''Some Assembly Required": Comparing Disclaimers in Children's TV Advertising in Turkey and the United States

AYSEN BAKIR

Disclaimers in advertisements might strongly influence how advertising is produced and presented to the public. Examining how marketers use such disclaimers in different countries is an important part of understanding how advertising reaches out to children. To date, studies of disclaimers with respect to children have only focused on U.S. advertising. This study examines differences in how disclaimers are used in both Turkish and U.S. children's television commercials.

Illinois State University abakir2@ilstu.edu

INTRODUCTION

Although mandated regulations strongly influence advertising practices in a number of international markets (Duncan and Ramaprasad, 1995; Gao, 2005), the global diversity of legal requirements presents a significant barrier to create standardized global advertising strategies (Gao, 2005; Papavassiliou and Stathakopoulos, 1997). In some markets, however, advertising traditionally has been shaped by the level of economic development. As those markets mature and economicdevelopment gaps begin to decrease, it is reasonable to expect that differences in advertising regulations might also diminish (Gao, 2005). Advertising regulations in the United States and other countries tend to center on deceptive and unfair advertising (Petty, 1996), comparative advertising (Wilkie and Farris, 1975), sex and decency in advertising (Boddewyn, 1991), and advertising to children (Mazis, 1979). Regulations in any country may be categorized (ranging from least to most restrictive) as removing restraints on information flow, enhancing information now, and restricting information flow (Mazis et al, 1981). Regulations on the content of advertising often focus on the form of the message and the way- the information is presented in advertising appeals to specific target audiences. The cognitive abilities of childrenand their response to any kind of broadcast messagemeans that younger audiences de-

mand specific consideration in terms of what kind of restrictions work in their best interests. Because children have become a significant international market (Arundhati, 2002) and marketers have invested heavily to reach this segment, the form and content of youth-oriented advertising messages is particularly important. The language in children's advertising, for instance, should take into account the cognitive abilities of children. Because young children can be particularly vulnerable to content in commercials, advertising to children has received major criticism from a number of public and private institutions (Kunkel, 2001). Because of criticisms that advertising might create misunderstanding among children or actually mislead that target audience, disclosures have become an important element of the information mix for advertising content. A number of studies have examined advertising disclosures or disclaimers in children's commercials (Kolbe and Muehling, 1992; Stern and Harmon, 1984; Stutts and Hunnicutt, 1987). While these studies have enhanced the understanding of marketing practices in the United States, there has been little comparable research on the subject outside the United States, with particular lack of focus in developing countries. To enhance the understanding of advertising practices in two markets with different levels of advertising maturity, this study examines and compares advertisers'

Funding for tliis researcit was provided by the Department of Marketing and College of Business at Illinois State University.

DOI: 10.2501/S0021849909090023

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ANALYSIS OF DISCLAIMERS IN CHILDREN'S TV ADVERTISING

In some markets, advertising traditionaliy lias been siiaped by tiie ievei of economic deveiopment. As tiiose markets mature and economic-deveiopment gaps begin to decrease, it is reasonable to expect that differences in advertising regulations might also diminish.

Media Enterprises, 2007); by comparison, in Turkey, comparable expenditure was $34 (ZenithOptimedia 2007). In terms of advertising media investments and percapita advertisement spending, the Turkish market, compared to the United States, is still in its infancy.
BACKGROUND ON ADVERTISING DISCLAIMERS

use of disclaimers in Turkey (a developing market on its way to industrialized nation status) and the United States (a fully industrialized market).
THE ADVERTISING INDUSTRY IN TURKEY AND THE UNITED STATES

Compared to the United States, broadcast advertising in Turkey is still relatively new. In fact, the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) was established in 1968 (Creatonic Media Research, 2001). Currently, there are 197 over-the-air TV channels and an additional 63 cable channels. Sixteen channels operate at a national level, 15 at a regional level, and 229 at a local level. Turkey also offers 30 national radio stations and another 1,062 local operations. Additionally, in 2006, the Turkish Advertising Association reported 32 newspapers and 85 magazines distributed throughout the country. The entire Turkish advertising industry has been growing gradually in the last decade; advertising expenditures grew more than threefold between 1995 ($635 million) and 2006 ($2.6 billion). Globalization and European Union (EU) membership requirements helped to generate advertising standards that are compatible with a free-market economy, including the standards of the EU and the general Agreement for Trade of Service (Turkish Advertising Association, 2007). Overall, Turkey has implemented the regulations ex-

pected of a free-market economy similar, but that differs from the United States in that those measures still are not fully mature. The formation of broadcast media in the United States, on the other hand, started much earlier. The first experimental television broadcast in the United States dates back to the late 1930s (Bellis, 2006), and the emphasis on marketing regulation began during the late 1960s, with new regulations on advertising substantiation, comparative advertising, advertising to children, affirmative disclosure, and advertising code barriers being introduced during the 1970s (Wilkie, McNeill, and Mazis, 1984). By contrast, U.S. advertising spending totaled $266 billion across various types of media in 2006, with television accounting for $72 billion and the balance shared by newspapers ($49 billion) magazines ($24 billion), radio ($22 billion), and other media ($99 billion) (Vollmer and Precourt, 2008). In 2006, the United States ranked first in global-advertising expenditures, followed by Western European ($103.57 billion), Asia-Pacific ($91.81 billion), and Latin America ($22.72 billion) (ZenithOptimedia, 2007). In addition to spending on media, percapita advertising spending is yet another revealing indicator of a market's maturity. In 2007, the per-capita U.S. advertisement spending was $528 (Central European

Advertising disclaimers have been defined as a "statement or disclosure made with the purpose of clarifying or qualifying potentially misleading or deceptive statements made within an advertisement" (Stern and Harmon, 1984, p. 13). Examples from children's advertising include "supplies are limited," "part of a nutritious breakfast," "in specially marked prices," "not sold in stores," and "batteries not included." An advertiser may decide voluntarily to use disclaimers or their implementation may be mandated by such regulatory agencies as Eederal Trade Commission (FTC) in the United States. The FTC's advertising substantiation program dates back to 1971 (Foxman, Muehling, and Moore, 1988; Wilkes and Wilcox, 1974). The main objectives of this early initiativeand of subsequent programs since the 1990swere to enable consumers to make more informed decisions and to discourage advertising that would lead to false impression about a marketing communications message. Although disclaimers are not central to advertising messages, they do provide more complete information about claims made in the message. In the United States, mandatory FTC guidelines guard against unfair and deceptive advertising practices. The FTC also works with the Children's Advertising Review Unit (CARU) of the Council of the Better Business Bureau to impose standards for advertising directed to children. As a self-regulatory agency, CARU promotes responsible advertising. Most

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ANALYSIS OF DISCLAIMERS IN CHILDREN'S TV ADVERTISING

of CARU's guidelines overlap with FTC requirements; and most FTC disclaimers are mandatory in that they relate to the nature of the product, how the product works, and what it includes .(or lack thereof). While Turkey may lag in the size of its advertising practice, it does have guidelines for disclosures (disclaimers) in children's advertising that are comparable to those established in much larger markets (see Table 1). Turkey's Industry and Trade Ministry has established mandatory guidelines for fair advertising practices. The Turkish Advertising Associationan organization with its own self-regulation guidelinesworks closely with the Industry and Trade Ministry on program implementation. The standards and regulatory practices are comparable to those in such European countries as Germany, France, Denmark, and Finland. The use of disclaimers is particularly important when marketers deal with vulnerable audience segments like children. Research within the children's segment on this topic, however, is limited (Kolbe and Muehling, 1992; Stem and Harmon, 1984; Stutts and Hunnicutt, 1987). While some studies examined structural issues related to aspects of disclaimers in children's advertising (Kolbe and Muehling, 1995; Stern and Harmon, 1984), few examined children's understanding of disclaimers (Bennett, 1990; Liebert, Sprafkin, Liebert, and Rubinstein, 1977). Another important question is: How effective are disclaimers? When tested as to whether they understand the message of a disclaimer, children of all ages offered more incorrect verbal and nonverbal (i.e., pointing to a picture that illustrated the best meaning of the disclaimer in the commercial) responses than correct responses (Stutts and Hunnicutt, 1987). A child's ability to verbally respond correctly to disclaimers increases among preschool children between the ages of three and five

The any

cognitive abilities of childrenand their response to kind of broadcast messagemeans that younger

audiences demand specific consideration in terms of what kind of restrictions work in their best interests.

(Stutts and Hunnicutt, 1987). Nonverbal correct responses, on the other hand, did not improve by age. In fact, the nonverbal responses of four-year-old children to advertising disclaimers were significantly higher than the similar responses of five year olds. Earlier research (Stern and Resnik, 1978) of children between the ages of three and six also supports the findings that children exposed to a disclaimer did not have a greater understanding of the advertising message than children who were not exposed to the disclaimer. Other research also examined children's ability to understand the mitigating functions of a disclaimer between the ages of 5 and 11 years old. Children who participated in the experiment were read a short story. Actors in the story were asked by an older sibling to help out in ordinary tasks such as washing the dishes or holding a baby. And, in each case, an older sibling provided some kind of disclosure in the story. In every instance, the younger child agreed to provide assistance, but did not have the competency to complete the specified task. Later, children were asked whether the actor in the story should be punished. The findings indicated that significant reductions in punishment were recommended by children that were 11 years old following specification of a disclaimer. On the other hand, 50 percent of eight-year-old children and only 25 percent of the five year olds reported that they fully understood the disclaimer (Bennett, 1990). Additionally,

Liebert, Sprafkin, Liebert, and Rubinstein (1977) found that the form of the disclaimer (the types of words used) made a difference in how well kindergarten and second-grade children understood the message. Children were better able to comprehend disclaimers that specifically suggested child's involvement (i.e., "you have to put it together") than more passive messages ("some assembly required") that did not speak directly to the child. Other studies have analyzed the use of disclaimers in television commercials. Stem and Harmon (1984) found that disclaimers were present in more than one-third of breakfast- or toy-related children's commercials. The majority of the disclaimers appeared at the end of the commercial as audio voice-overs; all the spots used adult language in 2- to 3-second time frames. Earlier research with toy commercials found that verbal qualifiers (20 percent) were used more than visual qualifiers that appeared on the television screen (14 percent) or a combination form of visual and verbal qualifiers (11 percent) (Atkin and Heald, 1977). Additionally, Barcus (1977) reported visual disclaimers in 11 percent of weekend-programming commercials and 10 percent of after-schoolprogramming commercials, with combined form of audio/visual disclaimers in 8 percent of weekend spots and 5 percent of after-school TV advertising. Overall, children's understanding of the intent of advertising changes significantly as they move from very young ages to

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ANALYSIS OF DISCLAIMERS IN CHILDREN'S TV ADVERTISING

TABLE 1

General Guidelines Related to Disclosures and Disclaimers in Children's Advertising in the United States and Turkey
Turkey^ 1. Advertisements should not exploit the inexperience or credulity of children and young people. 2. Advertisements should not understate the degree of skill or age level generally required to use or enjoy the product. a. Special care should be taken to ensure that advertisements do not mislead children and young people as to the true size, value, nature, durability, and performance of the advertised product. b. If extra items are needed to use it (e.g., batteries) or to produce the result shown or described (e.g., paint), this should be made clear. c. A product that is part of a series should be clearly indicated as should the method of acquiring the series. d. Where results of product use are shown or described, the advertisement should represent what is reasonably attainable by the average child or young person in the age range for which the product is intended. 3. Price indication should not be such as to lead children and young people to an unreal perception of the true value of the product, for instance by using the word "only." No advertisements should imply that the advertised product is immediately within reach of every family budget. 4. The following should be noted for the advertisements that address or have the possibility of affecting children or youth that are minors and for the advertisements in which children or youth that are minors are used: a. They cannot bear components of violence that they may imitate. b. The advertisements of products or services that may be harmful for themselves or the environment if sufficient measures are not taken should bear symbols and warnings reminding that necessary measures must be taken. c. Expressions implying that they should execute an agreement for the sales or lease of the products or the services may not be included. d. Expressions or visuals encouraging them to misuse their special confidence in their parents, teachers, or other persons. They may not be in a manner that weakens the authority and the sense of responsibility or judgments of the parents and teachers. e. They may not exploit the feelings of love, compassion, and devotion that parents have for their children. United States" 1. All disclosures and disclaimers material to children should be understandable to the children in the Intended audience, taking into account their limited vocabularies and level of language skills. For young audiences, simple words should be chosen, e.g., "You have to put it together." Because children rely more on information presented in pictures than in words, demonstrative disclosures are encouraged. 2. These disclosures should be conspicuous in the advertising format and media used, e.g., online, advertisers should make disclosures clear and proximate to, and in the same format (i.e., audio or graphic) as, the claims to which they are related; in television, advertisers should use audio disclosures, unless disclosures in other formats are likely to be seen and understood by the intended audience. 3. Circumstances where material disclosures are needed include, but are not limited to, the following: a. Advertising for unassembled products should clearly indicate they need to be put together to be used properly. b. If any item essential to use of the product is not included, such as batteries, this fact should be disclosed clearly. c. Advertisers should clearly disclose information about products purchased separately, such as accessories or individual items in a collection. d. If television advertising to children involves the use of a toll-free telephone number, it must be clearly stated, in both audio and video disclosures, that the child must get an adult's permission to call. In print or online advertising, this disclosure must be clearly and prominently displayed.
"Source: The Turkish Advertising Self-Regulatory Board ^Source: The Children's Advertising Rcvieit) Unit, Self-Regulatory Program for Children's Advertising

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ANALYSIS OF DISCLAIMERS IN CHILDREN'S TV ADVERTISING

Compared to the United States, broadcast advertising in Tiiricey is stiii reiativeiy new. In fact, the T^ricish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) was established in 1968. Currently, there are 197 over-the-air TV channels and an additional 63 cable channels. Sixteen channels operate at a national level, 15 at a regional level, and 229 at a local level. TUrkey also offers 30 national radio stations and another 1,062 local operations. Additionally, in 2006, the Turkish Advertising Association reported 32

METHOD Sample

newspapers and 85 magazines distributed throughout the country.

early adolescence (Robertson and Rossiter, 1974). While the advertising industry practices and pronnotes voluntary selfregulation, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requires companies to follow specific guidelines and has introduced regulations to protect this segment on the grounds that disclaimers are essential to providing clear and sufficient information and avoid misleading children. This study explores the extent of disclaimer usage (sometimes referred to as "affirmative disclosures" or "information disclosures") and the executional uses and formats of disclaimers in U.S. and Turkish children's commercials. This study updates the findings of Stern and Harmon (1984) and presents a current view regarding the use of disclaimers in children's commercials in the United States. Moreover, because previous research on advertising disclaimers was limited to U.S.

samples (Kolbe and Muehling, 1992; Stern and Resnik, 1978; Stutts and Hunnicutt, 1987), this study expands the literature by providing perspectives from a market that is economically, socially, and culturally different from the United States. Extending the examination of disclaimer use to markets outside the United States is important in light of increasing globalization and inclusion of less mature markets. Specifically, the study sought answers to three specific research questions: To what extent are disclaimers used in U.S. and Turkish children's commercials? What are the typical disclaimer structural formats (position, form, language, etc.) used in children's commercials? Are there country differences on the execution of disclaimers in children's commercials?

The data were collected by recording commercials from three television channels during the same time periods in Turkey and the United States. Recordings took place on Wednesdays after school hours (3:00-5:30 PM) and on Saturday mornings (8:00 AM-12:00 PM) for five weeks. The timing of the recording is typical among the studies conducted with children, and Saturday morning programming is considered a heavily targeted and watched time period by children (Kolbe and Muehling, 1992). The U.S. networks included ABC, CBS, and NBC. Content analysis studies targeting children in the United States commonly used these television networks (Atkin and Heald, 1977; Kolbe and Muehling, 1992; Stern and Resnik, 1978). The Turkish channels included TRT 1, Channel D, and ATV, which are ranked among the four most watched television channels in Turkey (AGB Croup, 2001). High television viewership is also reflected in their leading advertising revenue in the Turkish market. Recent figures indicate that Channel D had 30 percent and ATV had 20 percent of total television advertising revenue (Colakoglu, 2004). Commercials targeting adults, repeated commercials, and commercials promoting television programming were not included in the final sample of 219 commercials. Of these 219 selected commercials, 95 were Turkish and 124 were from the United States.
Procedure

Content analysis was used to explore the content of children's commercials. Two bilingual judges from each country watched the commercials and identified the disclaimers. The disclosures (also referred to as "disclaimers") were identified as statements used to clarify or qualify potentially misleading or deceptive aspects, including

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ANALYSIS OF DISCLAIMERS IN CHILDREN'S TV ADVERTISING

Although disclaimers are not central to advertising messages, they do provide more complete information about claims made in the message. In the United States, mandatory FTC guidelines guard against unfair and deceptive advertising practices. The FTC also works with the Children's Advertising Review Unit (CARU) of the Council of Better Business Bureau to impose standards for advertising directed to children. As a self-regulatory agency, CARU promotes responsible advertising.

The second research question concerned structural formats for disclaimers in children's commercials (see Table 3). The variables included the position, form, and language used in the disclaimers and the age and sex of the announcer of the disclaimer (in audio forms) utilized in the commercials. The findings were evaluated by Chi-square analyses. Chi-square analysis on the position of the disclaimer (x^ = 9.765, p < 0.008) indicated significant differences. While most disclaimers were placed at the end of the commercials in both countries, there were significant differences in frequency: 66.7 percent from Turkey and 92.9 percent from the United States positioned the disclaimers at the end. Although 20 percent of the Turkish commercials positioned the disclaimers at the beginning of the spot, none of the commercials in the United States used this kind of positioning. Another variable analyzed was the level of language usedmore specifically, whether adult or child's language was used to deliver the message. "Adult language" required an adult's level of understanding; "child's language" was interpreted as language that young children would have no problem to understand. There were significant differences on the execution of this variable between Turkey and the United States {x^ = 25.366, p < 0.00). The use of adult language was observed in 40 percent of the Turkish commercials, with 60 percent using child's language. On the other hand, 97.6 percent of the commercials in the United States were classified as using adult language; only one commercial in the sample utilized child's language. Interesting patterns were observed with respect to the form of the disclaimers used (X^ = 14.009, p < 0.003). Audio only was included in 26.7 percent of the commercials in Turkey and 45.2 percent of the

statements offering advice and providing supplemental or qualifying information to the viewer within the commercial (Stem and Harmon, 1984). The judges were told that the purpose of this study was to evaluate the extent to which disclaimers are used and to discuss their executional format in children's commercials. The judges were provided written instructions explaining the definitions of the variables. Each judge then evaluated the commercials based on the identified variables, working on his or her own without the presence of the other judge. During the training, the judges were also shown examples of commercials that explained the concepts analyzed. It was made certain that the judges had a clear understanding of the definition of the variables, and any uncertainties were discussed during the preanalysis stage. Before starting the analysis, the judges assessed pretest commercials that were not included in the final sample. After the judges completed their analysis, a third bilingual judge resolved dis-

agreements between reviewers. The reliability of the judgments was computed using the Perreault and Leigh (1989) method, and interrater agreements ranged from 0.86 to 1 for the Turkish sample and 0.90 to 0.98 for the U.S. sample. The average interiudge agreement level was 0.92 for the Turkish data and 0.94 for the U.S. data.
ANALYSIS

The first research question (see Table 2) examined the extent to which disclaimers were used in the 219 commercials collected from both countries. Of the 95 commercials from Turkey, 15.8 percent included disclaimers; of the 124 commercials from the United States, 33.9 percent included disclaimers. Among the various product categories, toys, snack food, beverages, clothing, footwear, and children's magazines included disclaimers in Turkish commercials. In the United States, breakfast food, candy and gum, meal foods, and restaurant commercials included disclaimers.

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TABLE 2 Distribution of Disclaimers and Commercials across Product Categories

Turkey Frequency of Commercials Frequency Product Category Beverages Breakfast food Candy and gum Personal care related^ Clothing and footwear Diapers Children's magazines Meal foods Restaurants Snack food Toys Other
"Stielt as shatnpoo, toothpaste, etc.

United States Frequency of Commercials Frequency of Disciaimers in This Product Category

in This Product Category

of Disclaimers

1 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 0 3 4 1

6 0 5 17 2 4 5 2 1 34
5

0 5 1 0 0 0 0 1 5 0 29 1

3 16 22 0 0 0 0 2 9 21 8 1

commercials in the United States. The use of the visual form only was more common in the U.S. commercials31 percent as compared to 13.3 percent in Turkish commercials. The use of both audio and visual at different times was only found in Turkish commercials, whereas the use of both audio and visual forms simultaneously was utilized in the United States and Turkey, 23.8 percent and 33.3 percent, respectively. The majority of the commercials in both countries used adults as the announcer of the disclaimer in audio forms, but there were significant differences in whether an adult or a child was used as the voiceover {x'^ = 6.439, p = < 0.01). A child was the announcer of the disclaimers in audio forms in 38.5 percent of Turkish

commercials and 6.9 percent of U.S. commercials. For the last variable, the sex of the announcer of the disclaimer in audio forms, no significant differences were found between the two countries (x^ = 3.460, p < 0.177). The majority of the disclaimers were announced by males84.6 percent in Turkey and 62.1 percent in the United States. The third research question examined whether there were country differences in the execution of disclaimers in children's commercials (see Table 3). The findings indicated significant differences as well as similarities between Turkey and the United States. The position of the disclaimer, the language used, and the form of the disclaimer were significantly different be-

tween Turkey and the United States. The only variable that did not indicate significant differences was the sex of the announcer in audio forms.
DiSCUSSiON

This study examined the usage- and execution-related aspects of disclaimers in children's commercials in the United States and Turkey, markets that present strong differences in their economic, cultural, and social contexts as well as the levels of market maturity. Past research on disclaimers focused on studies conducted in the United States. This study provides insights by comparing and contrasting the use and format of disclaimers in two countries with different levels of market maturity.

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ANALYSIS OF DISCLAIMERS IN CHILDREN'S TV ADVERTISING

TABLE 3

*he announcer was not significantly dif-

Executional Format of the Disclaimers by Country

Turkey Variables Position of the disclaimer ( 2(2) = 9 765 D < 0 0081 \ t the beginning In the middle At the end Language used (^2jj^j _ 25 35g p < 0 00) Adult language Child language Form of the disclaimer {X^{3) = 13.829, p < 0.003) ....^}^^}...^]y. Visual only Both audio and visual at different times ....Bth audio and visual simultaneously (^2(1) = 6.439, p = < 0.01) Announcer was a child. Announcer was an adult. 5 (38.5%) 8 (61.5%) 2 (6.9%) 27 (93.1%) 4.(26.-.Z%) 2 (13.3%) 4 (26.7%) 5(33.3%) 19.(45%) 13 (31.0%) 0(0%) 10.(23.8%) 6 (40%) 9 (60%) 41 (97.6%) 1 (2.4%) ' 3 (20%) 2 >. (13.3%) ; 10 (66.7%) 0 (0%) 3 (7.1%) ; : 39 (92.9%) (/V = 15) United States {N = 42)

^^''^"^' "^^^^^ ^^""^ mmoniy used in both

countries. This finding is consistent with previous studies examining gender roles in the United States, where past research ^ " ' ' ^ ^ "^^'^ dominance in voice-overs in children's commercials (Hoek and Lau''''''' ^^^^' ^'^ ^""^ ^^'P^^"^' ^^^O)" Other significant findings relate to the , j in the .u disclaimers. J- i TU language used The purpose of disclaimers is to clarify information or eliminate the possibility of misunderstanding the commercial. Therefore, * ^ language used to foster comprehension of the disclaimer becomes impor. . X K U C A AU-,, tant. The number of words and their level of difficulty can influence the comprehension of the disclaimer by children. Previous research indicates that children can distinguish between commer" ' ^ ' ' " '^ television programming by the age of five (Blosser and Roberts, 1985). The understanding of advertisers' intent occurs at a later age, when children are seven to eight years old (John, 1999). To meet the intent of disclaimersi.e., to ^^o'*^ misleading children regarding the productit is imperative that marketers use language that is consistent with the . u-r CU-,A cognitive abilities of children as the target ^. ^ K f ^- A- . A c audience. The findings indicated significant differences regarding the language used between the two countries. All but only one of the U.S. commercials utilized adult language. The majority of the Turkish commercials, on the other hand, used

The age of the announcer of the disclaimer (in audio forms)

The sex of the announcer of the disclaimer (in audio forms) (;)'2(2) = 3.460, p < 0.177) Male ....Female Both male and female 11(84.6%) l..(.Z;.'('.%) 1 (7.7%) 18(62.1%) .1.9.(?.l-.5.i'). 1 (3.4%)

The findings present a number of interesting patterns. Most significantly, the frequency of disclaimers in Turkey was less than half that in the United States. Although identifying the reason was not the objective of this study, the degree of regulation enforcement and/or the intensity of the competition in the market might be likely motivators. The age and sex of the disclaimer announcer presented both differences and

similarities. Although both U.S. and Turkish commercials primarily used adults to present disclaimers, Turkish commercials employed child characters to present disclaimers five times more often than U.S. commercials did. This finding might be related to cultural differences: For exampie, group harmony and interaction among the immediate families is highly valued in collectivist cultures such as Turkey (Cheng and Schweitzer, 1996). The sex of

child's language. Although the higher use of adult language in the U.S. commercials is consistent with the findings of Stern and Harmon (1984), it may be that such practice partially defeats the intent of the disclaimer, which is to have the target audience (in this case, children) understand the message, Higher use of child language in Turkey, as noted earlier, might be related to cultural factors. Past research shows that cultural

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ANALYSIS OF DISCLAIMERS IN CHILDREN'S TV ADVERTISING

factors (individualism and collectivism, for instance) influence consumers' preferences for advertising appeals (Lepkowska-White, 2004). Because family interaction is valued more in collectivist cultures such as Turkey, the use of a child family member for a voice-over could create more appeal for the commercial. With respect to the timing of the disclaimer: although the majority of the disclaimers in both countries appeared at or toward the end of the commercials, some Turkish commercials offered disclosures at the beginning as well. The appearance of disclaimers at the end of commercials in the United States is consistent with previous research (Stern and Harmon, 1984). The form of the disclaimer differed in the two countries. The majority of U.S. commercials either used audio only or visual only, a finding consistent with Stem and Harmon (1984), but the use of both audio and visual occurred more often than in Stern and Harmon's study. The pattern observed in Turkish commercials, where 33 percent of commercials employed simultaneous use of audio and visual disclaimers (versus 23 percent in the United States), raises questions regarding advertisers' tactics. The use of both audio and visual either simultaneously or at different times would have been expected more in both countries, because this approach would have increased children's comprehension of the information provided in the commercials. Overall, one would expect that differences in the two countries' market maturity would be matched by comparable differences in compliance with advertising regulations. While the findings did indicate significant differences regarding the use of disclaimers between the two countries, these differences were related more to the executional aspects of the spots than they were to the practice of the regulations. Although Turkey may be a

Most significantly, the frequency of disciaimers in Turicey was iess tiian haif that in the United States. Aithough identifying the reason was not the objective of this study, the degree of reguiation enforcement and/or the intensity of the competition in the maricet might be iiiceiy motivators.

less mature market than the United States, some of the executional aspects of disclaimers were more properly aimed at the target audience of children. A study conducted by Shao and Hill (1994) that examined advertising restrictions based on the level of market development might provide an indirect explanation to this finding. Their study indicated that developed and developing countries had similar number of legal restrictions, but that developing countries differed regarding social restrictions they offered on advertising for specific products (e.g., for sexual-oriented products). Companies often are severely criticized for the negative effects of advertising directed at children. In both the United States and Turkey, regulations promote responsible advertising targeting young audiences. At the same time, past research also showed that the form of disclaimers could affect a child's comprehension of disclaimers at different ages (Bennett, 1990). This uncertainty raises the larger question of the overall effectiveness of disclaimers targeted to children. The success of a particular disclosure, of course, may change depending on the perspective of the advertiser, regulator, the parent, or the child. Understanding who retains the information provided by the disclaimers might

help advertisers to increase the effectiveness of the advertising messages.

FUTURE RESEARCH

This study sheds light on the execution of disclaimers in two countries and, in particular, provides some perspective to the practice by focusing on a less mature market. Some findings, however, raise more questions. Future research should attempt to identify the reasons behind the findings of differences in language level and use of adult or child announcers. Are these attributable to cultural factors? If so, what elements of culture create these differences? Or can the findings be explained in terms of differences in the type of regulations in a given market? Whatever the answers to these ancillary queries, the current findings imply that global advertisers must develop an effective approach to disclaimers attached to advertising content as part of their global communication strategies if the disclaimers are to be effective. While this study has explored the form and presentation of disclaimers, the research made no attempt to discover the impact of these characteristics on children's comprehension of the disclaimers. Clearly this depth of understanding is another avenue of research, especially

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ANALYSIS OF DISOLAIMERS IN OHILDREN'S TV ADVERTISING

because previous studies found that executional aspects made a difference in children's comprehension of the information at different ages (Bennett, 1990; Liebert et al., 1977). Future research should further examine the factors that influence the level of children's comprehension, perhaps by manipulating the factors to discover what aspects of disclaimers underlie comprehension.

BLOSSER, BETSY J., and DONALD F. ROBERTS.

HOEK, JANET, and KELLY LAURENCE. "Televi-

"Age Differences in Children's Perceptions of Message Intent: Responses to TV News, Commercials, Educational Spots, and Public Service Announcements." Communication Research 12, 4 (1985): 455-84.

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