The Piezoelectric Effect

Many crystals generate an electric charge when subjected to a mechanical load. All over the world, this correlation has become known as the piezoelectric effect. Piezoelectric measuring technology is the perfect tool for carrying out measurement tasks with extreme requirements in terms of geometry, temperature range and dynamics. The piezoelectric effect was discovered in 1880 by the Curie brothers. The prefix piezo comes from the Greek piezein, to press. The two physicists found that the surfaces of certain crystals become electrically charged when the crystal is mechanically loaded. This electric charge is exactly proportional to the force acting on the crystal. It is measured in pico-coulombs (pC). Charge generation Application of force to a crystal deforms the its lattice structure. For a crystal to exhibit the piezoelectric effect, this structure has to lack a center of symmetry. Synthesized quartz (SiO2) is therefore very suitable. The deformation forces its positive silicon and negative oxygen ions towards each other. The resultant shift in the center of positive and negative charge generates an electric charge on the surface of the crystal.

Orientation The orientation of the polar axes of the crystal with respect to the acting force determines the magnitude of the charge. Three different effects can accordingly be discerned:

Longitudinal Effect Shear Effect Transverse Effect

Materials The piezoelectric effect can only happen in non-conducting materials. Piezoelectric materials for sensor elements must exhibit very high mechanical strength and rigidity above all else. Other requirements include stable mechanical and electrical properties over a wide temperature range and a long service life. High sensitivity, good linearity, negligible hysteresis (that is identical rising and falling calibration curves) and high electrical insulation resistance are further advantageous characteristics. The most important materials used by Kistler for its measurement solutions are quartz, the quartz-like PiezoStar crystal and piezoceramics. Signal conditioning As electric charge is rather difficult to access experimentally, Walter P. Kistler's charge amplifier patent in 1950 represented a practical breakthrough that enabled accurate measurement despite extreme geometric, temperature range and dynamic requirements.

pC: pico-Coloumb (1pC = 10

-12

Coloumb)

Longitudinal Effect

The charge output occurs at the force contact surfaces and can be measured in this area. In the case of a longitudinal piezoelectric effect, the magnitude of the electric charge Q depends only on the force Fx applied and the dimensions of the crystal discs are immaterial. The only way to increase this charge is to connect several discs mechanically in series and electrically in parallel. If this is done, the size of the output charge is (for quartz andPiezoStar): Qx = d11 Fx n The piezoelectric coefficient d11 indicates the crystals degree of force sensitivity in the direction of the corresponding axis. The position of the crystal cut therefore determines the properties and the area of application for the quartz force link. Piezo-elements cut to produce a longitudinal effect are sensitive to compression forces and are therefore suitable for simple and sturdy sensors used to measure. Other Piezoeffects:

Shear Effect Transverse Effect

d11: piezoelectric coefficient (2.3 pC/N for quartz crystals) Fx: force in x-direction n: number of crystal discs

Shear Effect

Similar to the longitudinal effect, the piezoelectric sensitivity occurring during the shear effect is independent of the size and shape of the piezoelectric element. The charge also occurs at the piezo elements surfaces under load. In case of a load in x-direction applied to n elements connected mechanically in series and electrically in parallel, the charge is (forquartz and PiezoStar): Qy = 2 d11 Fx n Shear-sensitive piezo elements are used for sensors measuring shear forces, torque and strain. They are used for the construction of sensors, the excellent performance of which is unaffected by temperature changes. As the strain varies in the sensor structure caused by changes in the temperature act in a direction perpendicular to the sensitive shear axis. Other Piezoeffects:

Longitudinal Effect Transverse Effect

d11: piezoelectric coefficient (2.3 pC/N for quartz crystals) Fx: force in x-direction n: number of crystal discs

Transverse Effect

In the case of transversal effect, a force Fy in the direction of one of the neutral axes y produces a charge on the surfaces of the corresponding polar axis x. In contrast to the longitudinal piezoelectric effect the magnitude of this charge, which occurs on unloaded surfaces, is dependent on the geometrical dimensions of the piezoelectric element. Assuming element dimensions a and b, the charge is (forquartz and PiezoStar): Qx = d11 Fy b/a Thus, the transversal effect makes it possible to obtain a greater charge by suitable shaping and alignment of the piezoelectric elements. Elements with a transversal effect can be used for high-sensitivity pressure, strain and force sensors.

Other Piezoeffects:

Longitudinal Effect Shear Effect

d11: piezoelectric coefficient (2.3 pC/N for quartz crystals) Fy: force in y-direction b,a: dimensions of the piezoelectric element

Piezoelectric Materials

Quartz Quartz meets all of these requirements which are mentioned in the introduction and is therefore an ideal piezoelectric material. It can be produced synthetically and exhibits other qualities, which are beneficial for measurement. A synthetic quartz element, for example, can be used in temperatures of up to 400 C. Quartz can be cut in different angles to exhibit sensitivity to pressure or shear forces, depending on which of the three piezoelectric effects is to be used. The high natural frequency of the quartz element has advantages when measuring high-speed dynamic processes. Due to the minimal deflection, measurement of slow, quasistatic phenomena will only involve extremely small measuring errors.

PiezoStar PiezoStar crystals belong to the family of calcium gallogermanates quartz isotypes. Due to the same crystallographic class as quartz, it is possible to obtain the same crystal cuts (longitudinal, transversal and shear). However, unlike quartz, PiezoStar crystals do not have a phase transition point below melting point (above 1300 C) and this explains their excellent stability to extreme temperatures. They are consequently perfect for use in extremely high temperature environments like engines. Although PiezoStar crystals are also highly sensitive and can be synthesized like quartz, their loading capacity is lower and production costs higher.

Piezoceramics In addition to single-crystal piezo-elements such as quartz or PiezoStar, polycrystalline forms termed piezoceramics can exhibit piezoelectric properties. Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is the main compound of this type used for sensors. These elements can be synthesized in large quantities at low cost using the sintering process. The advantages of piezoceramics lie mainly in ease of production and high sensitivity. However, relatively poor thermal stability means they can only be used up to 250 C, and their pyroelectric effect can falsify measurement. The pyroelectric effect is due to deformation of the lattice structure of the piezoelement caused by a change in temperature. This generates an additional charge. The change in temperature can falsify measurement where an externally applied force rather temperature variation is the relevant measurand.

Charge Amplifiers

Charge amplifiers convert the charge output by a piezoelectric sensor into a proportional voltage, which is used as an input variable for analysis systems, and can be digitized in an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter if necessary. A charge amplifier basically consists of an inverting voltage amplifier with a high open-loop gain and capacitive negative feedback. It relies on a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) or a junction field effect transistor (JFET) at its input to achieve high insulation resistance and minimize leakage current. If the open-loop gain is sufficiently high, the cable and sensor capacitance can be neglected, leaving the output voltage dependent on just the charge at the charge amplifier input and the range capacitor. U0 = Q/Cr The amplifier acts as an integrator that constantly compensates the sensors electric charge with one of equal magnitude and opposite polarity of the range capacitor. The voltage across this capacitor is proportional to the charge generated by the sensor and to the acting measurand. In effect, the charge amplifier converts an electric input charge Q into a usable proportional output voltage Uo. As most Kistler charge amplifiers allow adjustment of sensor sensitivity and measuring range, the measurement is displayed in the mechanical units of the measurand and the output signal as an integer multiple of the measured variable. U0: Output voltage A: Gain Ct: Sensor capacitance Cc: Cable capacitance Cr: Range or negative feedback capacitor Rt: Time constant resistor (or insulation resistance of range capacitor) Ri: Input insulation resistance (cable and sensor) Q: electric charge generated by the piezoelectric element