliability. They use the latter term in the same way as in another co-authored study of the same year [3], which makes a powerful plea for the emotive force of language, without offering, however, a model of application. Affect - Ochs and Schieffelin explain - is broader in meaning than emotion. Affect includes feelings, moods, dispositions and attitudes with persons or situations. The authors are mainly concerned with the display of affect through linguistic means, preferring not to take into account whether the affective expression is sincere or
112

not. Their main thesis entails an argument that almost any aspect of the linguistic system that is variable is a candidate for expressing affect: in other words, language has a heart as well as a mind of its own [ibidem]. The kind of performance that will be credited as sincere is generally assessed as such or as its opposite by some common-sense criteria that cannot also perform linguistic work. It is only for pragmatics to say that (a) an utterance can be deemed valid or invalid, and (b) validity will be judged in terms of three claims: (1) truth; (2) appropriateness; (3) sincerity. At this point, in the relation between S and R, one takes into account the display of trustworthiness. Claims to sincerity are the most difficult to guarantee since they implicate a match between the outward form of the utterance and the speakers interior state. Habermas [4] comments that truth and appropriateness may be validated implicitly or explicitly by negotiation through discursive activity, while sincerity has to be taken on trust it is vindicated or validated only by the subsequent behaviour of S. Halliday [5] continues Habermass distinctions, and, by combining the findings of both linguists, here is a summary model of how the conduct of reason in social life functions towards communication. Inside we can see the way sincerity fits. 1) Domain of reality: external nature; mode of communication: cognitive; validity claim: truth; general function: representation of facts. 2) Domain of reality: social world; mode of communication: interactive; validity claim: appropriateness / felicity; general function: establishment and maintenance of relations. 3) Domain of reality: world of intentions; mode of communication: expressive; validity claim: sincerity; general function: disclosure of speaker subjectivity. Achieving a relation to speech acts, the result is that representatives (for instance, asserting, denying, concluding) foreground the claim to truth; directives (suggesting, demanding, requesting) and declaratives, which effect immediate changes in institutional states-of-affairs (excommunicating, christening, passing sentence), foreground the claim to appropriateness; commissives, which commit the speaker to some future course of action (promising, offering, threatening), and expressives, which express a psychological state (apologizing, thanking, welcoming), will implicate most strongly the claim to sincerity. In Goffmans terms [6], there is a participation framework of a complex nature, meaning that S in each particular case speaks at moments for others (in particular, for an audience) as well as for himself or herself. S adopts a shifting mode of address. For example, a politician speaks most of the time to the nation, even to the world beyond, and sometimes to reporters, etc. Any straightforward statement of emotion by S is likely to put sincerity at risk. It is perhaps interesting to mention the following case in fiction that, to some, may approximate sincerity: there is no controlling voice, there is an withholding of textual manifestations of a full authorial persona. Thus, the author exploits the separation of the discourse worlds while he himself refrains from creating the illusion of cooperative presence. Sometimes it is easier for a text interpreter R to focus on the cognitive process of reading a fictional text as part of a language event rather than focusing exclusively on the ontological status of the fictional world constructed in reading. It is also generally accepted that some genres lend themselves to a discussion about their sincerity content, while others do not. Some genres also lend a high valency to sincerity and others do not. Researchers interested in radio shows, television and theatre apprehend the sincerity paradox when discussing the following situation: if a persons behaviour is perceived by others as performance, it will be judged to be insincere, for sincerity presupposes, as its general condition, the absence of performance. Laboratory reports and legal cross-examinations will not routinely implicate sincerity, but the exchange of vows in a wedding ceremony does. Joking is a genre unlikely to be judged as

113

sincere, but a eulogy may be. Ultimately, there must be common-sense, in all probability, used as a recognizable criterion for the kind of performance that will be credited as sincere. Irony is a hard nut to crack for the present thematic concern, for it relies on an apprehension of the indirect criticism which is indeed expected to be transmitted in sincerity. Sperber and Wilson [7] come with the following example of ironic manifestation: in a shop, a furious customer is observed as such and commented upon you can tell hes upset, says a bystander. Sperber and Wilson take this to be understatement as a type of irony, and we remember that the definition of understatement is to say less than is reasonable in the given situation of communication. We can claim that the definition applies here, for the anger is strikingly obvious; the commentary beginning with you can tell is, in a way, naively inadequate, but it is more interesting pragmatically to maintain that it is an ironic use of understatement. If S assigned the utterance you can tell that X to a situation when normally the signs of X are barely discernible, S would sooner be interpreted as speaking literally. Thus, in the former case of problem-solving, S is covertly disagreeing, and, in the latter case, S is openly and sincerely involved in a literal communicative act. Two felt experiences, motivation and intention, are, as a rule, anticipated to be sincere. The dictionary entry intenie (lat. intentio) elaborated by Mihai Stroe in Prvu [8] defines this basic concept for dealing with sincerity as a semantic and ontologic vector relating to the feature whatever is directed to something and coins the Romanian term despreitate (a derivation of the preposition despre). After reviewing the major landmarks in a theolological-intentionalist theory threading its way through (to quote only a few) Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Boethius, Avicenna, Bacon, Descartes, Newton, Darwin, Kant, Blake, Hegel, Bergson, Mihai Stroe stops upon the American New Criticism, recommending the technique of close reading. Thus the intentional fallacy can be circumvented; it is erroneous to judge a literary work according to the authors intention as long as nothing is relevant but the work itself. The work belongs to the public (Wimsatt, Beardsley, ibidem) and it is only through it that the public can assess authorial intentions. It is fundamental, in this undertaking, to distinguish between an original meaning of the text and an anachronistic meaning subsequent interpretation projected onto the text through historical distancing. If we take emotion to be public and feeling to be private, then the latter term feeling can be explained as bodily arousal in the consciousness of the speaker, whereas the former emotion can be looked upon as the correlation between the bodily arousal and the circumstance or situation. Emotions, in their turn, will be subdivided into primary ones (they are innate) and secondary (socially constituted through cultural resources). The expression of emotions needs happen in sincerity as long as emotions are inferential signs with a major role in cognition. Following psychological practice, emotions and evaluations have the status of affect and are construals of experience on various scales of positive and negative values. At least evaluation always sets up an opposition in this respect: cases may be good or bad, desirable or undesirable, loveable or hateful. As Burke [9] writes, negation is a peculiarly linguistic marvel as there are no negatives in nature. To evaluate anything positively involves the exclusion of the possibility that what does not exit might exist and vice versa. Negation is not only a matter of form, it is an evaluative, epistemic and deontic action, forbidding, stipulating, affirming or denying. The negated is in a dialectical relation to what is asserted. Negation brings up the rejected opposite, the irrealis, the mere possibility of the other. This possibility is felt, and the more intense the affect, the stronger the negated alternative. Let us approach sincerity in a few subtle attitudinal biases. We say, for

114

example, it is pretty bad, which does not imply that something is good, but it is a weaker claim than it is very bad. We say it is not too bad, which does imply that the object described is at the good end of the polarity scale. It understates, at the same time, an impolite belief: I anticipated that what you did would be bad. Honesty or sincerity lies in understating things or generating the figure of speech known as litotes, the reason for its occurrence in speech ultimately being understood by R to be a mild variant of praise (politeness) or a covert form of unfavourable opinion derived by implicature (impoliteness). Disambiguation of what is essentially and sincerely communicated is worked out by the exophoric details of the situation. S would have had at his disposal the possibility of not underplaying meanings while saying it is good enough, where only a concessive attitude is contained and no indirect hurt. This is what is effected pragmatically when the negatively evaluative adverb too gets replaced by the positively evaluative adverb enough. Conversational routine usually carries out phatic intentions with the avoidance of embarrassment; there are certain expectations of participants, but sincerity is not the most pressing problem. Let us exemplify with the following case: the opener How are you? (or any other alternative cliche, Is everything all right? Hows life? etc.) may reflect genuine interest if and only if supported by some other elements, for instance, insistence to find out more. It seems that, unlike the common English expression, the Romanian ce mai faci easily triggers a response that is a description of the addressees momentary condition. A close relationship even requires more than a positive short answer [10] and the story of the addressees latest mishap expects consolation as an expression of social harmony. At the same time, a negative response to the opening question can be expressed by inarticulate sounds or by gestures. For example, one may hear a prolonged /m/ sound in a falling tone, with a shrug of shoulders, a double rock of the dominant hand, a slight roll of the eyes. This could be received in the place of a (moderately) negative answer in words. One possible interpretation is that the addressee does not want to complain but also needs to be sincere about not being very well. Laughter is another type of response that is contextually interpretable as sincerity or its opposite. A variety of social occasions for its occurrence can be described as the end of self-disclosing and painful stories, funny or idiotic moments in a talk, surprise and amusement during an utterance, and so on. Laughter may result in the maintenance of a collaborative floor and it usually signals sincere and active participation, continual involvement, while not committing the addressees to speak in their turn. One of the speech acts to pre-condition sincerity with priority is complimenting the interlocutor. Broadly defined, a compliment is an expression of praise or positive regard. There have been studies to research the following aspects: the most frequent syntactic patterns; the attributes praised more insistently; the most appropriate verbal responses to compliments; the relationship between the giver and the recipient of the compliment; similarities and differences in this respect across cultures and continents. Let us sum up the findings for each aspect. Compliments generally fall into one of the following three patterns: Noun Phrase + is/looks + Adjectival Phrase (e.g. Your essay is great), I + like/love + Noun Phrase (e.g. I love your haircut), Pronominal form + is + Modifier + Noun Phrase (e.g. These are delicious cookies). Socialites prefer to compliment physical appearance and abilities first, work and study next, and the form they adopt can lead to a classification of compliments into: (a) direct vs. indirect, (b) specific vs. general, (c) normal vs. amplified lengths, (d) including a comparison vs. no comparison. As for the last mentioned point, it has been noted that comparisons are preferably exchanged between individuals of the same sex and in a close, rather than distant, relationship. Another important observation is that there is a

115

tendency to give appreciation to those details of personal appearance that are the result of deliberate effort, not simply a manifestation of natural attractiveness. Besides, this is particularly the case when females compliment other females. Males tend to compliment more on personality traits, some of which being loyalty, kindness, intelligence. Precisely due to a possible interpretation of insincerity, it has been found that by repeatedly complimenting someone in an attempt to be friendly, S may trigger the unwanted effect of discomfort and withdrawal of the person complimented. In case sincerity in the complimenter acquires validity in the eyes of R, the latter can adopt one of the following strategies: thanking and agreeing; thanking and returning the compliment; joking; doubting the praiseworthiness; denigrating the object of praise; merely commenting on the history of the object; no acknowledgement (shifting the topic or no response), etc. As a rule, complimenting is a positive politeness strategy. It answers the expectation of being complimented when the person has made efforts to improve appearance, performance of some sort or to obtain a new possession. That person may feel disappointed, even upset, if this is not taken into account or merely noticed, so as to become a complimentee. Actually, the complimentee seems to be forced, in the social comedy that is being played, to accept the favour of the compliment and to express gratitude, since a rejection of it (although a possible strategy when performed insincerely) runs counter to the positive face of the complimenter. This is an interesting conclusion. Although seemingly beneficial to the complimentee, complimenting potentially threatens the complimentees face. The compliment obliges her/him to repay the debt in some way [11]. The indebting nature of compliments is discussed by many researchers, including Brown and Levinson, because the analysed speech act, if sincere, expresses envy or admiration, thus indicating that the compliment-payer likes or would like something belonging to the compliment-recipient/R. As a result, the latter takes action either to protect the object of the praise or to offer it to the complimenter/S (for instance, Arabic interlocutors make a ritual out of the offering of thecomplimented object and do not literally take the object). It often happens (in any speech community) that participants engage - with sincerity or fake sincerity - in a remedial verbal action upon committing an offence, in a word, to apologize. Speech communities differ in what counts as an offence, then in the severity of the same offensive event, and afterwards in the appropriate compensation. Apologies are carried out by a set of strategies, like every other type of verbal interaction. To make it go away, S can either offer an explicit apology and/or assume responsibility, first and foremost. Besides, the apologetic person can upgrade the force of the speech act, downgrade the severity of the offence, downgrade his own responsibility, offer repair, and so on. R will rightly ask themselves whether all such is uttered with sincerity of feeling. Maybe some context-internal factors can decide upon its presence or lack. There is a direct way of influencing with these factors the choice of the apologetic formula, its intensification and its occurrence into one of two patterns: apology + account and apology + offer of compensation. The decisive context-external factors are social power and social distance. Correlations can be established in the following ways: (a) the lower the offenders status, the more he will feel inclined to apologize to the offended with an explicit formula; (b) the closer the interlocutors, the more likely the offender will expressly assume responsibility. The conformity to these social regulations of behaviour can pass for sincerity in the relationship. Cross-culturally, distinctions are numerous and baffling sometimes, such as in the case of contrary-to-face-value messages. Understanding grows in importance when what S says does not prize face-value sincerity, but Hs ability to read between the lines or decode the message from a holistic, context-based perspective. The contributions that are

116

contrary-to-face-value are looked into by pragmaticists for an inner motivation: to say no instead of yes for avoiding another persons disadvantage (an other-service answer) while simultaneously maintaining a desirable good rapport (the self-service). To discuss, therefore, self-serving and other-serving as related to face is a practice of sincerity because those two categories are not mutually exclusive. For the sake of illustration, we can build up the situation of communication in which N. offers a ride to M. when it is raining and M. does not have a car; M. definitely needs the ride, but replies by saying, No, thanks, I dont want to be too much trouble. If M. speaks haltingly or undecidedly, N. will know that he should not take the words literally and that the negative answer is a way of being considerate. The following situation is worth looking into: during a dinner party, the guests kept complimenting the hostess for the food served, but the response was the no type (Oh, no, the dishes were not so well-prepared). It was plain that she wanted to make the guests feel comfortable and to avoid throwing light upon the long hours spent while preparing the meal. Both the situations described above are of the type saying no for yes and other-serving. Saying yes for no and other-serving (or, instead of the affirmative particle, headnodding will do) illustrates the fact the communicators are harmony-oriented and avoid confrontation. An easy way to distinguish an authentic yes from a fake one is the observation of the level of enthusiasm manifested by S. When no for yes and self-serving is the case, it will be received as a lie. The utterance is contrary to the truth in order to avoid punishment (The drunk said, No, I didnt knock the window to pieces). In the following situation yes is for no and self-serving: a man in order to increase his credibility lies to his partners that he is going to an important meeting, but he is not invited to any such event. Thus, this is a simple deceptive communicative act, strategically misleading in a conscious way. In sum, contrary-to-face-value communication is strategic and manipulative, while there are cultural practices for decoding the message in the right, sincere (that is, truthful) way. It is a matter of communication competence and it takes an insiders perspective on contextual clues. Face-saving manoeuvres accommodate a number of speech acts, not only those under scrutiny here, and possibly some involving lengthy negotiations, in which partners develop an interest in the presence of sincerity. Ultimately, though Searle himself states that there is no sincerity requirement for greetings, for instance, even those have been found to exhibit both sincere and insincere attitudes. Grices whole theory has been built on a notion of benevolence, so maybe it is too much to expect absolute sincerity as well. Against the risks of idealization, it can be enough to say that the major concern should be the possibility of everyone, Ss and Rs, to cooperate linguistically and nothing more. At present, the methodologies of cross-fertilizing disciplines of study [12] have opened the way to the tolerant dialoguing between authors and their commentators, exploring aspects of life, language and literature, where a sincere positioning is expected. Sincere communicators, ultimately, resist the temptation to resolve differences between them artificially. The diversity of positions helps identify tensions which can be negotiated without impinging upon sincerity.
REFERENCES [1] uchel, D. (2004). Pragmatics Primer. Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic R.A., p. 21. [2] Biber, D. and Finegan, E. (1989). Styles of Stance in English: Lexical and Grammatical Marking of Evidentiality and Affect. Text. 9 / 1 (pp. 93-124). [3] Ochs, E. and Schieffelin, B. (1989). Language Has a Heart. Text. 9 / 1 (pp. 7-25).

117

[4] Habermas, J. (1979). Universal Pragmatics. J.Habermas (ed.) Communication and the Evolution of Society. Boston, MA: Beacon Press (pp. 1-68). [5] Halliday, M.A.K. (1985). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. [6] Goffman, E. (1981). Forms of Talk. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. [7] Sperber, D. and Wilson, D. (1986). Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Oxford: Blackwell. [8] Prvu, B.S. (2005). Dicionar de genetic literar. Iai: Institutul European (pp. 111-117). [9] Burke, K. (1961). The Rhetoric of Religion. Boston MA: Beacon Press (p.19). [10] Pietreanu, M. (1984). Salutul n limba romn. Bucureti: Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic. [11] Chen, R. (1993). Responding to compliments. Journal of Pragmatics. 20 (58). [12] Bamberg, M. and Andrews, M. (2004). Considering Counter-Narratives. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Abstract A definition of sincerity as a claim to trustworthiness simultaneously involves a correct match of outward form and interior state of the speaker. There is a broad correspondence, which will be discussed and illustrated, between sincerity and a number of speech acts, as well as between sincerity and discourse types.

Rsum La sincrit peut tre dfinie comme un rapport de confiance entre lmetteur et le rcepteur. En mme temps, il faut raliser une concordance aussi juste que possible entre la forme de lexpression et la condition emotionnelle de lmetteur. Le sujet de cet article est la sincrit de certains actes de langage et celle de certains types de discours. Rezumat Dac se definete sinceritatea ca un raport de ncredere ntre emitor i receptor, concomitent se face trimitere la o corelare just ntre forma de exprimare i starea emoional a emitorului. Discuia n articolul de fa i exemplele invocate vizeaz sinceritatea anumitor acte de vorbire i a anumitor tipuri de discurs.

118

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII. New Series. Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 pp. 119 - 123

Language and Literature

LA CONFIGURATION DE LUNIVERS TEXTUEL : COHERENCE ET COHESION Angelica Vlcu La cohrence textuelle constitue un objet dtude fondamental dans la linguistique textuelle. Notre communication a pour objectif lanalyse de divers aspects concernant lorganisation et de la structuration interne dun texte par le biais des moyens linguistiques et discursifs spcifiques la cohsion et la cohrence textuelles. Ces moyens la progression thmatique, les relations anaphoriques, les isotopies, les connecteurs - peuvent tre reprs dans le texte sous leur forme de surface ou sous leur forme de profondeur. Ce qui nous conduit dvelopper une telle dmarche cest la proprit du discours qui fait que tous les segments qui le composent soient lis smantiquement les uns aux autres, autrement dit sa cohrence. Le texte est considr, dune manire gnrale, comme un support langagier spcifique, comme un ensemble de phrases ou dnoncs qui forment la trace dun discours ancr dans un contexte dnonciation. Harald Weinrich (1973) considre le texte un rseau de dterminations , un tout o chaque lment entretient avec les autres des relations dinterdpendance . Ces lments, soutient ce grammairien, ou groupes dlments se suivent en ordre cohrent et consistant, chaque segment textuel compris contribuant lintelligibilit de celui qui suit. Ce dernier son tour, une fois dcod, vient clairer rtrospectivement le prcdent [1] (Weinrich, H., 1973 : 22) Selon M. Riegel et all. la cohrence est une proprit du discours, qui est mis en relation avec les conditions dnonciation, alors que la cohsion est une proprit du texte, qui est envisag ferm sur lui-mme. Ainsi, les jugements de cohrence dpendent des connaissances du monde et de la situation, qui sont partages ou non par lnonciateur et son destinataire, alors que la cohsion du texte svalue en fonction de lorganisation smantique interne [2](Riegel, M.,1994 : 605) Dominique Maingueneau (1996) considre que la cohsion rsulte de l'enchanement des propositions, de la linarit du texte, tandis que la cohrence s'appuie sur la cohsion mais fait aussi intervenir des contraintes globales, non linaires, attaches au contexte. Analyser la cohsion d'un texte, c'est l'apprhender comme un enchanement, comme une texture, [...] o des phnomnes linguistiques trs divers font la fois progresser le texte et assurent sa continuit par des rptitions. Mais un texte peut exhiber les signes d'une cohsion parfaite sans pour autant tre cohrent. Pour qu'un texte soit dit cohrent, il doit tre rapport une intention globale, [...] La cohrence passe aussi par l'identification du thme du texte, de quoi il traite, l'intrieur d'un certain univers (fictif, historique, thorique ...) .[3](Maingueneau, 1990 :32) Mais il ne sert rien de relever les marqueurs de cohrence d'un texte si l'on ne peut dterminer, en mme temps, s'ils sont en quantit suffisante ou s'ils ont t utiliss dune manire approprie. Il faudrait, donc, ajouter la liste des procds de cohrence tablie par les grammairiens du texte, des critres d'valuation qui nous permettent de

119

reprer les dfauts de cohrence d'un texte, d'en trouver la cause, d'expliciter notre jugement et de proposer une correction approprie. Cest pourquoi, partir des travaux de Lorraine Ppin de lUniversit du Qubec [4] nous avons essay danalyser quelques dfauts de la cohrence textuelle, dfauts relis la cohsion textuelle. Lorraine Ppin propose une typologie des dfauts de cohrence textuelle en analysant la cohsion, l'tagement ou hirarchisation (le regroupement des informations, leur ordre de prsentation, leur coordination, leur articulation, l'annonce explicite de leur organisation hirarchique, etc.) et ce quelle appelle la rsolution incertaine (juxtaposition des informations, mauvaise organisation des informations, imprcision des informations, dviation des informations, retard des informations, etc.). Le texte se droule dans le temps ce qui fait que, dune phrase lautre, soit absolument ncessaire le rappel de ce dont on vient de parler, savoir la cohsion thmatique, et en mme temps, le rappel de la signification de ce que lon vient den dire, cest - - dire la cohsion smantique. Les procds qui garantissent la cohsion dun texte sont classifis en deux sousgroupes : a) la rcurrence, la corfrence, la contigut smantique, le paralllisme smantique, le contraste smantique et la rsonance qui portent la trace thmatique ou smantique de ce qui vient dtre dit ; b) la jonction (liaison par connecteurs) qui assure la cohsion en dsignant le sens dune relation entre deux phrases. On peut parler de la cohsion dun texte si ces traces peuvent tre reconnues par les lecteurs et si elles sont suffisamment visibles dune phrase lautre. Nous nous arrterons seulement sur quelques-uns des procds mentionns ci-dessus. Et pour cela nous allons analyser des exemples de carences de cohsion lis au paralllisme smantique, au contraste smantique et la rsonance. Le paralllisme smantique dsigne une correspondance smantique biunivoque entre les syntagmes comparables de deux phrases, correspondance qui met en relief les ressemblances et les dissemblances entre ces deux phrases. Si lon napplique pas compltement ce procd du paralllisme smantique, on jette dans loubli les informations contenues dans la premire phrase, informations non reprises dans la deuxime phrase de la paire et donc inutiles. Prenons quelques exemples : 1. Linformatique est un domaine essentiel pour le dveloppement dun pays mais les quipements en sont trs chers. Est-il naturel que linformaticien ait un salaire plus grand que le directeur de lentreprise? Ex.1. a) variante propose : Linformatique est un domaine essentiel pour le dveloppement dun pays mais trs cher. Est-il naturel que linformaticien [et ici on pourra ajouter : doive mettre au point la structure informationnelle de toute lunit conomique pour tablir un parallle avec le mot essentiel] et quil ait un salaire plus grand quun directeur dentreprise? [mis en rapport avec trs cher]. Ex. 2. Le directeur dentreprise conduit, chaque jour, toute lactivit conomique de lentreprise tandis que linformaticien dirige seulement le secteur informationnel. . 2. a) variante possible : Le directeur dentreprise conduit, chaque jour, toute lactivit conomique de lentreprise tandis que linformaticien dirige seulement le secteur informationnel [on peut ajouter : en y intervenant lorsquil est ncessaire et mettre ainsi en correspondance avec chaque jour]. A la suite de la lecture des corrigs proposs en (1.a) et (2.a) on se rend compte de lapplication du paralllisme smantique dans la deuxime phrase des paires de phrases de (1) et de (2). On observe que les syntagmes ajouts ont pour consquence la mise en valeur

120

de tout ce qui a t dit dans la premire phrase et ces rattachements peuvent se constituer soit en un simple rappel soit en une explication [voir lexemple (1)] ou en une mise en opposition [voir lexemple (2)]. Un autre procd qui assure la cohsion dun texte est li lapplication correcte du contraste smantique. Le contraste smantique met en vidence une opposition smantique dj manifeste entre deux phrases ; cest laide de lantonymie que se ralise lopposition smantique entre deux termes essentiels de ces phrases. Ex. 3. Marie est une jeune fille trs dlicate. Cependant, souvent elle accomplit des tches avec beaucoup dnergie. Dans lexemple ci-dessus lopposition manifeste dj par le connecteur cependant est reprise, confirme et soutenue par lemploi de lantonymie des mots dlicate et avec nergie. Il y a des cas o le contraste smantique est redondant parce que le sens quil exprime est donn dj dans la deuxime phrase, et dautres cas o il est essentiel. Ex. 4. Marc est parfois dplaisant. Pourtant, aujourdhui il sest montr aimable en offrant des fleurs son amie. Lexemple nous permet dobserver la redondance par le fait que le sens du mot aimable est dj suggr par le syntagme offrir des fleurs. Lorraine Ppin soutient que lapplication du contraste smantique est essentielle la comprhension dune opposition entre deux phrases surtout lorsque cette opposition est faiblement exprime et alors il faut absolument la renforcer. Pour illustrer ses dires, elle donne les exemples : Ex. 5. Dans ma famille, nous sommes des gens bien ordinaires. Mais grce aux nombreuses annes passes dans le monde de la politique, mes parents et moi avons acquis un sens de la critique et de la tolrance trs lev. 5. a) variante propose : Dans ma famille, nous sommes des gens bien ordinaires. Mais grce aux nombreuses annes passes dans le monde de la politique, mes parents et moi avons acquis un sens de la critique et de la tolrance extraordinaire ou hors du commun. (On a ajout les mots souligns pour mettre en contraste avec le syntagme gens bien ordinaires et pour remmorer cette expression. Ladverbe trs lev est trop faible pour soutenir lopposition exprime par Mais). Ex. 6. Suite de l'exemple prcdent : Mais grce aux nombreuses annes passes dans le monde de la politique, mes parents et moi avons acquis un sens de la critique et de la tolrance trs lev. Pourtant, vers le mois de janvier, nous apprenions que les hockeyeurs demandaient un plus gros salaire. 6. a) variante propose : Mais grce aux nombreuses annes passes dans le monde de la politique, mes parents et moi avons acquis un sens de la critique et de la tolrance trs lev. Pourtant, cest avec indignation que vers le mois de janvier, nous apprenions que les hockeyeurs demandaient un plus gros salaire. (On a ajout le syntagme soulign pour le mettre en contraste avec tolrance et de cette manire on comprendra mieux lopposition annonce par Pourtant. Par le dfaut du contraste smantique pourtant mettra en opposition deux noncs qui ne sont pas comparables : 1) Nous sommes tolrants et 2) (pourtant) nous avons appris telle nouvelle. Un troisime facteur de cohsion et implicitement de cohrence textuelle est li au phnomne de rsonance discursive. La rsonance consiste en lutilisation de termes disjoints : moi,je, pour ma part, Marie, elle..., Jean, quant lui etc. Ce procd assure la continuit thmatique lorsque les exigences de la progression du discours ncessitent lintroduction des thmes nouveaux. Ex. 7. Marie lit beaucoup, Hlne, elle aime la peinture.

121

Dans cet exemple il nest pas du tout ncessaire den lire davantage pour se rendre compte que Marie et Hlne sont lies. Les termes disjoints Hlne, ellevoquent obligatoirement, par rsonance, la prsence dun autre dans la phrase antrieure et par cela on soutient la continuit thmatique. Lemploi des termes disjoints a pour but la correction des ruptures thmatiques dans les chanes discursives ; la rsonance est rclame lors des changements brusques de la thmatique. Ex. 8. Max rentra dans un caf et sassit une table...etc. Sa femme fila au supermarch pour acheter desetc. 8.a) on pourrait dire : Sa femme, elle, fila au ou Quant sa femmeayant en vue la rupture thmatique (le rhme). Ex. 9 Selon une enqute faite rcemment auprs des Canadiens, les Qubcois sont les plus gros consommateurs d'autos au pays. L'auto leur permet une plus grande indpendance. Les habitants de Montral aiment davantage voyager en avion... 9. a) version propose : Les habitants de Montral, eux...ou Les habitants de Montral, quant eux... Dans lexemple 9) la scissure thmatique provoque par lintroduction de la nouvelle information (sur les habitants de Montral) est limine et la continuit thmatique est rtablie au moyen du phnomne de la rsonance. La cohrence dun texte est due, comme nous avons vu, divers facteurs qui se situent, tous, soit un plan smantique, qui couvre la comprhension des units linguistiques, soit un plan pragmatique, qui touche aux rapports de sens entre les noncs et la situation o ils sont produits. Il est trs important de bien saisir que la cohrence ne relve pas dun ensemble de rgles arbitraires imposes par une grammaire quelconque, mais, au contraire, de lobservation des mcanismes au moyen desquels les lecteurs ont tendance traiter les textes qui leur sont soumis. Pour quun texte soit apprci comme tant cohrent, il faudrait que rien ne manque de ce qui est ncessaire latteinte de la fin qui a gr sa rdaction. Un texte cohrent ne doit pas laisser au lecteur limpression de quelque chose dincomplet ou de tronqu. Il y a des situations o un texte peut endurer certaines carences cause dune varit de raisons, savoir, un manque de documentation, une mauvaise comprhension du problme qui conduit lauteur laisser de cot des donnes essentielles, un style insuffisamment explicite, etc. En guise de conclusion nous apprcions que pour rdiger un texte cohrent le scripteur doit tenir compte de plusieurs aspects dont nous ne rappelons que quelques uns [5] : - le lecteur ne connat pas ce dont le scripteur veut traiter: celui-ci doit dvelopper, expliquer, illustrer ; le texte doit permettre au lecteur qui ne connat pas les donnes de se les reprsenter ;il sera donc parfois ncessaire de reformuler de faon diffrente, de traduire des chiffres en mots etc. - le lecteur n'a pas les ides claires: le texte du scripteur doit tre clair, organis visuellement et linguistiquement, etc. ; - le lecteur ne croit pas ce quil lit : le texte doit tre vridique, fond sur des sources crdibles, des tmoignages, des citations d'experts, avec un vocabulaire exact ; - le lecteur n'a pas envie de lire: le texte doit tre sduisant, doit avoir un style communicatif, une mise en pages attrayante, une longueur des phrases entre 10 et 15 mots. Comme professeurs, nous parlons de cohrence textuelle pour dcrire les marques par lesquelles un scripteur assure les liens entre les ides et fait avancer sa pense dans son texte. Dans notre pratique pdagogique, cest un problme dcriture, de rdaction par les lves et dvaluation de la clart et de la qualit de leurs textes pour nous, les enseignants.

122

Etudier la cohrence et la cohsion textuelles en tant que phnomnes qui facilitent la lecture, la production et la comprhension des textes, cest amener les tudiants dcouvrir la manire de construire et dinterprter le sens partiel au niveau de la phrase, le sens global au niveau du texte et en mme temps, la manire dinterprter les aspects discursifs au niveau de cette superstructure qui est le texte.

REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES [1] Weinrich, Harald, Le temps, Editions du Seuil, Paris, 1973, p.22; [2] Riegel, M., Pellat, J.-C., Rioul, R., Grammaire mthodique du franais, PUF, 1994, p. 605 [3] Maingueneau, Dominique, lments de linguistique pour le texte littraire, Bordas, Paris, 1990 [4] Ppin Lorraine, Analyse de quelques dfauts de cohrence textuelle, Correspondance, volume 4, numro 2, nov. 1998, in www.ccdmd/qc.ca/correspo/Corr4-2/lecture.html [5] www.revel.unicefr/cycnos/sommaire.html?=10 Charolles, Michel, Lencadrement du discours : univers, champs, domaines et espaces, Cahiers de Recherches Linguistiques, CNRS 1035, Universit Nancy 2, 6, pp. 1-73 Kleiber G., 1990, Quand "il" n'a pas d'antcdent, Langages, 97, 24-50. Kleiber G., 1992a, Cap sur les topiques avec le pronom il , L'information Grammaticale, 54, pp. 15-26. Weinrich, Harald, Grammaire textuelle du Franais, Didier Hatier, Paris, 1989 www.oasisfle.com/documents/progressions_thematiques.htm www.unige.ch/lettres/linge/moeschler/Discours/Discours4/sld002htm http://membres.lycos.fr/chrismoulin/lexique.htm#r1 Abstract To acquire the skill of writing, be it in a foregin language or not, imposes it on the learner to acquire the competence of formal communication, which is accessible only during classes, through a continuous contact with written products. Our paper will describe results of an effective observation of several aspects which we consider to underly the coherence of a text, and which may be translated at the level of textuality. We are convinced that the didactic practice on textual coherence will enable learners to identify their own competence in the reading of a certain text type and to resort to this competence to determine the acceptability limits of the written text the learner has just produced.

Rsum Lhabitude dcrire dans une langue, trangre ou non, demande ltudiant, part lacquisition des comptences de communication formelle, accessibles pendant les heures de classe exclusivement, le contact continu aux produits crits. Notre article se propose dobserver, effectivement, la manire dont les divers aspects que nous jugeons tre la base de la cohrence textuelle, se traduisent au niveau de la textualit. Rsolument, la pratique didactique portant sur la cohrence textuelle aidera ltudiant identifier ses propres comptences de lecture pour un certain type de texte et en faire ainsi rfrence, afin de fixer les limites dacceptabilit du texte crit quil vient de produire.

Rezumat Deprinderea de scrie ntr-o limb, fie ea strin sau nu, solicit studentului, n afar de dobndirea unor competene de comunicare formale care sunt accesibile doar n cadrul orelor de curs, contactul continuu cu produsele scrise. Articolul nostru i propune s observe, efectiv, modul n care diverse aspecte, pe care noi le considerm a fi la baza coerenei unui text, pot s fie traduse la nivelul textualitii. Avem convingerea c practica didactic asupra coerenei textuale va ajuta studentul s-i identifice propriile competene de lectur ntr-un anume tip de text dat i s apeleze la aceste competene pentru a determina limitele de acceptabilitate ale textului scris pe care tocmai l-a produs.

123

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII, New Series, Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 Book reviews pp. i - vii

INTERFERENE LINGVISTICE N DIACRONIA LIMBII ROMNE Doina Marta Bejan Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 2005, 238 pp. Limba romn, limb romanic, i contureaz individualitatea printre celelalte limbi neolatine i prin nivelul lexical, asupra cruia, de-a lungul secolelor, s-au exercitat influene lingvistice strine fie ca urmare a contactelor directe cu diferite populaii, fie a interferenelor la nivel crturresc. Observaii privind aceste interferene, afirmaii cu caracter teoretic sau aplicativ apar n literatura etimologic descriind limba romn sub form de volume (Hristea 1968, Ciobanu 1996, Dinu 1996, Sala 1999, Felecan 2004), dicionare (Ciobanu 2004, Ciornescu 2002) studii (Mihil 1960, Avram 1997) capitole sau subcapitole dedicate ariei etimologice (structura etimologic procentual a vocabularului, argumentarea etimologiei unor uniti lexicale aparinnd fie fondului principal de cuvinte, fie limbajelor specializate; pentru detalii a se vedea Zugun 2000) sau interferenelor lingvistice. Cartea pe care o prezentm selecteaz i sintetizeaz informaia dintr-o bogat literatur de specialitate care abordeaz direct sau aluziv, diferite aspecte ale acestor influene. Tema propus de autoare este prezentat pe parcursul a aproximativ 240 de pagini, fiind structurat n cinci mari capitole. Prevzut cu un cuprinztor aparat critic, volumul este recomandat tuturor celor interesai n aprofundarea aspectelor teoretice i practice ale etimologiei limbii romne, care pot extrage din aparatul critic informaii bibliografice utile. Aa cum se arat n seciunea introductiv intitulat Consideraii preliminare, interesul autoarei s-a oprit asupra acelor interferene care au contribuit la fixarea specificului limbii noastre n interiorul familiei limbilor romanice, influena slav, sau la influenele care au dus la modernizarea limbii romne actuale, mprumuturile neologice avnd ca urmare sporirea posibilitilor de exprimare a celor mai noi i mai variate idei (8). Sunt prezentate n capitole de sine stttoare influene exercitate de acele culturi i limbi ntr-o anume perioad din evoluia limbii noastre, respectiv perioada n care romna ncepe s cunoasc forma sa cult (literar) de manifestare. Structural cartea propune un model bazat pe un nucleu al influenelor, dezbtut n capitolele centrale i dou capitole care asigur limite interfereniale, interpretate prin prisma cronologiei evenimentelor socioculturale reflectate n vocabularul limbii romne. Primul capitol, Influena slav, ncepe prin a descrie cadrul istoric i temporal n care slavii ...i fac apariia pe teritoriul Daciei... (14), i continu cu periodizarea influenei slave. Apreciem, n mod deosebit, demersul complet propus de autoare, prin referirile la influena limbilor slave nvecinate i a limbii slavone, exercitat, n cazul acesta, prin intermediul limbii scrise. Capitolul se ncheie cu bogate exemplificri extrase din lexicul de origine slavon din patrimoniul limbii romne. Cea mai ntins parte a lucrrii, 133 de pagini, este reprezentat de trei capitole: Influena latin, Influena italian, i Influena francez care au fost concepute ntr-o viziune sistemic pentru a argumenta fenomenul occidentalizrii romanice (termen propus n 1978 de Al. Niculescu pentru ceea ce numea, la 1940, Sextil Pucariu reromanizare). Este un proces de ntrire a caracterului romanic originar al limbii romne i

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII, New Series, Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 Book reviews pp. i - vii

prin influena latin cult sau savant i a altor limbi romanice, italian i francez n principal, [...] n limba romn existnd astzi, din aceast surs, cel mai mare numr de neologisme i de calcuri, acoperind toate sferele vieii materiale i spirituale romneti. Astfel, dup unsprezece - dousprezece secole de izolare de occidentul romanic, romna i regsete, prin intermediul culturii, locul ce i se cuvine n lumea romanic(5). Ultimul capitol, Influena englez, prezint, n linii mari, contribuia englez, acceptat ca fiind cea mai recent i mai puternic influen care se exercit asupra limbii noastre, asigurnd receptarea neologismelor cu caracter internaional. Capitolele au, n linii mari, o structur asemntoare: mprejurrile istorice n care s-a produs contactul ntre limbi, periodizarea influenei respective, un inventar al unitilor lexicale, stabilit pe criteriile semantic i morfologic, particulariti ale adaptrii neologismelor de originile amintite la sistemul fonetic i morfologic al limbii romne, un subcapitol despre calcuri de diverse tipuri i un subcapitol despre formarea cuvintelor, n care sunt nregistrate afixele separate din cuvintele mprumutate, i care au devenit productive n limba romn. Aproape fiecare capitol ncearc s lmureasc problema etimologiei multiple a unor uniti lexicale n limba romn. Binevenit este prezentarea fenomenului franuzismelor aparente, numite de Theodor Hristea pseudofranuzisme, prin analogie cu pseudoanglicismele, adic acele cuvinte care nu exist n limba francez sau englez, dar care au fost create n limba romn sau n alte limbi de unde romna le-a preluat, prin combinarea unor teme sau elemente formative de origine francez / englez: grandoman, grandomanie, tenismen, recordmen etc. Informaia fiecrui capitol se completeaz cu bogate note care detaliaz aspecte din bibliografia consultat, de obicei rspndit prin diverse reviste de specialitate sau n actele congreselor de lingvistic. Oferind o imagine sintetic asupra unui important capitol de istorie a limbii romne, lucrarea se parcurge, datorit sistematizrii, cu uurin, asigurnd cititorului o mai bun nelegere a devenirii limbii noastre. Referine i sugestii bibliografice: 1. Avram, Mioara, Anglicismele n limba romn actual, Bucureti, 1997 2. Ciobanu, Georgeta, Anglicisme n limba romn, Timioara, 1996 3. Ciobanu,Georgeta, Romanian Words of English Origin, Timioara, 2004 4. Ciornescu,Alexandru, Dicionarul etimologic al limbii romne, Bucureti, 2002 5. Dinu, Mihai, Personalitatea limbii romne. Fizionomia vocabularului, Bucureti, 1996 6. Felecan, Nicolae, Vocabularul limbii romne, Cluj-Napoca, 2004 (pp. 92-122) 7. Hristea, Theodor, Probleme de etimologie, Bucureti, 1968 (pp. 108-114) 8. Mihil, G., mprumuturi vechi sud-slave n limba romn. Studiu lexico-semantic, Bucureti, 1960 9. Niculescu, Al., Individualitatea limbii romne ntre limbile romanice. Contribuii socio-culturale, Bucureti, 1978 10. Sala, Marius, Introducere n etimologia limbii romne, Bucureti, 1999 (pp. 166-218) 11. Zugun, Petru, Lexicologia limbii romne, Iai, 2000 (pp. 80-83). Floriana Popescu Universitatea Dunrea de Jos, Galai

ii

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII, New Series, Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 Book reviews pp. i - vii

WHEN ALMA MATER HEARS FROM HER OFFSPRING

CULTURAL MEDIATION. A CASE STUDY OF SAMI RESEARCH Elena Mirona Ciocrlie University of Troms, Faculty of Social Sciences, 2005, 158 pp. THE WAYS OF THE NOVEL: OR, THE QUEST FOR VERISIMILITUDE IN THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRENCH AND ENGLISH NOVEL Gabriela Iuliana Colipc Leiden: UFB/ GrafiMedia Universiteit Leiden, 2005, 504 pp. What the two books introduced in this double reviewing share is the fact that they were both written by young graduates from the University of Galai and were published under the aegis of two universities in Europe. Each marks a step further in its authoress academic accomplishment. Such is the state of contemporary societies faced with the liberal market of cultural homogenization, which reflecting on their own diversity has become a necessity nowadays. The group of Sami researchers connected with the University of Troms in Norway, engaged in experimenting themes and methods while mediating aspects of indigenous culture with a view to challenging the Western paradigm, is a case in point. The first book under discussion here grew out of the two years spent by Mirona Ciocrlie as a student of the Indigenous Master Programme at the University of Troms, and represents her dissertation submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy on Indigenous Studies at the Faculty of Sciences there. A graduate from the Faculty of Letters at the University of Galai and also a MA in Cultural Studies at the Bucharest University, Mirona Ciocrlie is currently employed as a project assistant with the Centre for Sami Studies at the University of Troms and is qualifying for a funded PhD position at the Faculty of Humanities at the said university. In her study, she makes the most of the Sami researchers innovative and experimenting work with the intention of revealing the process of globalization in a specific cultural area in Northern Norway in its interaction and communication with the academic area. The theoretical approach is sustained by two case studies resulting from Mirona Ciocrlies intercourse with two interviewees benefited by their position both as academics and members of the Sami indigenous culture. Ande Somby is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Law, and his article Some Hybrids of the Legal Situation of the Sami People in Norway, giving vent to his frustrations as a Sami subjected to the process of norweginisation, makes the object of his conversation with Mirona. (32-53) Henry Minde is Professor of Sami History at the Faculty of History and he is being interviewed on his article Assimilation of the Sami Implementation and Consequences. (54-74) The two texts are indeed the core of this research as they appear complementary to one another, and the full transcriptions of the two conversations reveal Mirona Ciocrlie as an apt interviewer, able to elicit relevant responses from each of her interlocutors.

iii

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII, New Series, Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 Book reviews pp. i - vii

In mapping her theoretical concepts, the authoress comes closer to such specific aspects as the Western discourse about the Other (S. Mills), the reader-response theory (Wolfgang Isers translatability and recursive looping), colonial and post-colonial theorizing (Edward Said, Arnold Krupat) and, of course, postmodern and poststructural critical paradigms (Michel de Certeau, Michel Foucault, Brian McHale, Paul Ricur, or H. White). Not infrequently, the dense scholarly discourse is enlivened by occasional (auto)biographical glimpses. At the beginning of her studies at Troms, Mirona Ciocrlie confesses, she found herself immersed in a new cultural environment where she became aware of the political and administrative dimensions of the Indigenous Discourse which tended to describe indigenous communities as politically weak, economically inadequate and culturally stigmatized. While aware of being the product of a European type of civilization valuing critical, objective estimation of the facts of life, she found similarities in her childhood upbringing amidst rural population back in the rural Romania, relevant for a better understanding of how to deal with issues of difference. The scholarly tension is also released with cases taken from Sami past and recent history, of Shamanic tradition, of environmental protests, of legal action taken against expropriation of property, all of these meant to take the reader into the realities of the Sami people in Norway. However, the reader may consider that it takes more than two texts/ interviews to substantiate the point that seems to be focal for the study under discussion, viz. that the ways in which indigenous researchers have challenged the Western discourse on indigenous cultures are far more numerous and diverse than previously expected. Further cases in point might have indeed been welcome to demonstrate the diversity of the discourse of the intelligentsia in native communities as evidence of their mounting determination to preserve their spiritual and material identities. Despite being marred by a number of errors caused by editorial mismanagement, the book is an outstanding achievement of cultural synthesis coupled with a compelling analytical approach, and speaks to specialists and non-specialists alike. The second book to be reviewed is the result of its authoress full time doctoral research with the Comparative Literature Department at the University of GABRIELA IULIANA COLIPC Leiden as the recipient of a PhD grant by the Pallas Institute of that university. Also a graduate from the THE WAYS OF THE NOVEL: OR, University of Galai, Gabriela Iuliana Colipc received an THE QUEST FOR VERISIMILITUDE MA degree in Translation and Interpretation from her IN THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRENCH AND ENGLISH NOVEL Alma Mater where she has been employed since 1999. Now she holds the position of senior lecturer. In an impressive study (five hundred pages or so long), Gabriela Colipc conducts a comparative examination of the emergence and development of fiction in two major European literatures, the English and French UNIVERSITEIT LEIDEN 2005 ones, with special focus on the verisimilitude-creating devices which, in her opinion, marked the shift from the Enlightenment to the Romantic age. Actually, the concept of verisimilitude appears indeed as the cornerstone that sustains the whole theoretical edifice informing this work. From the Aristotelian principle of mimesis to the early eighteenth-century concept of outer verisimilitude and further to inner verisimilitude in the latter half of the century, the book traces the avatars of the aesthetic component of lifelikeness placed within the framework iv

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII, New Series, Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 Book reviews pp. i - vii

of the eighteenth-century European mentalities. This can be seen in each of the four sections (Parts) where verisimilitude is constantly resorted to as a key concept. Thus, Part One: Verisimilitude and the Illusion of Reality brings to the focus, through subsequent subchapters, the ways in which the novel managed to change its status from marginal to canonical by experimenting with new means of creating verisimilitude. Part Two: Verisimilitude and the Voyage Abroad. Philosophical Quests looks at travel narratives as marking the spiritual transition from stability to mobility when realism of assessment emerged as another essential dimension of the verisimilitude pattern of the voyage abroad (148). Part Three: Verisimilitude and the Picaresque Journey outlines and discusses the multiple uses of the picaresque vein as a favourite device of representing reality in the eighteenth-century novel. Part Four: Verisimilitude, Voyages and the Passion Pattern is perceived as the most heterogeneous of all since the examination of the preference for the voyage due to its capacity of conveying verisimilitude calls for a reiteration of all the main directions of the previous discussion. This section examines the gradual metamorphosis and final triumph of inner verisimilitude while maintaining that the ideals and verisimilitude models of the Enlightenment man () make way for those of the Romantic, modern individual who continues to travel, but with a different goal and within the boundaries of different horizons (473). Close reading exploration into the texts of representative eighteenth-century French and English fiction authors (mention is made of as many as 46 titles) provide a stimulating and thought-provoking addition. Making the most of a bibliography encompassing the whole gamut of theoretical research in the field from, say, the now classical Wellek and Warren to the very latest, Gabriela Colipcs book brings together all the salient points that landmark a crucial moment in the development of the modern novel. Excellently written, well documented, clearly structured, this is a compelling reading for students, scholars and anyone with an interest in the novel. Eugenia Gavriliu Dunrea de Jos University of Galai LE GOUT DES MOTS. SAVOAREA CUVINTELOR. Dicionar francez-romn de termeni culinari*. Virginia Veja i colectiv. Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic. 2006 Ce dictionnaire se propose dinvestiguer une zone toujours intressante de lunivers du discours public: le vocabulaire dorientation gastronomique, plus spcialement le vocabulaire de la cuisine. Elabor par un groupe dtudiantes en DEA, certaines dentre elles devenues par la suite nos collgues, le dictionnaire reflte les lments thmatiques en usage et tente de mettre en vidence le rapport qui existe, en gnral, entre la culture, la langue et leurs reprsentations lexicographiques. N dun vident besoin, tant pour lutilisateur commun que pour le spcialiste terminologue et/ou le traducteur, ce dictionnaire met la disposition du public intress une liste v

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII, New Series, Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 Book reviews pp. i - vii

denviron 6000 mots et lexies identifis dans des corpus bilingues, franais et roumain, traits de faon ce quils donnent une image de lunivers thmatique dans les langues mises en rapport. Les auteurs de ce travail ont essay dviter le drisoire dun faux dictionnaire et se sont impliques avec beaucoup de passion dans llaboration dun vrai dictionnaire, capable de dcrire ce monde savoureux de la cuisine franaise et bien davantage. Ce dictionnaire que nous proposons non seulement un emploi ponctuel dict par des ncessits de comprhension, mais aussi la lecture encyclopdique, se donne pour tche dharmoniser une prsentation lexicographique, caractrise par des entres polysmiques, classification alphabtique et marquage diffrentiel, avec une prsentation terminologique, dans le but de mettre en vidence les zones de la constitution du sens autant au niveau de la langue source (le franais) qu celui de la langue cible (le roumain). Conf. Univ. dr. Angelica Vlcu Universit Dunrea de Jos, Galai ON MODERNISM, POSTMODERNISM AND THE NOVEL Michaela Praisler Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 2005, 183 pp Modern and contemporary literature has long been the object of debate. Critics have emphasized its avant-garde nature and have pointed out the intricacies of its fabric, readers have dismissed it as either too innovative to be pleasing or as difficult and eclectic, students have coped but not actually got to grips with its discourse. Michaela Praislers book partly adds to the debate, partly informs and stimulates. It addresses philology undergraduates, offering them ideas about how to read the (post)modern novel, how to enjoy its strange experiments, and how to assess its value. In this it is intended to support the daring enterprise of teaching literature and to encourage reading in the era of texts being sooner browsed, listened to or watched rather than interacted with in the old fashioned way. On Modernism, Postmodernism and the Novel examines the main strands of twentieth-century fiction, including post-war, post-imperial and multicultural fiction. In so doing, it looks into the metamorphoses of novel modes of writing and challenges canonical patterns by shedding new light on generally recognised valuable contributors to the literary stage and by observing their latest reformulations with writers who still have to enter this exclusivist zone, but whose works clearly deserve our attention. In short, it focuses on the most popular of literary genres and is structured into two parts, which concentrate on the trends announced by the title and which develop from a theoretical base to individual writers and representative works. Inspired and necessary for a coherent survey of the twentieth century literary phenomenon and its contemporary hypostases, the choices operated are:

vi

Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of GALAI Fascicle XIII, New Series, Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 Book reviews pp. i - vii

Henry James, Edward Morgan Forster and Joseph Conrad (Early Modernism); Virginia Woolf, James Joyce and David Herbert Lawrence (Experimentalism); Angus Wilson and Kingsley Amis (The Angry Novel); Lawrence Durrell, John Fowles and David Lodge (Metafiction); Doris Lessing, Fay Weldon and Helen Fielding (Feminine/Feminist Fiction); Salman Rushdie and Kazuo Ishiguro (Postcolonial Writing). The writers contribution to the novel is placed within the wider historical and cultural frame of the time of writing but, more importantly, of the time of their reception, with a view to pointing out the openness of interpretation, the multitude of possible interpretative strategies. Furthermore, the explicit and implicit core of their writings is accessed through the lens of major critical directions, thus having theory and practice come together and familiarising readers not only with the discourse of fiction, but with that of criticism also. Including a selection of Texts (excerpts from The Portrait of a Lady, A Passage to India, Heart of Darkness, Mrs. Dalloway, Ulysses, Sons and Lovers, Anglo-Saxon Attitudes, Lucky Jim, The Alexandria Quartet, The French Lieutenants Woman, Changing Places, The Diaries of Jane Somers, Down Among the Women, Bridget Joness Diary, Midnights Children and The Remains of the Day), Michaela Praisler manages to put things into perspective, to illustrate that which has previously been stated with reference to style, diction, narrative practice and technique, to thus allow students to practice actual text analysis, guided along by Tasks which orient and facilitate the approach. The Useful Terminology section which precedes the Bibliography serves practically the same purposes, defining terms and giving examples. Neatly structured and pertinently presented, the volume touches on the most neuralgic of issues associated with the novelty of modernism and the controversy of postmodernism, constituting itself at once into an appealing course of lectures and a thought-provoking collection of texts illustrative of the language of literature at its best. Having read Michaela Praislers book, one is compelled to acknowledge that the novel has remained as purposeful and relevant form as it was one hundred years ago. Ioana Mohor-Ivan Dunrea de Jos University of Galai

vii

The Annals of the Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. Fascicle XIII. Language and Literature New Series, Issue 25, XIII (XXIV), 2006 ISSN 1221- 4647

Contributors Dr. Simona Antofi is an associate professor at the Department of Literature, Linguistics and Journalism, Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. She is coordinator of research projects and author of papers exploring such topics as Cultural Identity and Multiculturalism. A Romanian Identity Profile (in Cultural Limits and Literature, Galai, 2006) or Les modles culturels identitaires roumains, des solutions dintgration europenne et dautolgitimit (in CEDIMES, Trgovite, 2006). Contact: simoantofi@yahoo.com Dr. Doina Marta Bejan an associate professor at the Department of Literature, Linguistics and Journalism, Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. Her latest publication, Interferene lingvistice n diacronia limbii romne (Bucureti: Editura Didactic i Pedagogic R.A., 2005) fully mirrors the authors scientific interests (see the Book Review for details). Contact: dmbejan@yahoo.com Dr. Ruxanda Bontil is an associate professor of British and American Literature at the University of Galati, Romania. Her recent publications include Vladimir Nabokovs English Novels. The Art of Defusing Subjectivism (2004) and The Romantics and the Victorians. Views and Weaves (2005). Contact: ruxbontila@yahoo.com Raluca Bourceanu graduated from the Faculty of Letters (German - French), a Al. I. Cuza University of Iai and has won several scholarships to study in Germany (Konstanz i Mnchen) and France (EPHE - Paris). As a young academic she teaches at Al. I. Cuza University of Iai and carries out research at the Collge de France, Paris. Her fields of interest include: theoretical linguistics, translation studies and the philosophy of language. Contact: raluca_bourceanu@yahoo.com Dr. Anca Cehan is an associate professor of linguistics and applied linguistics at the Faculty of Letters, the English Department, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai. She has carried out research and published studies in the fields of semantics, ELT methodology, discourse analysis and pragmatics. Contact: acehan@uaic.ro Dr. Mihaela Cirnu is a lecturer at the Department of Literature, Linguistics and Journalism, the Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. Her research interests focus mainly on the Romanian language of advertising. Contact: mihacirnu@yahoo.com Damian Matei, a PhD student and a young academic of the the Department of Literature, Linguistics and Journalism, Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai will thoroughly investigate the Romanian literature in his quest for data on the image of the press in the Romanian literature. Contact: matei83@yahoo.com Dr. Petru Iamandi is an associate professor at the English Department, Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. His research interests cover mainly the field of SF literature and history of SF literature. Contact: petrui55@yahoo.com Nicoleta Ifrim, a young academic of the Department of Literature, Linguistics and Journalism, the Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai, is 155

Contributors Fascicle XIII. Language and Literature. Vol. 18 (2006)

currently preparing her nicodasca@yahoo.com doctoral thesis in the Romanian literature. Contact:

Silvia Manoliu is a lecturer at The Department of Germanic Languages, Faculty of Letters and Sciences of Language and Communication, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava. Her research interests focus mainly on applied linguistics (with a special interest in phonetics and phonology, semantics and translation studies) Contact: silviamanoliu@litere.usv.ro Dr. Ioana Mohor-Ivan an associate professor at the English Department, Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. The grants she was awarded by the British Council enabled her to have direct access to Irish culture and literature. Contact: ioana_mohor@yahoo.com Gina Necula is a young academic of the Department of Literature, Linguistics and Journalism, the Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. Currently she is performing research in Romanian linguistics, with a sepecial interest in the boiler plate language. Contact: ginanec@gmail.com Lidia Mihaela Necula is a young academic of the English Department, Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai whose research interests focus on contemporary English literature. Contact: lidiamicky_necula@yahoo.co. uk Dr. Paraschiv Mihaela, associate professor at the Department of Classical Languages, Italian and Spanish, of the Faculty of Letters Al. I. Cuza University of Iai. Author of two volumes published in 2003 (Femeia n Roma antic, Iai: Junimea) and 2004 (Documentele latine de cancelarie din Moldova (sec.XIV-XVIII), Iai: Junimea), Dr. Paraschiv has also published three bilingual volumes of translations: M.Tullius Cicero, Despre divinaie, Iai: Polirom, 1998, M.Tullius Cicero, Despre destin, Iai: Polirom, 2000 and Sextus Aurelius Victor, Carte despre mprai, Iai: Ed.Universitii "Al.I.Cuza" 2006. Contact: mihaelaparaschiv_clasice@yahoo.com Stelua Stan is a lecturer at the English Department, Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. Her research interests cover mainly the field of postmodernist literature and she has also taken a special interest in the study of English modality. Contact: stelutastan@yahoo.com Daniela orcaru is a Junior Lecturer of English Linguistics in the Department of English Language and Literature of the Faculty of Letters, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. She has published articles in conference volumes and chapter contributions to scientific research volumes, most of them focused on stylistic linguistics. Contact: daniela_sorcaru@yahoo.com Dr. Daniela uchel, is an associate professor of linguistics and applied linguistics at the Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. Her research interests focus on pragmatics, rhetorics and the grammar of contemporary English. Contact: tucheldaniela@yahoo.com Dr. Angelica Vlcu is an associate professor of linguistics and applied linguistics at the French Department of the Faculty of Letters and Theology, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai. Her research interests cover the fields of text linguistics, teaching French as a foreign language. Contact: a_valcu@yahoo.fr>,