A MAJOR PROJECT SYNOPSIS

ON

SERIAL PORT OPERATE FOR HOME APPLIANCES USING COMPUTER

Submitted to: Mr. Ashish Awasthi H.O.D (Department of Electroics & Communication Engg.)
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Submitted by: Arvind Kumar Verma Roll No. 0922131008 Abhishek Singh Yadav Roll No. 0922131001

Triloki Chand Roll No. 0922131047

Acknowledgement
First of all, I express my deep sense of gratitude and devotion of God almighty without whose help and wish everything were just impossible .
My present report is the result blessings and well wishes of my teachers. I wish to express my grateful thanks to teacher Mr. ASHISH AWASTHI, H.O.D of E&C.I.E.T Sitapur under whose enlighten guidance and supervision. I could able to complete the report. Finally, I am hearty obliged to my teacher Mr. ASHISH AWASTHI for their constant operation and patience .

SUBMITTED BY
Krishna Kumar Yadav Roll no. 0922131021 Pramit Srivastava
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Roll no. 0922131027 Date.. I.E.T Resora, Sitapur

ABSTRACT
Traditionally electrical appliances in a home are controlled via switches that regulate the electricity to these devices. As the world gets more and more technologically advanced, we find new technology coming in deeper and deeper into our personal lives even at home. Home automation is becoming more and more popular around the world and is becoming a common practice. The process of home automation works by making everything in the house automatically controlled using technology to control and do the jobs that we would normally do manually. Home automation takes care of a lot of different activities in the house. this project we propose a unique System for Home automation utilizing Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) that is paired with a wireless module to provide seamless wireless control over many devices in a house. The block diagram is a shown below. This user console has many keys , each corresponding to the device that needs to be activated. The encoder encodes the user choice and sends via a FM transmitter. The FM receiver receives the modulated signal and demodulates it and the user choice is determined by the DTMF decoder. Based upon this the required appliance is triggered.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1
I. II. III. IV. INTRODUCTION..8 COMPONENTS.11 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION.13 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION.14

Chapter 2
A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO 8051 MICROCONTROLLER.15 II. AT89S5215 III. PIN DIAGRAM..17 IV. BLOCK DIAGRAM...19 V. PIN DESCRIPTION...20
I.

Chapter 3
I. II. Printed circuit board ...24 Reliment pin with base25

Chapter 4
I. II. MT 8870...27 PIN DIAGRAM27
4

III. IV. V. VI. VII.

BLOCK DIAGRAM.28 FEATURES...28 APPLICATION.29 DESCRIPTION.30 PIN DESCRIPTION..30

Chapter 5
I. II. III. IV. V. ULN 2003 RELAY DRIVER.34 PIN DIAGRAM..34 LOGIC DIARAM...35 DESCRIPTION...36 FEATURES.36

Chapter 6
I. II. III. IV. V. 7404.38 PIN DIAGRAM...38 PIN DESCRIPTION39 DESCRIPTION40 PIN CONFIGURATION..40

Chapter 7.
I. II. III. IV. V. 7805..42 PIN DIAGRAM...42 PIN DESCRIPTION.43 ADVANTAGES...44 DISADVANTAGES44

Chapter 8.

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII.

CAPICITOR 1000 F 25 V.47 470 F 25 V...49 10 F 25 V.49 0.1 F 25 V50 33 pF Cap..50 22 pF Cap..51

Chapter 9
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. RESISTOR53 UNITS54 ELECTRONIC SYMBOLS AND NOTATION55 THEORY OF OPERATION..56 POWER DISSIPATION.59 10 K pot...61 CRYSTAL...62 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE ..62 2 PIN MICRO SWITCHS64 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION..65 APPLICATION....66 DIODE..67

Chapter 10
POWER SUPPLY..71

REFERENCES 82

INTRODUCTION
The aim of the proposed system is to develop a cost effective solution that will provide controlling of industral appliances remotely and enable industrial security against intrusion in the absence of industry. The system provides availability due to development of a low cost system. The industrial control system with an affordable cost was thought to be built that should be mobile providing remote access to the appliances and allowing industrial security. Though devices connected as industrial and office appliances consume electrical power. These devices should be controlled as well as turn on/off if required. Most of the times it was done manually. Now it is a necessity to control devices more effectively and efficiently at anytime from anywhere. In this system, we are going to develop a cellular phone based industrial /office appliance. This system is designed for controlling arbitrary devices, it includes a cell phone (not included with the system kit, end user has to connect his/her cell phone to the system) which is connect to the system via head set. To active the cellular phone unit on the system a call is to be made and as the call is answered, in response the user would enter a two/three digit password to access the system to control devices. As the caller press the specific password, it results in turning ON or OFF specific
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device. The device switching is achieved by Relays. Security preserved because these dedicated passwords owned and known by selected persons only. For instance, our system contains an alarm unit giving the user a remote on/off mechanism, which is capable of informing up to five different numbers over telephony network about the nature of the event. The underlying principle mainly relies up on the ability of DTMF (Double Tune Multi Frequency) ICs to generate DTMF corresponding to a number or code in the number pad and to detect the same number or code from its corresponding DTMF. In detail, a DTMF generator generates two frequencies corresponding to a number or code in the number pad which will be transmitted through the communication networks, constituting the transmitter section which is simply equivalent to a mobile set. In the receiver part, the DTMF detector IC, for example IC MT 8870 detects the number or code represented by DTMF back, through the inspection of the two transmitted frequencies. The DTMF frequencies representing the number/ codes are shown below. Imagine a high-end home security system with no monthly maintenance fees, made possible using an list of automatically contacted phone numbers, synthetic speech and dual-tone detection to interface with the owner via a phone connection. The implementation of such a system requires a home phone line, a cell phone or touch-tone phone, and a power supply to reliably monitor a home utilizing motion, door, window, and fire sensors. The home industrial line is used to contact trusted parties at specified phone numbers in the event of a fire alarm or security issue. For example, if the window sensor gets tripped and no password is entered at the keypad, the system will call the owner and indicate
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that the window sensor was tripped. The owner can then listen to what is happening inside the industrial with microphones near each sensor that transmit through the phone line when that sensor is triggered. The owner can then communicate with whomever is inside the house through the use of a speaker phone built into the system. If the security system cannot contact the owner, it will use an internal ordered list of other numbers to make further backup calls. The contacted party can then take immediate action, such as calling a neighbor or the police. When there is a security problem the owner will be the first to know and have the ability to have control of the situation with the use of their cell phone. Settings on the security system or industrial automation system can be changed at home or by cell phone. The base system at the industrial includes a keypad and LCD screen for on-site use. Internal menus are displayed on the screen and can be navigated once the admin password has been verified. Non-admin passwords can only be used to arm and disarm the system. Options with an admin password include adding, deleting and reordering phone numbers in the call list, adding or deleting passwords, changing the admin password, arming or disarming the system, and adjusting automatic temperature controls. Industrial automation is closely related to a security system such as this, and is intended to be added to the base package. With automation features a homeowner can remotely toggle appliances such as air conditioning and heating units, lamps or porch lights, landscape sprinkler timers, snow-melt systems, outdoor property lighting, and safety lighting. Any of these features could be added using the existing relays in this system.

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COMPONENTS
NAME
PCB Reliment 2 pin with base Reliment 16 pin with base 40 pin IC base 18 pin IC base 16 pin IC base 14 pin IC base MT 8870 AT 89C51 ULN 2003 7404 7805 1000F 25V 470F 25V 10F 25V 0.1F Ceramic 33pF Cap 22pF Cap Resistor 1M Resistor 100K Resistor 330K Resistor 1K Resistor 10K 10K pot 3.5795MHz Crystal 12MHz Crystal
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QUANTITY
1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 6 6 1 1 1

LCD 16*2 2pin micro switch Transformer 0-12, 1A 5pin relay 12volt Relay external conectors diodeIN4007 led Headphone 3.5mm

1 1 1 4 4 4 6 1

12

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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14

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO 8051

15

MICROCONTROLLER:
When we have to learn about a new computer we have to familiarize about the machine capability we are using, and we can do it by studying the internal hardware design (devices architecture), and also to know about the size, number and the size of the registers. A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor (the CPU), non-volatile memory for the program (ROM or flash), volatile memory for input and output (RAM), a clock and an I/O control unit. Also called a "computer on a chip," billions of microcontroller units (MCUs) are embedded each year in a myriad of products from toys to appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can use 70 or more microcontrollers. The following picture describes a general block diagram of microcontroller.

AT89S52:
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller, which provides a highly flexible and costeffective solution to many, embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
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allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt.

The hardware is driven by a set of program instructions, or software. Once familiar with hardware and software, the user can then apply the microcontroller to the problems easily.

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 The pin diagram of the 8051 shows all of the input/output pins unique to microcontrollers:

The following are some of the capabilities of 8051 microcontroller. 1. Internal ROM and RAM

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2. I/O ports with programmable pins 3. Timers and counters 4. Serial data communication The 8051 architecture consists of these specific features: 16 bit PC &data pointer (DPTR) 8 bit program status word (PSW) 8 bit stack pointer (SP) Internal ROM 4k Internal RAM of 128 bytes. 4 register banks, each containing 8 registers 80 bits of general purpose data memory 32 input/output pins arranged as four 8 bit ports: P0-P3 Two 16 bit timer/counters: T0-T1 Two external and three internal interrupt sources Oscillator and clock circuits.

19

20

21

22

23

24

Printed circuit board

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. When the board has only copper tracks and features, and no circuit elements such as capacitors, resistors or active devices have been manufactured into the actual substrate of the board, it is more correctly referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Use of the term PWB or printed wiring board although more accurate and distinct from what would be known as a true printed circuit board, has generally fallen by the wayside for many people as the distinction between circuit and wiring has become blurred. Today printed wiring (circuit) boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices, and allow fully automated assembly processes that were not possible or practical in earlier era tag type circuit assembly processes. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). In informal use the term "PCB" is used both for bare and assembled boards, the context clarifying the meaning. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs must initially be designed and laid out, but become cheaper, faster to make, and potentially more reliable for high-volume production since production and soldering of PCBs can be automated. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards published by the IPC organization.

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Reliment pin with base

An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device for joining electrical circuits as an interface using a mechanical assembly. The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices.[1] There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. Connectors may join two lengths of flexible copper wire or cable, or connect a wire or cable or optical interface to an electrical terminal.

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27

MT 8870

PIN DIAGRAM:

28

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Features
Complete DTMF Receiver Low power consumption

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 Internal gain setting amplifier Adjustable guard time Central office quality Power-down mode Inhibit mode Backward compatible with MT8870C/MT8870C-1

Applications
Receiver system for British Telecom (BT) or CEPT Spec (MT8870D-1) Paging systems Repeater systems/mobile radio Credit card systems Remote control Personal computers Telephone answering machine

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Description
The MT8870D/MT8870D-1 is a complete DTMF receiver integrating both the band -split filter and digital decoder functions. The filter section uses switched capacitor techniques for high and low group filters; the decoder uses digital counting techniques to detect and decode all 16 DTMF tone-pairs into a 4-bit code. External component count is minimized by on chip provision of a differential input amplifier, clock oscillator and latched three-state bus interface.

Pin Description

1. IN+ 2. IN-

Non-Inverting Op-Amp (Input). Inverting Op-Amp (Input).

3. GS Gain Select. Gives access to output of front end differential amplifier for connection of feedback resistor.

4. V-Ref Reference Voltage (Output). Nominally VDD/2 is used to bias inputs at mid-rail .

5. INH Inhibit (Input). Logic high inhibits the detection of tones representing characters A, B, C and D. This pin input is internally pulled down.

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6. PWDN Power Down (Input). Active high. Powers down the device and inhibits the oscillator. This pin input is internally pulled down.

7. OSC1 Clock (Input).

8. OSC2 Clock (Output). A 3.579545 MHz crystal connected between pins OSC1 and OSC2 completes the internal oscillator circuit.

9. VSS

Ground (Input). 0 V typical.

10. TOE Three State Output Enable (Input). Logic high enables the outputs Q1-Q4. This pin is pulled up internally.

11-14. Q1-Q4 Three State Data (Output). When enabled by TOE, provide the code corresponding to the last valid tone-pair received (see Table 1). When TOE is logic low, the data outputs are high impedance.

15. StD Delayed Steering (Output).Presents a logic high when a received tone-pair has been registered and the output latch updated; returns to logic low when the voltage on St/GT falls below VTSt.

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16. ESt Early Steering (Output). Presents a logic high once the digital algorithm has detected a valid tone pair (signal condition). Any momentary loss of signal condition will cause ESt to return to a logic low.

17. St/GT Steering Input/Guard time (Output) Bidirectional. A voltage greater than VTSt detected at St causes the device to register the detected tone pair and update the output latch. A voltage less than VTSt frees the device to accept a new tone pair. The GT output acts to reset the external steering time-constant; its state is a function of ESt and the voltage on St.

18. VDD Positive power supply (Input). +5 V typical.

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34

ULN2003 RELAY DRIVER:

PIN DIAGRAM:

35

LOGIC DIAGRAM:

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DESCRIPTION :
series base resistor for each darlington pair for operation directly with TTL or 5V CMOS devices.The ULN2003 is a monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington transistor arrays. It consists of seven NPN Darlington pairs that features high-voltage outputs with common-cathode clamp diode for switching inductive loads. The collector-current rating of a single Darlington pair is 500mA. The Darlington pairs may be paralleled for higher current capability. Applications include relay drivers, hammer drivers, lampdrivers, display drivers (LED gas discharge),line drivers, and logic buffers. The ULN2003 has a 2.7k.

FEATURES :
* 500mA rated collector current (Single output) * High-voltage outputs: 50V * Inputs compatible with various types of logic. * Relay driver application.

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38

7404
7404 is a NOT gate IC. It consists of six inverters which perform logical invert action. The output of an inverter is the complement of its input logic state, i.e., when input is high its output is low and vice versa.

Pin Diagram

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Pin Description:

Pin No

Function

Name

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Input/output of 1st inverter Input/output of 2nd inverter Input/output of 3rd inverter Ground (0V) Output/input of 4th inverter Output/input of 5th inverter Output/input of 6th inverter Supply voltage; 5V (4.75 - 5.25 V)

Input1 Output1 Input2 Output2 Input3 Output3 Ground Output4 Input4 Output5 Input5 Output6 Input6 Vcc

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Description :
7404,a NOT gate IC with six inverters that perform logical invert action. I/P-O/P Table: Input 1 0 Output 0 1

Pin Configuration:

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42

7805
7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Pin Diagram:

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Pin Description:
Pin No 1 Function Name

Input voltage (5V-18V)

Input

Ground (0V)

Ground

Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V)

Output

The 7805 is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 7805 family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 7805 line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 7805 devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 7805 ICs can be used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit. 7805 ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3

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packages are available. These devices support an input voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating).

Advantages
7805 series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of space. Other voltage regulators may require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as a switched-mode power supply) may need substantial engineering expertise to implement. 7805 series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 7805 devices can provide protection not only for the 7805 itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.

Disadvantages
The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum amount (typically 2 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some devices from certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit
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that requires 5 volts using 6-volt batteries will not work using a 7805). As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current required is always the same as the output current. As the input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage, this means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the 7805 will be more than the output power provided. The extra input power is dissipated as heat. This means both that for some applications an adequate heatsink must be provided, and also that a (often substantial) portion of the input power is wasted during the process, rendering them less efficient than some other types of power supplies. When the input voltage is significantly higher than the regulated output voltage (for example, powering a 7805 using a 24 volt power source), this inefficiency can be a significant issue. Even in larger packages, 7805 integrated circuits cannot supply as much power as many designs which use discrete components, and are generally inappropriate for applications requiring more than a few amperes of current. Each specific model of 7805 is designed to produce only one fixed voltage output, so they may not be suitable for applications requiring a configurable or varying output (For such applications, the LM317 series of ICs are available, which are similar to 7805 ICs but can produce a configurable voltage).

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47

1000 F 25 V

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive twoterminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors

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are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

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470 F 25 V

10 F 25 V

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0.1 F Ceramic

33 pF Cap

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22 pF Cap
Description: This is a very common 22pF capacitor. Used with crystals for loading purposes. 0.1" spaced leads make this a perfect candidate for breadboarding and perf boarding. Rated at 200V.

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53

Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickelchrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature
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coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.

Units

The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ),

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kilohm (1 k = 103 ), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage. The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in siemens (SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: . Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Electronic symbols and notation

The symbol used for a resistor in a circuit diagram varies from standard to standard and country to country. Two typical symbols are as follows;

American-style symbols

IEC-style resistor symbol

(a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and

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(c) potentiometer

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The European notation avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 k. Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value can be expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 , and 18R indicates 18 . The use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter 'R' circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a printed circuit diagram.

Theory of operation

Ohm's law

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

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Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical computations. For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 milliamperes) flows through that resistor.

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R, is given by NR. Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine the

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conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed: The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "||", in case the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using: As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance R, is given by R/N. A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance, However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 56 of the individual resistance. More generally, the Y- transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such a problem.[2][3][4] One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series or parallel. This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected in parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N.

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Power dissipation

The power P dissipated by a resistor is calculated as: The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the integral of the power over that period of time:

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Most discrete resistors in solid-state electronic systems absorb much less than a watt of electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors are physically larger and may not use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where

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it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high operating temperatures may occur, resistors may be specified with higher rated dissipation than will be experienced in service. Some types and ratings of resistors may also have a maximum voltage rating; this may limit available power dissipation for higher resistance values.

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10 K pot
Description: An adjustable potentiometer can open up many interesting user interfaces. Turn the pot and the resistance changes. Connect VCC to an outer pin, GND to the other, and the center pin will have a voltage that varies from 0 to VCC depending on the rotation of the pot. Hook the center pin to an ADC on a microcontroller and get a variable input from the user! This is a center-tap linear type potentiometer. The outer two pins will always show 10K resistance, the center pin resistance to one of the outer pins will vary from 10K Ohm to about 50 Ohm. The pot is linear meaning the resistance will vary linearly with its position. This is a good choice for general user interfaces. This pot works great in a breadboard but on a few breadboards, you may have to trim off the large metal anchors.

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Crystal
A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an ordered pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. In addition to their microscopic structure, large crystals are usually identifiable by their macroscopic geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations.[citation needed] The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification. The word crystal is derived from the Ancient Greek word (krustallos), meaning both ice and rock crystal,[1] from (kruos), "icy cold, frost".[2][3] Common crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt; however, most common inorganic solids are polycrystals. Crystals are often symmetrically intergrown to form crystal twins.

Crystal structure (microscopic)

The scientific definition of a "crystal" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the crystal structure. A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement. (Quasicrystals are an exception, see below.)

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Not all solids are crystals. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a polycrystalline structure. In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called "crystallites" or "grains") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does not have a periodic arrangement of atoms, because the periodic pattern is broken at the grain boundaries. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, etc. Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically. There are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure (an arrangement of atoms in a crystal) is characterized by its unit cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal. The symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called crystallographic space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system (where the crystals may form cubes or rectangular boxes, such as halite shown at right) or hexagonal crystal system (where the crystals may form hexagons, such as ordinary water ice).

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2 pin micro switch

A miniature snap-action switch, also trademarked and frequently known as a micro switch, is an electric switch that is actuated by very little physical force, through the use of a tipping-point mechanism, sometimes called an "over-center" mechanism. Switching happens reliably at specific and repeatable positions of the actuator, which is not necessarily true of other mechanisms. They are very common due to their low cost and durability, greater than 1 million cycles and up to 10 million cycles for heavy duty models. This durability is a natural consequence of the design. The defining feature of micro switches is that a relatively small movement at the actuator button produces a relatively large movement at the electrical contacts, which occurs at high speed

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(regardless of the speed of actuation). Most successful designs also exhibit hysteresis, meaning that a small reversal of the actuator is insufficient to reverse the contacts; there must be a significant movement in the opposite direction. Both of these characteristics help to achieve a clean and reliable interruption to the switched circuit.

Construction and operation

K In one type of microswitch, internally there are two conductive springs. A long flat spring is hinged at one end of the switch (the left, in the photograph) and has electrical contacts on the other. A small curved spring, preloaded (i.e., compressed during assembly) so it attempts to extend itself (at the top, just right of center in the photo), is connected between the flat spring near the contacts. A fulcrum is near the midpoint of the flat spring. An actuator nub presses on the flat spring near its hinge point. Because the flat spring is anchored and strong in tension the curved spring cannot move it to the right. The curved spring presses, or pulls, the flat spring upward, that is away, from the anchor point. Owing to the geometry, the upward force is proportional to the displacement which decreases as the flat spring moves downward. (Actually, the force is proportional to the sine of the angle, which is approximately proportional to the angle for small angles.) As the actuator depresses it flexes the flat spring while the curved spring keeps the electrical contacts touching. When the flat spring is flexed enough it will provide sufficient force to compress the curved spring and the contacts will begin to move.

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As the flat spring moves downward the upward force of the curved spring reduces causing the motion to accelerate even in the absence of further motion of the actuator until the flat spring impacts the normally-open contact. Even though the flat spring unflexes as it moves downward, the switch is designed so the net effect is acceleration. This "over-center" action produces a very distinctive clicking sound and a very crisp feel. In the actuated position the curved spring provides some upward force. If the actuator is released this will move the flat spring upward. As the flat spring moves, the force from the curved spring increases. This results in acceleration until the normally-closed contacts are hit. Just as in the downward direction, the switch is designed so that the curved spring is strong enough to move the contacts, even if the flat spring must flex, because the actuator does not move during the changeover.

Applications
Common applications of micro switches include the door interlock on a microwave oven, levelling and safety switches in elevators, vending machines, and to detect paper jams or other faults in photocopiers. Micro switches are commonly used in tamper switches on gate valves on fire sprinkler systems and other water pipe systems, where it is necessary to know if a valve has been opened or shut. Micro switches are very widely used; among their applications are appliances, machinery, industrial controls, vehicles, and many other places for control of electrical circuits. They are usually rated to carry current in control circuits only, although some switches can be directly used to control small motors, solenoids, lamps, or other

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devices. Special low-force versions can sense coins in vending machines, or with a vane attached, air flow. Micro switches may be directly operated by a mechanism, or may be packaged as part of a pressure, flow, or temperature switch, operated by a sensing mechanism such as a Bourdon tube. In these latter applications, the repeatability of the actuator position when switching happens is essential for long-term accuracy. A motor driven cam (usually relatively slow-speed) and one or more micro switches form a timer mechanism. The snap-switch mechanism can be enclosed in a metal housing including actuating levers, plungers or rollers, forming a limit switch useful for control of machine tools or electrically-driven machinery.

Diode

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite)

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resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p n junction connected to two electrical terminals.[5] A vacuum tube diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a plate (anode) and heated cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers. However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference. Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic can be tailored by varying the semiconductor materials and doping, introducing impurities into the materials. These are exploited in special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes).
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Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits. Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as germanium are sometimes used.

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71

POWER SUPPLY:
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source. Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from: Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage. Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells. Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators. Solar power. A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Commonly specified power supply attributes include: The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.

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How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions. How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ portable energy sources).

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others. Here in our application we need a 5v DC power supply for all electronics involved in the project. This requires step down transformer, rectifier, voltage regulator, and filter circuit for generation of 5v DC power. Here a brief description of all the components is given as follows:

TRANSFORMER:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf)or voltage in the secondary winding. Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones to units weighing hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A wide range of transformer designs are used in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers are essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy.

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Transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils or "windings". Except for air-core transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich core, or around separate but magnetically-coupled cores. A varying current in the first or "primary" winding creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

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Classification parameters:
Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following: Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying. Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radiofrequency. Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.

Cooling type: Dry and liquid-immersed - self-cooled, forced air-cooled; liquid-immersed - forced oil-cooled, water-cooled. Circuit Application: Such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and current stabilizer or circuit isolation. Utilization: Pulse, power, distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.. Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form.

Consant-Potential transformer descriptor: Step-up, step-down, isolation. General winding configuration: By EIC vector group - various possible two-winding combinations of the phase designations delta, wye or star, and zigzag or interconnected star;[i] other autotransformer, Scott-T,zigzag grounding transformer winding. Rectifier phase shift configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3winding, 12-pulse; . . . n-winding, [n-1]*6-pulse; polygon; etc..

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If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load connected in the secondary circuit. The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings: By appropriate selection of number of turns,a transformer thus allows an alternating voltage to be stepped up-by making NS more than NP-or stepped down by making it.

BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER:

In its most basic form a transformer consists of:

A core that supports the coils or windings. Refer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the following explanation: The primary winding is connected to a 60-hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux) builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an alternating voltage into the winding.This voltage causes alternating current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design of the primary and secondary windings.

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OUTPUT SMOOTHING:
For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be desired because the bridge alone supplies an output of fixed polarity but continuously varying or "pulsating" magnitude. The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (or smoothing capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the AC component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be canceled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of load current and voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage / current. The simplified circuit shown has a well-deserved reputation for being dangerous, because, in some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge after the AC power source is removed. If supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a reliable way to safely discharge the capacitor. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to perform this function, perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a bleeder resistor connected as close as practical across the capacitor. This resistor should consume a current large enough to discharge the capacitor in a reasonable time, but small enough to minimize unnecessary power waste. Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit, defined as percentage voltage change from minimum to

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maximum load, is improved. However in many cases the improvement is of insignificant magnitude. The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC where C and R are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is large enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the above configuration will produce a smoothed DC voltage across the load. In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs, often done only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply voltage noise. The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and current when the load on the bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the voltage and the current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the voltage is smoothed, as described above, current will flow through the bridge only during the time when the input voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage. For example, if the load draws an average current of n Amps, and the diodes conduct for 10% of the time, the average diode current during conduction must be 10n Amps. This non-sinusoidal current leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in the AC supply. In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output of a bridge, the bridge diodes must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurs when the power is turned on at the peak of the AC voltage and the capacitor is fully discharged. Sometimes a small series resistor is included before the capacitor to limit this current, though in most applications the power supply transformer's resistance is already sufficient. Output can also be smoothed using a choke and second capacitor. The choke tends to keep the current (rather than the voltage) more constant. Due to the relatively high cost of an effective choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is not employed in modern equipment.
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Some early console radios created the speaker's constant field with the current from the high voltage ("B +") power supply, which was then routed to the consuming circuits, (permanent magnets were then too weak for good performance) to create the speaker's constant magnetic field. The speaker field coil thus performed 2 jobs in one: it acted as a choke, filtering the power supply, and it produced the magnetic field to operate the speaker.

REGULATOR IC:
Here we can used the 3 pin IC for voltage regulator as we call the name 78XX. Now we consider the IC of 3pin for this voltage regulator. It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DC current into regulated DC current. Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the output of the filtered DC (see in above diagram).It can also be used in circuits to get a low DC voltage from a high DC voltage (for example we use 7805 to get 5V from 12V). There are two types of voltage regulators 1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx) 2. variable voltage regulators(LM317) In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification 1. +ve voltage regulators 2. -ve voltage regulators POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS This include 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812. 7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in (7.5V, 20V).

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The Capacitor Filter:

Filter capacitors are capacitors used for filtering of undesirable frequencies. They are common in electrical and electronic equipment, and cover a number of applications, such as: Glitch removal on Direct current (DC) power rails Radio frequency interference (RFI) removal for signal or power lines entering or leaving equipment Capacitors used after a voltage regulator to further smooth dc power supplies Capacitors used in audio, intermediate frequency (IF) or radio frequency (RF) frequency filters (e.g. low pass, high pass, notch, etc.) Arc suppression, such as across the contact breaker or 'points' in a spark-ignition engine Filter capacitors are not the same as reservoir capacitors, the tasks the two perform are different, albeit related.

The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The application of the simple capacitor filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes, which require very little load current from the supply. The capacitor filter is also used where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical; this frequency can be relatively high. The capacitor (C1) shown in figure 4-15 is a simple filter connected across the output of the rectifier in parallel with the load.

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RELAY:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solidstate relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays". The relay takes advantage of the fact that when electricity flows through a coil, it becomes an electromagnet. The electromagnetic coil attracts a steel plate, which is attached to a switch. So the switch's motion (ON and OFF) is controlled by the current flowing to the coil, or not, respectively. A very useful feature of a relay is that it can be used to electrically isolate different parts of a circuit. It will allow a low voltage circuit (e.g. 5VDC) to switch the power in a high voltage circuit (e.g. 100 VAC or more). The relay operates mechanically, so it can not operate at high speed.

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Internal circuit of Relay:

Relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. There are many kind of relays. You can select one according to your needs. The various things to consider when selecting a relay are its size, voltage and current capacity of the contact points, drive voltage, impedance, number of contacts, resistance of the contacts, etc. The resistance voltage of the contacts is the maximum voltage that can be conducted at the point of contact in the switch. When the maximum is exceeded, the contacts will spark and melt, sometimes fusing together. The relay will fail. The value is printed on the relay.

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REFERENCES

8051 and embedded system by Mazidi and Mazidi All datasheets from www.datasheetcatalog.com About AT89s8252 from www.atmel.com And www.triindia.co.in
ESTIMATED COST: Rs.7000

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