Technical Graphics

TECHNICAL GRAPHICS

Introduction
Technical graphics are used to represent, record, communicate technical ideas and as aids in design visualization. Drafters, designers and engineers need to study and understand graphic principles, drawing standards, and conventions so that they can communicate technical concepts and designs accurately. Technical professionals must be able to visualize (form mental picture) of components, units, and assembly drawings. Engineers, architect, designers, drafters, machinists, or inspectors should be able to read and interpret component or assembly drawings. It is estimated that 92% of the design process is graphically based and about 50% of the Engineers time is spent on design modeling, drafting and documentation. The importance of technical graphics cannot then be overemphasized. Though many graphic principles may not change over a long period of time, the techniques do change. For example, traditional drafting with tools and instruments has given way to computer-based design drafting or CAD. Hence computer based skills in design and manufacturing are required in the industry today. The two areas of principal concerns in technical graphics are visual and dimensional accuracy. Visual accuracy is achieved by ensuring that the shape and form of a graphic model correspond to what is observed or imagined. Geometric construction addresses the issue of visual accuracy. Geometric construction is the creation of shapes, features and forms based on the relationship between basic graphic elements of points, lines and curves. These graphic elements can be used to create basic shapes of circles, ellipses, and rectangles. Basic shapes can in turn be used to create basic forms such as boxes, cylinders, cones, etc. Basic shapes and forms are called primitives. By combining graphic elements, basic shapes, and form primitives according to some constraint requirements, more complicated parts and assembly are created. Annotation addresses the issue of dimensional accuracy in drafting. Annotation is the process of adding textual information to graphic information. The textual information include dimensions, tolerances, notes, specifications, etc that complement geometric information so as to provide necessary and sufficient information for product construction and inspection. Dimensional accuracy is achieved by specifying size values or dimensions that correspond to functional requirements or measured values. In practice exact dimensions cannot be manufactured, so tolerances which are allowed size variations are specified. Tolerances must ensure functionality and are normally very small fractions of the size value (some 2 to 3 orders of magnitude smaller than the dimension). Generally, tighter tolerances indicate higher precision which leads to corresponding higher production cost. Engineers and designers strive to specify adequate tolerances that meet functionality at possible minimum cost. Notes and specifications provide important textual information that help to satisfy desired, functional, aesthetics, and regulatory conditions for the product. These are necessary when graphic information lack specifics.

Types of Technical Graphics

Many people in the workplace use technical models and drawings. These include engineers, architects, checkers, designers, drafters, sales and marketing personnel, educators, and a host of others. Engineers, architects, checkers, designers, and drafters are required to be able to create, read and interpret technical drawings, but most of the other people need only know how to read and interpret them. A Drawing is a graphical representation or model of a real or imagined object. It consists of lines and curves and may be artistic or technical. Artistic drawings are drawings that are used to express aesthetic, philosophical, and abstract ideas. Technical drawings express technical idea(s). They are normally created to some specifications, and communicate technical information about goods and services. Technical drawings are 2-D wireframe objects that are made up of lines and curves. A technical drawing may be an engineering drawing, an illustration or a presentation drawing. Engineering Drawings Engineering drawings are precise technical drawings of tangible products such as structures, tools, instruments and equipments that communicate design intent. They are created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance, size, etc. An engineering drawing of components normally conveys the following information: 1) shape or form (geometric characteristics) of component; 2) size of component and its features; 3) tolerances on sizes; 4) material and finish for the component; 5) special treatment if required. This is called a detail drawing. Assembly drawings of different types are prepared to shown how components fit in a product.

Technical Graphics
Technical Illustrations A technical illustration is a drawing or diagram that is used to explain technical ideas. It is generally not required to be precise and may not be scaled or completely dimensioned. In many cases, dimensions are omitted altogether. However, they are neat and easily understood even by non-technical personnel. Many are often in pictorial form of isometric, oblique, or perspective drawing. Technical manuals and catalogs come with many technical illustrations. Presentation Drawing A presentation drawing is a drawing used to communicate with clients, especially those with little or no technical background. In many cases, a presentation drawing is a rendered technical illustration. In general, presentation drawings need not be technical in nature. Computer graphics has made it possible to create photorealistic models make presentation drawings appear natural. Design and drafting Design is an activity in which abstract ideas are transformed into visual and often physical objects. Good designs integrate functional and aesthetic requirements. Designers have a desire to create and they combine practical knowledge and skills with artistic ability in their work. Beginning with sketches by hand or computer, they translate clients requirements into visual models. Designers are also called technologists who often require four years of post high school training. For designs to be functional, attractive and competitive in a globalized economy, creativity is necessary. Engineers and designers must be highly creative today in order to be competitive. Drafting is the process of producing technical drawings using draughting as its language of expression. It involves the application of technical drawing principles, conventions, and standards in generating industry standard graphic models. Drafting thus embodies a knowledge base, drawing techniques, and annotation skills. Due to the capabilities of modern solid modeling software, the importance of traditional drafting is decreasing. Modern CAD packages are becoming highly automated in drafting skills especially in the drawing and annotation areas. It seems reasonable to expect that professional drafting may not be around for very long. However, drafting knowledge and annotations skills I believe will remain as the drawing aspect of drafting becomes more and more automated or fully automated. Drafting will increasingly be seen as one of the applications of solid modeling. Hence designers, architects and engineers will be required to do drafting tasks. It is obvious that print reading and print checking skills will be required in interpreting and ensuring quality of computer generated drawings. Hence drafting as a career may be at risk, drafting skills will survive but as basic requirements for designers, architects and engineers. Drafting Objectives The main objectives in drafting practice are accuracy, legibility, neatness, and speed in drawing creation. Accuracy: a drawing must be accurate in shape and size to offer maximum utility. Paying attention to details and exactness are skills that help create accurate drawings. The student must master these skills to succeed in design drafting career. Legibility: no drawing is of real value as a communication document if it is not clear and legible. Dimensions and notes must be placed with thoughtfulness, care and consideration for others who may have to read and interpret the drawing. Neatness: neat drawings are attractive and delightful to read. The student must strive at all times to make neatness a priority. Untidy drawings are due to sloppy and careless attitudes and habits. These are unacceptable in school or in the industry. Speed: speed increases productivity and the most productive worker is the most valuable. Speed in design drafting is achieved by a conscious and diligent attention to the mastery of the concepts and principles of the discipline so that mistakes and errors are minimized or eliminated. This helps to get the job done right the first time! Remember, in business time is money. Achieving the objectives above by any design drafter comes through a conscious and determined effort in understanding and consistently applying drafting principles. Attention to details is an indispensable skill that must be developed early in the career. Striving for excellence is an attitude that must be embraced if

Technical Graphics
progress in design drafting career or any career for that matter is desired. Industry standard drawings can be created by following principles such as: 1. Keeping all lines black, crisp and consistent. 2. Using different linestyles of varying thickness or line weight. 3. Ensuring clarity in linestyle differences. 4. Ensuring dashes have consistent spacing with definite endpoints. 5. Keeping guide or construction lines very thin. 6. Ensuring that corners are sharp and without overlap. 7. Placing dimension with thoughtfulness and adequate spacing. 8. Making notes simple and concise. 9. Making drawing readability a high priority. 10. Ensuring a pleasing drawing layout. Principles 1 to 6 are largely built into CAD software. This means the CAD operator need not worry about them, except know what linestyle to use for different features of objects and assign appropriate lineweight or line thickness. However, principles 7 to 10 must be mastered and consistently applied. These have bearings on accuracy, legibility, and neatness of drawings. Draughting Conventions and Standards Draughting is a technical graphic language for producing technical drawings in this text. It is a universal language and provides standards and conventions used for clearly and accurately describing the form, size, finish and color of a design model for construction or recording. The standards and conventions are necessary in order to minimize misinterpretations and eliminate errors in the communication process. Conventions are commonly accepted practices, methods or rules used in technical drawings. Standards are sets of rules that govern the representation of technical drawings. They are established through voluntary agreements. Standards ensure clear communication of technical ideas. ANSI establishes standards for engineering and technical drawings in the USA. The design drafter must understand these conventions and standards and apply them correctly in practice. ANSI: ANSI stands for American National Standards Institute. It is a federation of government, many private companies, professional, technical, trade, labor and consumer organizations that serves as a clearinghouse for nationally coordinated voluntary standards for engineering and technical drawings in the USA. Drafting standards are specified in ANSI-Y14 documents which give only the character of the graphic language called draughting above. ISO: The International Standardization Organization (ISO) is a worldwide body that sets standards in virtually every area of human activities. ANSI standards are usually similar but not identical to ISO standards. The design drafter must be diligent in adhering to relevant standards in a particular work. Drawing Units All engineering drawings must carry a unit of measure. This is required so that the drawing size can be correctly interpreted. Since graphics have linear and angular attributes, the units of length and angles are indispensable in drafting and design. Units of Length The SI unit of length is the meter. The English or U.S customary (I-P) unit of length is the foot (ft). Table 1 shows the length denominations for SI and I-P units. SI: meter (m) 3 1 m = 1000 mm = 10 mm 2 1 m = 100 cm = 10 cm 3 1 km = 1000 m = 10 m Table 1: Units of length Customary: Inch (in)-foot (ft) 1 in = 16 lines 1 ft = 12 inches 1 in = 25.4 mm

The SI linear unit for drafting is the millimeter. Mechanical drawings are dimensioned in millimeter (mm). Architectural drawings may be dimensioned in millimeter (mm) and meters (m). Meters and kilometers (km) are used for civil dimensioning. Only decimals are used in metric dimensioning, fractions are not allowed. For numbers less than 1.0 which must be expressed as decimals, a zero before the decimal marker is preferred. For example 0.234 is preferred to .234. The period symbol is the decimal marker in this example.

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In I-P units, mechanical drawings are dimensioned in decimal inches, architectural drawings are commonly dimensioned in feet () and fractional inches and civil drawings are dimensioned in decimal feet and inches. Drawings in metric units carry a general note such as all dimensions are in millimeter, unless otherwise stated or the label METRIC. Units of Angle Angle refers to the relative orientation of lines on a plane or the relative orientation of planes in space and o is measured in degrees ( ) or radians. There are 360 degrees in a circle; 60 minutes in a degree; and 60 o seconds in a minute. The radian is the SI unit of angular measure. One radian is approximately 57.3 . However, the degree is the unit of angular measure in technical drawings.

Selected References G. R Bertoline, E. N. Wiebe, C. L. Miller and J. L. Mohler, Technical Graphics Communication, 2 WCB McGraw-Hill, 1997 Duggai, V. (2000). CADD Primer. New York: Mailmax Publishing.
nd

Edition,

C. Jensen, J. D. Helsel, and D. Short, Engineering Drawing and Design, Glencoe, 1996, 5th Ed.

R. L. Mabrey, Engineering Graphics: Principles, Standards and Models, Addison Wesley, 1998.

Madsen, D. A., Folkestad, J., Schertz, K. A., Shumaker, T. M., Stark, C., & Turpin, J. L. (2002). Engineering drawing and design (3 edition). New York: Delmar Thomson Learning. D. A. Madsen, T. M. Shumaker, J. L. Turpin, and C. Stark, Engineering Drawing and Design, Delmar, 1996, 2nd Ed.
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