Regarding midterm and final exam test (format is identical): ID section, identify and explain 6 key terms (sometimes

4 of 6) More important to be able to detail Essay component; answer one of 2 essay questions An understanding of the larger concepts; be able to tell the big picture (along with the details) Summarizing what youve learned Regarding the research paper, try to pick an interesting topic Regarding research proposal (early feedback) A research topic (deals with relevancy i.e. deals with the making and implementation of foreign policy; not primarily about intl relations, e.g. but more so U.S. foreign policy towards a particular country, and hypothesis. I.e. Research question should not just be about India or Pakistan (should relate to U.S. foreign policy. Actors that shape American foreign policy domestically. Regarding hypothesis (a good research paper is intended to be a critical analysis of a controversy or a contentious issue regarding the topic) E.g. Analyze 2 competing claims between 2 differing opinions and argue for one side Hypothesis best educated guess about what your research paper (allows us from the outset to analyze each of the sources critically, which papers support the hypothesis (include certain evidence into your hypothesis) o Change hypothesis if you cant find any flaws to the competing claim Research proposal (give direction early on) most choose a topic that is far too broad Research paper should follow the model of the professors Best (most efficient) way to do research is to look at the research bibliography of other research papers Research proposal doesnt have to have a tentative bibliography 8 25 sources 40% of grade is based on research, 40% of analysis, 20% on presentation Due date June 11th Lectures The degree of poverty in Latin America is due to dependency theory i.e. its underdeveloped further along in industrial development I.e. The west developed at the expense of the South o Dominant actor being the U.S. Reinforced the inequality, benefited substantially from the nascent poverty, to take advantage of it o American foreign policy has had a crucial impact on Latin America (and on other regions of the world) E.g. Middle east o Development of the 1st world and underdevelopment of the 3rd world are flip sides of the same coin The 3rd world was distorted by the creation of narrow elites as the 1st world was created from industrializing The poverty that has emerged as a result of this narrow imposition fuels the accumulation of wealth in the developed regions of the planet The pattern of settlement was unique in the southern states (similar to Latin America, but with small white elite owned vast majority of land U.S. has emerged as a global hegemon o Why the U.S. behaves the way it does is crucial to understanding its foreign policy The study of U.S. foreign policy bridges 2 sub-disciplines within the field of political science

Each has very different approaches to understanding its behavior Heterogeneous disagreement Tends to be disagreements at the margins No dominant paradigms (various competing paradigms) o Political scientists cant even agree on what politics is Comparative politics International affairs David Easton (very representative of one approach to foreign affairs) o Politics = allocation I.e. who gets what when where and how? Any political society has to deal with this core question This process refers to not only desired goods (also refers to disvalued aspects of social existence (i.e. paying taxes)) E.g. Disvalued: military service Not all allocations are properly political, various ways to deal with this allocation 1. Tradition o The method that most (feudal) societies dealt with their allocation requirements E.g. Caste system in India Determined by birth e.g. monarchical systems o Based primarily on consensus (e.g. feudal order in Europe was something God created) I.e. to disagree is heresy i.e. go against Gods order 2. Exchange o Means of allocation that were all more familiar with (determined by the market) Wealth caused by property ownership or specialized skills Cant legally force you or coerce you 3. Command o Neither tradition nor exchange are in fact actually political Tradition rests upon consensus (not enforced against an unwilling individual) Exchange is about an inherent relationship of equality; not based on coercion o Politics is limited through the method of command Compliance to a command is somewhat voluntary Is political when it applies to an entire society (wide method) Enforceable via physical coercion or violence Represents consensus; o Understanding politics as something to be critical of Politics is about different groups and individuals competing for various goals Different understanding of politics in IR (politics defined as the realm of the state) o State defined as a political entity (politics as the realm of the state) doesnt increase our comprehension of what politics is Most other disciplines are defined by some basic dichotomies;

o o

Legal v Illegal; what defines politics (the basic dichotomy that is necessary is the us v. the other o I.e. Friend v. Foe o The core of politics is the process of deciding which societies we can peacefully coexist with and those we cant o If another polity acts towards us as an enemy, then we must do likewise o Politics is about survival i.e. existential therefore politics is inapplicable to ethics/morality (Karl Schmidt) Effectiveness and efficiency that ought to be dominant (a realist view) If indeed efficiency and effectiveness are most important, then what type of government is best to guarantee its survival Any community that tries to limit the power of their leaders is counterproductive The separation of powers within government limits the efficiency and effectiveness U.S. is a good example of what not to do; in order to create an effective government o Armed politics; armed conflict is always a reality to politics Is imposed upon us by the permanent threat that is perpetually posed by others in the international realm Kenneth Waltz (Man, the state, and war) To understand the causes of war 3 images (theories) 1. Focus on individuals (E.g. in Syria, Assad (the political leader) Cold War e.g. Stalin By itself is insufficient to explain war 2. Society: Certain types of society are more war prone than others Democracies do not make war against other democracies (will to fight does not exist) 3. International system Nature of which trumps the issue of 1st and 2nd image War is a reality in the international system Taking Eastmans point of view; John Locke o Politics is best seen as an allocation process; rational for an individual to subject themselves to a political community that protects private property Any state that goes against the right of private property Institute a set of laws that protests these rights Liberal democracy is fine so long as you can keep your enemies at bay until its no longer sufficient o Have to decide on which collectivities are more effective as friends E.g. U.S. v. U.S.S.R. (USSR considered an enemy since its inception in 1917) Definition of Soviet society was fundamentally wrong o All private property is theft, all property ought to be collectively owned U.S. A system of laws which protects the rights of individuals Setup a system of government designed to protect basic rights; views government as being something corrupt (allow ambition to counter

ambition); views government as a potential enemy, as predatory (in a private property sense) o Sought to setup a system which allows for maximum checks and balances between both institutions and leading political actors e.g. senators, presidents o Majorities often violates the rights of minorities o Framers of American constitution tried to setup the most inefficient government as possible o An inefficient government cannot violate the rights of its minorities Is suicide in IR U.S. has had to adapt o President is an elected dictator (i.e. a unitary executive) Limits executive accountability Notes on differences in terminology E.g. politics as defined by Easton; is influenced via the changes b/w different groups The main aim of foreign policy is to provide for the security of a state; pervades much IR theory especially in realist terms; states are rational actors (pursue their own security, survival, rational in the sense that theyre able to recognize their vulnerabilities) producing a list o Make cost/benefit analyses on policies which produce best most rational choices o Regime change/type; states do their best regardless of who is at the helm o To what extent does the US function as a rational actor By domestic politics o Is the outcome rational? o Does the influence of other organizational bodies within the US state lead to suboptimal outcomes? o Understanding the nature of policy and their policy-making institutions Theories of the state Whether assumptions are borne out by the facts on the ground The dominant paradigm is usually referred to as the liberal pluralist approach Politics as a function of allocation rules within society State is essentially the neutral/passive arena/entity where the competition between groups takes place o This competition takes place through elections, the deliberations of legislatures o Is comprised of inputs e.g. elections and outputs o Alternatively: social contract model of the state, basic agreement between the people of a political community about how to manage their political affairs I.e. U.S. constitution: the basic deal b/w population and the elite The state as a dependent variable Marxist approach shares the view of the above o Views politics as a matter of allocation; similar to Eastons more critical bent o State is still seen as a dependent variable; reflects the interest of dominant elites o 2 prominent varieties of Marxist explanations Instrumentalist: Tend to view the state as an instrument of the dominant elites; e.g. Ralph Milliband; C Wright Mills the power elite

Analysis focuses on the common background b/w the elites that run the state and the elites that run the private economy (usually theyve been to the same universities, fraternities etc. Divergent interests can be found between economic interests, industrial interests and environmental interests etc. State has to appear to act as a neutral entity at times e.g. during Occupy Wall Street Relative autonomy of the state (not entirely autonomous of the dominant elite) o Interests outside of the state e.g. bankers Relevant skills are likely to be found in industry E.g. US decision to invade Iraq; undermines the opinion of the US in the middle east (diminished perception of legitimacy) Structuralist: The ruling class does not rule Tend to reject the instrumentalist view but do not entirely deny it Instrumentalist facts are not all that important; states act the way they do because of the structural position that they occupy within the social system Crisis in business confidence if a guy like Ralph Nader were ever elected (environmentalist, somewhat socialist bent); unemployment would rise, taxation falls Structuralist position (adopting policy; its own interest is to keep the capitalist economy growing) Statist approaches to understanding the state; comes close to a realist conception The state is an independent variable The emergence of nation states; many of them do not resort to a contract model but rather an extraction coercion model (looks at the emergence of states in places like Prussia for instance) Frederick William o Hired a bunch of mercenaries to extract raw materials o Self-reinforcing cycle between hiring mercenaries and extracting raw materials o Mercenaries werent very loyal/reliable o Pillage was slowly replaced by more regular ways to raise revenue o All of its neighbors very quickly transferred to Prussia; states that could facilitate the trust of capitalists; states produced capitalist modes of production (and not the converse) o The absence of threats permits policies to become capricious; the US faced no real threats Nothing curtailed their actions regarding Iraq States are forced by their circumstances to be prudent about their policy decisions Are policies strongly shaped by domestic interests? Each of these schools of thought can explain certain observations but not all of them

Liberal pluralist approach is best used to analyze electoral behavior o Long term trajectory is best glimpsed through a Marxist approach Unique about U.S. foreign policy (has evolved well over 100 years for a significant set of institutions) o Has evolved to become a global hegemon; continuity and change (a demonstrable record of continuity) o Basic idea of a system of checks and balances i.e. separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial) counters tyranny o Regarding foreign policy; the president playing the dominant roles with regards to foreign policy but is checked by congress He is the commander in chief but he needs congress to formally declare war and military funding Congress makes the laws, the president enforces them Needs senatorial approval and funding; the degree to which the U.S. The policy in foreign policy is not nearly as significant as it is today As the U.S. became more dominant, presidential power had to take on a more central role; about the rise of presidential power and presidential governance o Basic tensions between domestic democracy and the requirements of national security Requirements of national security are substantially different from the former Democracy was doomed, not conducive; democracies are by their very nature inefficient Needed on an international stage Enjoyed in large part because of its relative seclusion; isolated geographic location Didnt believe that theyd had to compromise upon democratic ideals Almost immediately had to resort to more authoritarian acts such as the espionage act which made it illegal to pass information to the enemy In the Vietnam era, the U.S. drastically E.g. 9/11 September 11th, passage of patriot act which increased surveillance and limited freedom Mid-term elections next year (Congress does nothing lame duck session) Has a brief period to get its legislative agenda through congress Gaddafi was a secular progressive modernizer o Left a power vacuum in Libya The constitution provides the basic framework for which politics in the US unfolds Constructivism standing A critique of realism The idea of rationality is drawn into question; lessons from cognitive psychology o Has always been bounded; calculation of rationality are made o Also about the assumptions within that context o Whether a particular policy is rational or not rational o Can be rational within the context of their cultural existence In terms of the impact of the foreign policy o Public opinion

In democracies; public opinion and hence foreign policy is shaped by the opinions of its citizens This cannot and can never be the case Public opinion is a poor guide to (foreign) policy Walter Lippman Public opinion tends to be poorly informed, volatile, unstructured and incoherent, therefore not a useful guide o Public opinion changes drastically E.g. Panamanian invasion, Panama (Noriega) had been an ally only a few years before E.g. Stalin initially seen as an ally and could do no harm (but only during the war after Germany attacked the USSR) Lasted until 1947 uncle Joe perception Emphasized the negative aspects of his regimes afterwards Elites cannot afford to pay a great deal of attention to public opinion for either domestic or foreign policy The role of the elites/media was essentially to come up with ideal policies to manufacture consent for certain problems To provide an elitist view of public opinion What Walter Lipman; not a single public but multiple publics in any community; what he argues is only the case for the mass public (85 90%) of the population The attentive public (the other 10% or so that is fairly well informed; are differentiated from the masses in terms of education and profession) or for the elite public (the opinion makers... Tend to be very well informed it is this group that should be in power) Ideology Is far less volatile; far less unstructured and far less incoherent Much more resistant to change, tends to be more stable Conventional wisdom, the US is not particularly ideological, are more pragmatic (Americans are highly ideological people; they usually dont notice it because they share the same ideology) The fragment theory: in the US Most are in the center of the political spectrum (liberal mainstream, i.e. centrist) Represent a very small part of the population Elites are bimodally distributed nearer to the ideological poles As soon as a Democratic candidate has to move to the far left to win the nomination; he has to move to the center after winning the nomination to try to win over Republicans on the right Candidates which vie for party votes have to move away from the centre o Tendency to favor candidates closer to the left o Once the nomination is over, they tend to move back to the center, makes them as acceptable to the mainstream Political culture

A liberal democratic consensus has existed that is largely centrist during the 20th century; By far the most resistant to change, the result of socialization The symbolic basis upon which a society mediates its relationship with reality Acquired in ways which are very different from the ways; ideology for the most part is acquired through education Metaconscious: When an ambassador is sent to a foreign policy, they have to become aware of the cultural differences between their home country and the foreign country Relates to attitudes and beliefs that are internalized by a political community, not via repeated instruction and reinforcement, overall experiences of being part of a political community E.g. basic social interactions Eye etiquette; constant staring Political culture is acquired through critical analysis We dont notice these socialized factors More characteristic of the elites in society Not only teaching the explicit curriculum but also socializing individuals through an unwritten curriculum o Tend to not only advance the social system; but those who have a more difficult time internalizing these attitudes (a more vegetative existence) most educated are also most indoctrinated o Elites have adopted these attitudes to a greater extent than average citizens, less likely to subject them to critical analysis Rests in all instances on certain core myths and certain core organizing principles All societies have certain founding myths and certain organizing principles o Core organizing principle since inception has been a free market ethos (i.e. capitalism) o U.S. political culture is very much in keeping with a capitalist economy a core belief in capitalism Adam Smith as the belief that the wealth of nations is determined not by the quality of the capital and culture available Determined by its productive and consumptive capacities Most other societies The core myth of American society is the general agreement is the myth of the city upon a hill Winthrop America arrived as an oppressed minority in a setting free of the corruption of old world influences Could focus on biblical teachings

Would become a model and a magnet for the rest of the world; Plymouth rock In the anthropological sense of myth o Something self-evidently true that its beyond question o An assumption that is both taken to be false and true Can be interpreted false since Winthrop wasnt the first settler Just looking for riches (meant as resources to achieve wealth in western Europe) Various offshoots to the city upon a hill view: Manifest Destiny o Belief that God is on the side of the American colonists and has given them the right to dominate continental North America o Morphed into a further extension: the Monroe Doctrine o 1823 by President Monroe, the US considered the Western hemisphere its own back yard A region where no extension of European influence would be tolerated by the U.S. Simone Bolivar repelled Spanish influence around this time France and England were clearly rising powers The power vacuum created by Spain created an opportunity for colonization I.e. a local hegemon Became one of the bedrocks of U.S. foreign policy Myth of innocence o In sharp contrast of Western European countries which were ruled by corrupt monarchs; were corrupted by the continuing influence of the Catholic church o Was created on a blank slate of innocence, created without any of these corrupting influences Myth of benevolence (given innocence) o In contrast to the prevailing view of Western European states which were shaped by realism o No such thing as morality & ethics, states act to gain as much security as possible (interests defined by their need for this security i.e. national interest) o A very different kind of power, to advance its own principles o It intervened in foreign territory in order to liberate oppressed masses Myth of exceptionalism o The superiority of the American way (technological superiority, not in the technical sense, but more American know how) o They can succeed in places where others have failed o Can succeed where other powers have failed in the past

The country of Afghanistan has been known as the graveyard of empires Any country that thought about Afghanistan would have certain misgivings o A myth of hubris o Shows up in a number of other cases mean something different, refers to the status of the American system as a global hegemon o Rest of the world should be bound by international law o Deeply internalized in the beliefs of certain Americans; not simply your average foot soldier deeply internalized by the most powerful actors e.g. Presidents o A great deal has to do with the historical experience of the U.S. o Not only from model and magnate, reinforced beliefs; the U.S. became the first democracy on the planet Others have sought to emulate its structure o Part of the reason for these myths to take hold, Americans throughout their history has perceived themselves as attracting immigrants and refugees by dangling opportunity and freedom The most important result of political culture in this respect is the notion of solipsism (we are the world) General tendency for humans to believe that their own way is the best way to accomplish something The general implication is that I dont have anything to learn from anyone else; lack of interest and knowledge of intl affairs, cultures, interests of other countries Attitude of solipsism enabling ignorance The German way of doing things is the best way of doing things Most American leaders thus dont have many interest in foreign affairs, permeates through the public o Governors come out of their own state without any real foreign relations experience Even when they enter office, theyre not generally inclined to act in a way that supplements their knowledge o E.g. Main problem in Vietnam was not lack of resources, lack of interest in using CIA specialists and general unfamiliarity with Vietnamese history o Led to the Vietnam syndrome, where the foremost military power was defeated by peasants Hasnt really changed since, even post 9/11 7 tendencies listed in the text, most overlap General tendency to moralize foreign policy (U.S.); presented not in terms of interests but rather morality o Ronald Reagan referring to the USSR as the evil empire o E.g. Axis of evil Bush o Tendency to oversimplify foreign policy for himself o Iraq, Iran, and North Korea North Korea, Stalinist cult dictatorship

Iraq Iran, regional rivals Tendency to oversell foreign policy Cant wait for Iraq to have the smoking gun, mushroom cloud Dualist tendency, perceived disconnect between principles made by policy makers and pragmatism of foreign policy o Defend freedom and democracy; disconnect between the principles o The pragmatism that flies in its face Tendency to reject and criminalize dissent, to dehumanize enemies o Categorized as essentially treasonous o E.g. the Vietnam War viewed as gooks Seen as gay Facilitates brutalities Historical context: In order to understand American foreign policy, or of any state, have to understand its history (under the world system of states Immanuel Wallerstein) European expansion of the globe part of colonialism, colonialism had a particular impact on the US A product of the expansion of Western European influence in the Western world in colonial times A product of colonialism o An intl system emerged out of colonialism Wallerstein; regions rich enough to exploit and weak enough to conquer o Emerged out of trips to expand, to search for various sources of wealth o Early exploration missions encountered natives, but no immediate economic conquests o Africa was largely empty of raw materials; Africa was conquerable, but costs were high, and benefits were low o The Europeans hit the jackpot, found societies tremendously wealthy o India and China were difficult to conquer at the time, were very well developed o Also discovered civilizations that were very wealthy and easy to conquer o European cities would simply have disappeared had it not been for migrations from the countryside, because cities were dirtier, at the time o 90% of the population of the Western hemisphere dropped dead, because of European diseases o Europeans arrived to an empty continent o Western hemisphere was utterly transformed by their experience of colonialism So was Western Europe, helped facilitate the industrial revolution, created demand in textiles from Europe Spanish and Portuguese plundered their civilizations Later sought to use their new territories to deal with their own demographic problems o Population boom amongst ruling elite which threatened to decimate their wealth o Transplanted nobles New social structure became a supplier of raw materials to Western manufacturers Supplied to the industrial European system

o o

o o

North America had not discovered much gold, not much interest by the Spanish and the Portuguese Population growth, North America became very typical of the settler populations of Africa Not much gold Passage of fairly wealthy entrepreneurs that bought up the land Consisted of Western Europeans, tied to the economic interests Interested in the production of industrial goods, new separate entities The Western states, the northern regions were not of sufficient interest as the southern regions (sugar, tobacco, cotton) o Southern states where large plantations dominated, importation of African slaves became a prominent feature of the economic structure o Were able to afford high end luxury imports Large entrepreneurs v religious minorities Most Americans understand American history as a rejection of colonialism, rejected the notion of European colonial rule over the Western hemisphere American revolution shouldnt be called a revolution a ruling elite was not replaced by a new ruling group E.g. In Russia, the Bolsheviks overthrew the Russian czars Same set of elites; rejected their subsidiary role in the colonial project Viewed themselves as Englishman (the rights of Englishmen), wanted equal exploitative rights Taxed without say in policy The success of the revolution allowed rise of imperial pressures to expand (rising empire of the Western hemisphere) American revolution was not a rejection of colonialism The majority of the families of the US had b/w 6 and 12 children o Would very quickly result in a more rigid class system o Encourage settlers to move west James Madison o Entailed moving into territory that was claimed by other European powers o Expanding into territory that was occupied by natives o The European countries that laid claim, had for the most part had a relatively weak hold Did gain their political independence, but still economically dependent upon Western European countries including Britain Saw deepening of ties post-revolution Cotton became the dominant industry in the Mississipi Haiti rebelled against the French, and Napoleon had to sell Louisiana o Exclusively produced sugar, needed food to feed his slaves o Interested in the port of New Orleans as a source of food to the slaves in Haiti o The 18th century equivalent of Cuba o The Spanish and the French had a weak claim o The U.S. was not in a position to challenge the Europeans o Lofty sum of 15 million dollars to buy Louisiana

First step to drastically expand U.S. westward Further expansion of the conflict, Spain ceded the rest of its territory to the region to the government of Thomas Jefferson and to John Quincy Adams No longer properly held by the Spanish and couldnt be ceded to the Spaniards First successful move by the U.S. to control North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific Remainder of the west coast was taken by the U.S. in a war with Mexico Brought the southwestern states into the union Final one is the state of Texas, which was under Mexican control, but weakly ruled Increasingly settled by the Americans, the Americans that settled in Texas Slave state, growing much faster than the white population of the south Create more and more slave states farther to the west Cuba was also of interest to create a balance with the north Had exhausted much of the soil To compare Texas to the cuckoo bird (they dont make their own nests, they use nests previously laid by other birds) Slave owners, tried to rebel against the Mexicans in large part because Mexico did not accept slavery Battle of the Alamo, Mexico emerged triumphant War of aggression, dispute against the southern border of the Mexican border The Polke administration annexed Texas within the continental U.S. Further extension of the U.S. territorially was blocked not by foreign territories but by the U.S. itself (by Lincoln) o Lincoln would do nothing to undermine slavery as an institution rejected the further expansion of slavery elsewhere William Walker, hired to take over Nicaragua (a mercenary entrepreneur) o Between conservatives and liberals; viewed him as a means to gain a victory over the free trade regime of Nicaragua as a whole o Prominently backed by pro-slave movements in the south Lincolns victory of the presidency and his intolerance of expansion (was the last straw for the Southern confederate states) Constitution declared that individual states had no right to withdraw from the union, led to the civil war Points to the interpretation of slavery being the core issue more interested in the economic history of the U.S. Argues essentially that slavery was not a core issue, but a pawn within a large struggle b/w North and South but over the issue of industrialization (Moore Jr.) Civil war was a turning point from an outmoded means of production between slavery and capitalism, was slavery as an institution o The commodification of labour Slavery is an even more direct commodification of labour power, cant be seen contrary to the requirements of capitalism o The major issue, is why slavery remained an economic problem o

The northern states and southern states represented 2 fundamentally different economic models

Southern states, model of classical dependency, ruling elites enriched themselves with the supply of raw materials By importing the best and cheapest industrial goods from Britain and primarily other European countries Northern states were not in a position to profit, not self-sufficient in industrial goods. Self-sufficient in other areas, could not gain capital at the same rate as the south (which enriched itself from its exports) Needed to industrialize to gain full economic independence In order to expand the price of wool, the landed elite had to devote more of their time to its expansion The U.S. needed protectionism b/c of the U.K. which was the first country to industrialize The southern elites had no interest in industrialization, protectionism meant buying inferior goods from northern producers at higher prices versus importing them from Britain Everyone would expect to the British to retaliate Rejected the idea of protectionism, the main beneficiary were not the north, but the main economic elites of the north i.e. private families o E.g. the Carnegies, the Vanderbilts Slavery became a tool which allowed for better recruitment form the north The vast majority of capital that was tied up in the south was tied up in the slaves (became a form of currency, were the most mobile) Undermined centers of wealth, and shifted power to northern industrialists, main outgrowth of this was protectionism The U.S. industrialized on a massive scale, this industrialization coincided with the rise of another major rising power; by the turn of the 20th century, Germany and the U.S. had surpassed Great Britain The most powerful industrial producer on the planet U.S. was capable of producing far more than what it could consume, vastly expanded foreign markets Search for raw materials and markets which pushed the British to colonize U.S. had large availability of raw materials within the continent; the U.S. was less reliant on finding foreign markets because of the growth of its own domestic market The U.S. sought more and more to gain access to foreign markets (took the shape of competition, in fierce competition with China, took over ports to enforce access to markets) o Known as the open door policy o A rejection of national colonial entities like the European colonies o All should have equal access to China o Beneficial to the U.S. without directly taking over the country

Became known as the Washington consensus around free trade liberalization 1890s also became the first time to challenge China directly Was under pressure in Cuba Spanish-American war Appeared to be succeeding in getting rid of the Spanish Guerilla movement in Cuba to remove the Spanish US had to intervene with the rebels in Cuba in order to oust the Spanish and protect its investment in the U.S. Authorization to use force, in the Spanish American war did not incorporate Puerto Rico or the Philippines (later became colonies) General perception that the U.S. was isolationist during the 19th century until WW2... immediately became internationalist Very misleading o Expansion of territory o Sought foreign markets George Washington: the U.S. should avoid foreign entanglement at all costs o U.S. should stay out of European affairs, should not make allies with a more powerful European country that may make Irrational foreign policy according to Henry Morgenthau o Offshore balancing: rather than confronting an adversary directly, would play 2 adversaries off against one another, meant to weaken both o Nixons recognition of China, recognized that the USSR and China were not on the same page, could be played off between one another o The Framers of the constitution were key realists, faced no immediate threats with its neighbors, key threats were European (play them off against one another), negligible in the Western hemisphere If the U.S. practiced foreign policy based on principle and morality, would back France o Did the Americans back France, no they backed the British o Goes on to argue that while this was the early pattern, continued well into the 20th century o Was never isolationist, but refrained from entering into alliance structures that would have made it less flexible in its foreign policy, allowed for a degree of independence WW1 in Europe (Germany) attempted to take over all of Europe so that it can expand its power outward U.S. in the 20th century: o Industrialization in the 19th century depended upon American protectionism o Due to the erection of tariff barriers, o As U.S. producers became dominant producers in the world, tariffs and protection became far less necessary

The proposition of open free trade still worried a number of industrialists in the U.S: prevented the ruling elites from fully engaging in international affairs o US prospered during the 1st WW (America), by selling to both the British and the Germans The Wilson administration when it entered the war, did so on the basis of an internationalist program The democratic peace theory would enter into World War 1, the result of this war would be the democratization of Western Europe (Germany, Austria, Hungary) crucially involved in the peace negotiation at the end of WW1 Agenda from the peace treaty in Versailles was that they werent reading from the same page German request of amnesty was rejected by the U.S. that it will not make peace with the government of the Kaiser German request of amnesty was rejected by the U.S. not so much effort on making Germany a democracy o Demilitarization (remove authoritarian elements)) o Essentially ensured that German military could only deal with domestic matters o Cripple their economy, massive German debt & German industrial heartland Major disconnect, was the larger program for the international system, the U.S. sought to establish democracies as a guarantee against future wars (intl institutions that could settle League of Nations Europeans reluctantly supported but benefited from it substantially o Defeat of the Ottoman Empire, took over the former territories French and British drew modern boundaries of the Middle East U.S. never became a part of it, despite having helped designed it U.S. rejected the Treaty of Versailles mainly due to the requirements of joining the league of nations The hegemonic power shouldve assumed the leadership role of the British empire realism would have dictated that the U.S.; in order to find an explanation, have to look at domestic forces o Continued to view the intl economy as a threat to their interests (in terms of protectionism) o Demonstrates the utility of Resulted in a drastic restructuring of the global economy o The defining institution of 19th century capitalism in the U.S. was the entrepreneurial firm Generally owned by a single proprietor i.e. a single family o For the 20th No longer the entrepreneurial firm but the modern corporation E.g. Defining component of American capitalism is the Ford motor company Produced in large part by other entrepreneurial group The model T, the first production model for the masses Led to the development of capitalist innovation

Typical model of the modern corporation, Ford Mustang (entirely different animal) Not the only car that Ford was producing Was not created in 1954, but rather in 1955 o Realized: 2 categories of cars Family cars (big ones) Sports cars (Thunderbirds) Gave rise to market research Every single machine in the production of the Mustang could only be developed for that one car, very expensive specialization; Have to advertise, have to plan your market beforehand; to determine Subjects the single proprietor to an enormous amount of risk o We dont put all our eggs in one basket Maximize profits (greater risks also) o Market diversification to reduce risk; reliant for supplies from other suppliers o Vertical integration, buy the producer of the raw material o Maximize profit, push wages down to the absolute minimum, corporations dont do that because of fear of unionization o Require the services of the state; crucially involved in the creation of states and foreign markets o Access to human resources o Requirements for growth Transformation of the U.S. from a colony to an independent state; should have taken a leap to the hegemonic dollar, the British Pound as the dominant reserve currency Many still tied to protectionism, instead of viewing foreign markets as trade partners, saw them as competitors Could dominate the UN o US felt they could dominate the UN versus LoN Not owned by a single proprietor but by several shareholders, do the original owners still have an important role to play? o Ford had become a huge bureaucracy in the Weberian sense, meritocratic advancement o The defining feature of modern societies are bureaucracies o The very top is the techno-structure i.e. the CEO, answers to the Board of Directors to the Shareholders The main goal is to protect the technostructure, by keeping both board of directors and the shareholders happy Part of the protection is to keep it permanently active, requires continuous growth Have to engage in constant innovation, to keep their engineers happy Tend to be ambitious Have to find means to advance their most talented people upward, growth in the sense of opening up new divisions o Produces the workers Government has to play an increasingly important role i.e. education, to provide skills o Public school system educational system tends to be run by the state Immigration becomes crucial the idea of Fordism/Taylorism

Assembly line useful for a craft approach to automobiles Simplified jobs, de-skilled it o Immigrants provided this new labour o Corporations can no longer take markets for granted o Aggregate demand changes in response to things that corporations have no control over Had a difficult time selling their products e.g. Great Depression Corporations cant plan for aggregate demand, as it is part of the macroeconomy (under the domain of the government) Deficit spending on infrastructure o Bureaucratization of the economy and state (mimicked changes found in corporate bureaucracies, massive growth in size of institutions) These bureaucracies, e.g. the Pentagon are huge pyramidal structures The position of the CEO is taken by the secretary of defense The state department, the intelligence community So too, does the Pentagon (requires growth) All of them need to defend their budgets and their talent Continuous attempt on the part of the defense department to increase spending to raise their revenue Kinds of skills that were seen as relevant to running government bureaucracies The Eisenhower administration was chiefly responsible for the growth o Hired Smith to run the Defense Department (recruited the best and the brightest) o McNamara was also a CEO of the Ford motor company o Not military experience that was crucial but rather managerial experience o Consolidation of this system of modern corporate capitalism o Saw the expansion of aggregate demand through both civilian programs and military programs Labor unions were considered illegal Passed the Wagner act Institution of minimum wage also meant to 2nd WW foreign policy New Deal policies helped but never lifted the U.S. out of the Depression o Supplied the combatants, conversion of the U.S. to war production o U.S. became the major customer of these new major companies The military industrial scientific infrastructure/complex o Relationship between military and Congressional representatives o Government became major customer, most prominent is Lockheed Martin E.g. It has only one customer, the U.S. government American government pressured Harper to buy the F-35 o Cementing of this relationship between the government and the New Deal, the U.S. had for all intents and purposes had become the global hegemon Is well beyond where the U.S. currently stands Became responsible for 55% of all global production U.S. exports made up 18% of world trade World economic production, the U.S. controlled 24% of world trade

Burden that the U.S. bore during the early years of the Cold War; the expense that the U.S. incurred during the Vietnam War Shift from becoming a creditor nation to a debtor nation o Reagan viewed government as the problem not the solution, cut taxes, rose spending known as starving the beast Executive branch in Foreign Policy Executive is supposed to execute the legislation by Congress, see to it that the laws are faithfully implemented The head is the President the paradox of Presidential Power o While the office is the most powerful in the land, he still nevertheless faces significant limits which make it rather difficult for Presidents to implement their preferred policies The roles of the President o Commander in chief of the armed forces was a power intended to apply only to periods of declared war Doesnt apply to peacetime; the minute man theory of defense Did not need to maintain a permanent military, U.S. could mobilize armies for a conflict prior to the fact and demobilize afterwards o Mobilizations for WW1 and WW2, Began to be followed in the aftermath of WW 2 Saw not demobilization of the department of war and navy Saw the reorganization of the military into the DoD Via the national security act, a single overarching bureaucracy Also created a permanent military A permanent commander in chief of the armed forces Is in a position to use that military at his own discretion o Chief diplomat, has the power to recognize foreign states I.e. sends and receives ambassadors The U.S. recognition of states like Kosovo Means that the intl community has an obligation to defend their territorial integrity The sending of diplomats, people who contributed to their campaigns (a problem, issues of qualification) o Chief administrator o Chief of state Symbolic power, informs Congress and the American public on the state of the union in a joint session of congress (both houses of Congress) o Chief legislator Ironic, the separation of power, the role of Congress to see to it that the laws are faithfully executed Passive role, ability to veto legislation, ability to override such a veto require 2/3rds of Congress Relatively rare Overrode the veto of Richard Nixon Imposed sanctions on the Apartheid government of South Africa Signing statements: When he signs an act of Congress into law, Clarifications Farm subsidies, pork barrel politics

George W. Bush Line item veto refusing to accept certain bills, projects within the bill Budget proposals Approve or reject President functions as the voice of the people, a bully pulpit Through which he can access public opinion to compel Congress to act Ultimately to pass Roosevelts programs o Chief Judicial officer Appoints the judges to the judicial branches at all levels, including the Supreme Court Executive branch also contains the justice department President cannot directly control prosecutors, and other charges Most of the main sources of power, the limits of his power, Congress is the greatest limit, can always step in the way in foreign policy Various configurations between; e.g. of intermestic, trade policy, overlapped set POSITIVE POWER NEGATIVE POWER FOREIGN POLICY Moderate High INTERMESTIC Moderate Moderate DOMESTIC POLICY Low Moderate Known as 2 presidents theory, strong foreign policy president and a domestic president (who is pretty restricted) State and local governments are another prominent limit Strictly state jurisdiction, regarding hunting of Geese o Put up a treaty Political parties, another limit, as well as interest groups Other constraints o Time In the absence of presidential attention, tend to remain in place o Information Come into the White House with virtually no foreign policy experience Come into power through the states And through the senate o Bureaucracy Tend to dictate away from becoming involved in foreign policy issues In charge of running a number of different bureaucracies (they control the information) Develop their own sets of interests, and their ability to defend these interests One of the first chores is gaining the loyalty of the bureaucracies that theyre suddenly in charge of, not by confronting them The department of energy both had powerful constituencies When bureaucracies are under attack, inconvenient facts tend to leak to the media Constraint upon the president Nothing illegal about receiving classified information, only the leaker is prosecuted About the presidency, the executive branch, and the making of foreign policy The determinants of a Presidents power

Professional reputation, how well hes regarded by his fellow elites Public Prestige, how well hes supported and regarded by the general public o E.g. distinction between the 2 is Ronald Reagan, neither Reagan nor Bush enjoyed a great deal in the way of a professional reputation Always seen as a good PR person, but no real substance for RR, tremendous public prestige, but low professional reputation Good communicator, managed to simplify things Similar to Bush, minimal professional reputation o Started various enterprises in Texas, almost all of them were projects financed by credit from his friends Managed to convince the governor of Texas to build a stadium at the expense of the state No real executive experience in foreign policy, governor plays more of a symbolic office than one that holds real administrative power Not a star student, got a position as a pilot for the national guard, got you into the military, but not part of the attacking force in Vietnam o Insofar as Bush Jr. was elected, most of the polls indicated that he won over Gore was because Gore was seen as elitist i.e. one of prestige Presidential choices o Have to choose their battles carefully, choosing the wrong battles i.e. losing Speeds up the Presidential life cycle When Presidents are first elected to office, their public prestige is at their maximum, having won a victory Makes it difficult for Congress to oppose new platform Enjoys a honeymoon period Can stretch over a fairly long period of time or fairly quickly Eventually the honeymoon period comes to an end o Best measure is the first 100 days o Essentially accepted that the President has this brief window to push his policies through Precedent is FDR, who pushed through his new deal policies o Fairly short, 2nd day of Obama administration is not nearly as glorious as the 1st hundred days All Presidents eventually reach lame duck status o E.g. the last 2 years of their final term, no longer open for reelection o Can come at the end of the first term Richard Pious argued that identified which ones were the most successful, and which ones were least successful Most successful practiced prerogative government o A president who is active and who arrives at decisions that push the constitution to its limits in exercising presidential power o The most successful presidents were Abraham Lincoln, who pushed the constitution to its limits e.g. suspended habeas corpus o T. Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, FDR

Many of the presidents during the Cold War period like Eisenhower, Nixon likewise practiced presidential business o Presidents are best able to practice PG primarily during periods of crises e.g. civil war, WW1, Spanish American war, WW2, the Cold War (a permanent existential crisis) Generated the thesis of the imperial presidency o Cold War consensus b/w 2 parties in Congress gave presidents a blank check, allowed them to practice PG in a permanent way o The next major opportunity to practice PG was 9/11 Allowed Bush to do things he wouldnt have been able to do Produced a slew of different conspiracy theories about 9/11, neither the invasion of Afghanistan or Iraq would have been politically feasible prior to 9/11 o Relatively unchecked Practicing PG has its own inherent risks o Frontlash: A president attempting to practice PG, risks the possibility that he will get Congresss backup, that Congress will try to reassert itself after the end of the crisis. o Backlash: More applicable in domestic politics, the steel seizure cases; President Truman was prevented by SCOTUS from taking action against the steel industry o Overshoot and collapse: Pushing PG too far, results in the collapse of a presidency, best e.g. Nixon, avoided impeachment by resigning, while Watergate was a relatively minor infraction; Were engaged in covering up his own complicity Pushing the constitution beyond its limits, which caused him to lose sympathy from his professional peers Iran Contra affair of Reagan Involved in the one hand, trading with the state Sold arms to Iran o Money was sent to the Contras in Nicaragua Reagan avoided prosecution by using plausible deniability Bush, might also fall in this category, given torture National Security Council & state department o An indication of the extent to which the foreign policy system became immensely complicated in the aftermath of the 2nd World War Rapid expansion by adding more bureaucracies President needed a means of administering this complex set of bureaucracies Created as part of the NSA act of 1947 which created the DoD, the CIA, (expansion of the state department, created by the Rogers Act of 1923) Made it necessary to have tools for the President to manage this massive bureaucracy; department of the treasury Resentments that developed during WW2 caused by reaction to FDR

FDR tended to bypass the chain of command in the military, often spoke to junior officers at the bottom o Was a means to force the president as a means to act through the chain of command o Intended to force the president to manufacture policy similar to how prime ministers manufacture policy; in the cabinet sense Meant to advise the President To include the vice president, and other members of the executive branch at the discretion of the President To become a vehicle for long range planning One of the first casualties of the NSC system was the intention to create a medium for long term planning; the only long term planning document ever drafted was NSC-68 The economic context; began with the demobilization of WW2 The main driver for this policy was the Soviet threat o George Kenneth, in the absence of major military spending was going to send the U.S. back into recession o Cemented the arrangement of permanent military spending as a mechanism to finance domestic industries o Deterrence and containment o In terms of a means of forcing the The national security council also failed to achieve The most part, the President found it rather difficult to deal with the NSC Tended to devolve into bureaucratic warfare b/w the State Department and the DoD v. intelligence agencies Found it to be unresponsive to Presidential needs starting with Eisenhower o Created a position of the national security adviser Became one of the key foreign policy operatives, from that point on The NSA does not have a huge bureaucracy, just a small staff, becomes the most prominent and most powerful: Kissinger, became the only NSA to hold the position of Secretary of State within Nixon Successor was equally influential: Brasinski o Refocused foreign policy to human rights, less so on Cold War U.S. cant simply reverse policy from one era to another; imposed upon by Nicaraguan invasion Tended to make them less responsive to Presidents; his national security adviser gained in authority; rolled back Soviet influence (Brasinski) o Beginning with Eisenhower, made extensive use of the national security adviser, in sharp contrast with other foreign policy personnel, was accountable only to the president

Others, such as the secretary of state had divided loyalties; had to gain the loyalties of their own bureaucracies in addition to the president CIA backed the Pope to undermine Communist control of Poland American government had extreme problems with the Catholic church (had to be progressive to deal with poverty) Opened the door to liberation theology, advocated social change in Latin America Would do their best to reverse the decline of U.S. influence in Latin America o The NSC has never functioned the way it was intended Intended to force the president to make decisions in a cabinet style of government (where representatives from various bureaucracies would vie for presidential influence) Presidents never really liked this arrangement o Members of the NSC are never particularly responsive to his needs o Their positions always entail divided loyalties o Always have to gain the bureaucracy that works under them o Will sometimes leak information to extort executive into ceding into whatever demands the bureaucracy wants NSAdviser doesnt have ulterior loyalties, doesnt have a bureaucratic stake in the decision making process Fear of discontinuous foreign policy b/w administrations (which is the creation of NSC) Led to the Iranian scandal Was designed as an agency of long-term planning (only worked for NSC 68) Which was the cold war consensus o To promote the coordination of foreign policy making o Original members were the President, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the JCS, the chair of the national securities resource board o Original intentions of the NSC, never really went as intended The state department The historical lead actor, in American policy o Demonstrates that American policymakers were always uneasy about the state department Ambassadorships, diplomacy (saw it as secretive and elitist by nature) Incompatible with democratic and Republican systems of government George Washington: Argued that U.S. should avoid foreign entanglements i.e. alliances Were inimical to American government, would tend to strengthen the executive branch at the expense of the legislature Would undermine the separation of powers system Strengthen the federal government at the expense of state government

Diplomacy was developed in Europe to avoid military conflict, remained underdeveloped o U.S. was distanced from European threats Was meant to change the nature that intl politics is practiced, to sideline diplomacy, best e.g. is Wilsons insistence to create the League of Nations To create open covenants, rather than secretive meetings open discussions in a large forum Its the failure of the league of nations that resulted in the passage of the Rogers Act (could not afford to have a professional foreign service) Remains underdeveloped compared to other great powers in the intl system The U.S. became one of the main proponents of intl institutions, went along with it at the insistence of the U.S. Powers of the executive branch have increased gradually, then dramatically during WW2 Bureaucracies are the defining aspects of modern states and societies whether corporate/government Weber o Notoriously difficult to control and direct; main threat to human freedoms o Saw it as more or less inevitable that modern societies would exist in a petrified forest/iron cage o Ideal type of bureaucracy are far more efficient, hierarchical and meritocracy o Because of their specialization and information control makes it very difficult for outsiders to control it, the embodiment of rationality o Not rational leadership but charismatic (not rationally based) is the best A rational leader would immediately face resistance A momentum and set of forces to overcome Hitler rejected rationality, the idea of the principle of leadership Can be bent by charisma o Are able to defend themselves and advance their own interests They alter the trajectory of The executive branch of the U.S. government has expanded in the 21st century that parallels private sector corporate bureaucratic growth st 1 wave of this expansion is the New Deal 2nd wave in WW2 and cold war, expansion of the foreign policy bureau e.g. State department, the CIA 3rd wave Great Society program under President Johnson 4th wave Post 9/11 Department of homeland security Created a situation of immense bureaucratic complexity, created the NSC as a mechanism to consolidate power and coordination Never really forced Presidents to function through a cabinet style of decision-making o The key figure that has emerged from this abandonment is the NSA (adviser, not agency) Were crucial in influencing foreign policy; more likely to be responsive to presidents E.g. Condoleeza Rice Usually VPs dont play a huge role, play a symbolic role Dick Cheney was the major foreign policy President of the Bush era American empires power projection is best exemplified by the vast array of foreign military bases

Sought to expand power by means other than diplomacy Continues to try to advance itself with a crucial tool; the state department is meant for diplomacy Entails representing the views of foreign states in the U.S. Creates suspicion within the state department, often seen as being too sympathetic to the views of foreigners, as being somewhat treasonous o Joe McCarthy, gained notoriety of accusing Truman as being treasonous by allowing it to be infiltrated by Soviet agents, accused of allowing communist elements Ronald Reagan was the president of the screenwriters guild at the time o Have them analyze and report on events abroad, and to offer policy advice to the president o Structure of state department caused spotty record in foreign policy 5 hierarchies Secretary of state Deputy secretary of state Undersecretaries of state Assistant secretaries of state Deputy Assistant secretaries of state The last still retains considerable power Appointed by the president, requires the advice and consent of the senate The team at the top of the pyramid turns over every 4/8 years, not a great deal of institutional memory b/w presidential administrations o Makes it difficult to make consistent foreign policy due to discontinuity o Most knowledgeable are at the very low levels far removed from the secretary of state The state department also manages U.S.AID o Is a separate agency that remains within the state department Provides most food aid Generally seen as problematic E.g. Department of agriculture transferred to USAID Could cause a turf war b/w state department and agriculture Also seen as a question of economics, regarding subsidies and flooding market of 3rd world countries, subsistence farmers Forced subsistence farmers off of the land allowing bigger agribusinesses to export higher value commodities Shipping companies benefit the most Subcultures of the state department o Become old boys networks tend to view others as less informed and less professional Been described as elitist and exclusivist; as being part of the old boys network Creates this kind of identity; tend to have a preference for overseas experience Greater prestige, Most foreign policy analysts work in Foggy Bottom Tend to identify with foreigners which draws great suspicion to them Emphasis on diplomacy and negotiation Tries to advance its own interests by expanding its share of the executive budget

o o

Tries to demonstrate that its useful and relevant Military intervention is interpreted as a failure of state department Prefers generalists over experts 3 year work terms; shifting locales Undermines their familiarity and effectiveness; i.e. forced to learn a new language every 3 years Has resulted in complaints Sloppy slow and inefficient work Unresponsive to American presidents Resistant to change Incapable of keeping its own house in order e.g. Benghazi Unable to lead DoD: bureaucracy o Its size is based upon American attitudes towards defense o World should be made over by Americans World must Only the U.S. has the capacity to lead this order In no way compromises their universality The Pentagon has divided the world into different commands Africa command conducts military to military missions Has CYBERCOM and SPACECOM in addition to regional divisions o Functions: Threat and use of force, creating a Willingness to use lethal force o Willingness to kill within the context of a strict hierarchy, must do so even if it results in their own death i.e. suicide missions All societies use the means at their disposal Creates a subculture, suppresses the basic human instincts of its members Conventional war generally refers to wars fought with conventional weapons b/w military institutions & their states Unconventional war first referred to nuclear war OOTW: Operations other than war e.g. peace keeping missions COIN: Conversation over counterinsurgency AUMF: Authorization to Use Military Force; a blank cheque to use force wherever he wants, authorized by Congress Generally thrown into the category of asymmetrical warfare; an insurgent force of far less capability i.e. guerrilla warfare o Fighting a technologically and materially superior enemy Cant win in a direct confrontation; have to use hit and run tactics to make it expensive and unaffordable to maintain campaign Continuously involved in a permanent state of semi-war o Nonetheless has to be prepared for the imminent possibilities of conflict o Notion of semi-war referred to the context of the cold war Perceived proxies were in constant conflict

 Translate well post-cold war The global war on terror: might come to an end, the U.S. would continue to face the indefinite threat of terrorism o The defense department was created through the national security act of 1947 Brought together various other departments e.g. department of war, navy Combined into a single bureaucracy to enhance efficiency and coordination Many examples where the army and navy functioned at cross purposes with one another The new structure of the defense department is its considerable duplication and overlap; e.g. navy has its own ground forces; U.S. has 4 air forces o Responsible for the strategic bomber fleets; does not provide air cover for the army/navy it doesnt have the capacity o Navy carries the most number of aircraft i.e. on their carriers o The army also does not trust either of its institutions; mostly has helicopters and some jets Each branch also has its own institutions, the navy seals Duplication also creates competition o Each are separate bureaucracies with separate budgets and personnel o Have to demonstrate their usefulness to justify their budgets Military/defense department represents a society within a society Has its own education system, courts, police, recreational facilities o Has been the case since WW2 o Most entrenched since the Vietnam war o The Defense department will function on the basis of a military draft Estimates of military employment Used in at least 102 occasions o The longest running involvement is in Afghanistan o Vietnam is 2nd longest, played crucial role in helping the French maintain colonial control over the territory Most of the deployment of American forces abroad have been much shorter Duplication, of the very nature of the American military o Managerial style has dominated in the military, due to the influence of secretary of states (have always been civilian); civilian control over the military (very symbolic) Prerequisite to holding presidential office is service in the military o Abandonment of the draft, consists mostly of volunteer members, volunteered essentially to make it a career Military service runs in families, reinforces the society within a society Recruitment of former members of the military into politics has diminished since only 1% of U.S. population The rise of the chicken pox o Members of the American elite that are particularly hawkish Tradition of Separation of politics in the military (goes beyond society within a society) o Overall doctrine of civilian control (generally unproblematic) o

Few exceptions e.g. Lincoln v General McLellan; e.g. firing of MacArthur by Truman Separation of politics from military (normal theory according to Huntington) Strategic decisions and grand strategy are to be made by civilians (i.e. the broader picture of who to attack and when) Tactics used are left up to the military Strategic decisions are made by the president, the president stays out of military management Most serious problem has always been coordination; (raison detre of the DoD; department of war and navy remained rivals despite being combined) Coordination problems have not been entirely eliminated o E.g. Attempt to rescue Iranian hostages Came to the conclusion that this was the result of poor coordination (Iran helicopter crash) o E.g. mid 1980s invasion of Grenada Unambiguous success; fairly trivial event Was becoming too socialist, too cozy with Cuba 1986 passage of the Goldwater Nichols act Tried to deal with these coordination problems by redefining the position of the chairman of the JCS (became the sole adviser to the president) o Provided a more unified chain of command, president no longer had to deal with rivalries between other JCStaffers o Secretary of state is directly accountable to the commander in chief, creates a more unified command structure; provided the requirement of joint time In order to advance through the DoD, officers have to had served through more than one branch of the military o Meant to overcome the individual subcultures of the various services by creating more links and overlaps between services o Cold War represented an ideal set of circumstances for the functioning of the DoD as designed Provided a justification for ever-rising military budgets Through continuous innovation Expanding role of American military throughout the military The Soviet threat coincided very nicely with the American militarys rise in size American style of war became very capital intensive War became more manageable in the home front and foreign territory; casualties could be minimized with the adoption of high technology o Use of indiscriminate air power in the context of the 1st and 2nd world war (i.e. difficult to target specific buildings) o Took place at relatively low altitudes o Maintained the fiction of the opposition

Bombing during daytime U.S.; Germans bombed during the night o Most notorious decision by Truman was to use the atomic bomb o Choices were relatively obvious, became less the case in Vietnam; air power was crucial to the American prosecution of these wars Conventional warfare in the sense of modern technological warfare The Korean War and Vietnam War are different; didnt face a traditional military Both Japan and Germany were highly industrialized states, highly developed infrastructure Main adversary in Vietnam were not the North Vietnamese military but the Viet Cong o Combatant was difficult to distinguish from the local population o Vietnam is/was not an industrial society o Consisted of largely self-sufficient agricultural villages o Counterinsurgency in Vietnam ultimately failed 1st being Panama; the adversary were not insurgencies but rather conventional military forces; in the traditional sense Model of development of the DoD and its capital intensive based warfare (e.g. high tech weapons) justified by the existence of the Soviet Union Determined by a threat based calculation for the needs of domestic defense Collapse of the Soviet Union pulled the rug out of justification for defense spending Expecting a drastic peace dividend For a brief period military spending did seem to decline, but declined in terms of its rate of growth not in its numbers No longer threat based calculation but capacity based budget o Needed to be able to administer 2 simultaneous regional conflicts without exhausting all of its military capacity E.g. Iraq and Yugoslavia (exclusive use of air power) o Somewhat spotty record in Yugoslavia; took out 200 Serbian schools and only 8 tanks o Only about 10% of bombs dropped in Iraq were actually smart bombs o 2nd Gulf war, opened with a shock and awe campaign; opened with the huge bombing campaign Shock them into submission o Air war in Afghanistan also began with the use of air power The use of drones, have the main advantage of not putting U.S. in danger o Less damaging to the civilian population o Likely to continue as it fits neatly into the high tech approach to warfare Counterinsurgency wars

Tools in the war chest in the U.S. became increasingly inappropriate in the conflicts they later became involved in Dont justify military spending; e.g. stealth fighter planes and ICBMs are useless Review Realism (a competing theory to explain foreign policy, views states as rational actors); little need to analyze the making of foreign policy; states will adopt the same set of policies in response to the same set of threats. Numerous counterexamples of irrational actions (all decision makers always make decisions on the basis of incomplete information) o Less than rational, less than ideal Liberal pluralist: See foreign policy not so much as a rational response to threats but influenced heavily by domestic politics Marxists view foreign policy as part of the set of economic interests of the dominant elite Constructivism: insofar as states are rational and individual actors are rational; rationality is always problematic in that its always bounded o Distorted calculations; invading Afghanistan might look irrational in hindsight (cost more in time and money) Appeared perfectly rational if Americans o What appears rational to individuals is always bounded by cultural aspects (indoctrination, bias) and other irrational elements such as incomplete information Allows us to understand specific foreign policy discussions American constitution o U.S. is atypical of most states in the intl system historically o Constitutional setup complicates decision-making process Line/Division of authority of foreign policy b/w Congress and the executive branch is unclear Congress was designed to be a check on the executive both in domestic and foreign matters Multiple obstacles to passing legislation (meant to minimize minority oppression) Foreign policy requires efficiency; separation of powers fly in the face of the requirements of security Changing threat environment o Required adjustments to the political system e.g. Cold War, greater concentration of power in the executive branch After the height of the Cold War, many considered the imperial president to be a thing of the past Congress tried to reassert its role of limiting foreign policy upon the president Changed again after 9/11 Was on solid ground in the case of U.S. law Transitions in American power; became one of the core great powers in the intl system o Perceptions between isolationist in 19th century internationalist during WW1, then isolationist b/w WW1 and 2 then back to internationalist Defined by domestic forces; foreign policy was decided by domestic needs (Block) U.S. government as the major arms consumer of domestic production

Area where the U.S. government remains the main customer in the production of arms and military technology o Presidency as the dominant institution in the U.S. government Sources of their power, look at the key bureaucracies in the making of American foreign policy o Creation of NSC to help president better manage mass bureaucratic array o Main focus is on diplomacy (weak link/chain distrusted)

Dependency theory originated in Latin America, the image that is often used Used exports of raw materials e.g. sugar to acquire capital goods from Western Europe Part of classical dependency Northern states were somewhat different the climate in the northern region were more similar to those of Europe o Not exempted by large landowners o Most of those who worked that land were tenant farmers and not slaves, not indentured servants or slaves o Mostly Europeans from lower class background Relationship with the core countries is necessarily different Given that they could not export valuable commodities, their availability to import manufactured goods was also far diminished o Was not self-sufficient enough to import manufactured goods The American war of independence did little to change this social structure; members of the elite in both regions which preferred being governed by those in the north and in the south o Others escaped from the original 13 colonies further west o Rebellion between elites Perfectly legal for drone strikes says holder Eric Holder; due process is not judicial process Paramilitary expansion Try to pick a narrow topic; has to address some sort of a controversy in the literature Actual proposal needs to consist of no more than a statement of the topic, research question, a tentative hypothesis (very useful in terms of advancing research); allows for a more effective paper in the long run Regarding time frame, dont pick anything thats too recent Class exam to be held on the 25th of June 12 pm Regarding midterm: Term id: 6 terms, have to define and explain significance of 4 of them; 1 of 2 essay (not a test of details, but a comprehension of the main themes of the course i.e. the big picture) about 40 minutes to answer the essay questions; dont get too bogged down A sentence describes the issue then explain how it relates to foreign policy Terms on the blackboard not a bad guide with respect to our knowledge of the terms Test will cover everything up until Tuesday; will not include the intelligence community on the midterm test Question periods are only as useful as theyre made... Demonstrate comprehension of the issue; i.e. for the essay, best way to answer is to be able to summarize the big picture; accuracy is most important