Solution

1) (a) Tap changing transformer constitute the most common form of voltage control at all voltage levels. Basically, the turns ratio for the transformer may be varied over a restricted range to give compensation for the effects of voltage drop due to load. Figure 1 shows a simple single-phase schematic diagram of an off-load tap changer. The term off-load is used because the transformer must be disconnected from the load when the tap setting is to be changed. On-load tap changers are available and these follow a sequence of switching that avoids disconnection of the load.

The operation of a radial transmission system with two tap-changing transformers is as shown in Figure 2.

Here, the problem of compensating for the line-drop voltage is shared between the transformers at each end of the line, i.e. with increase in load, T1 increases its secondary voltage by coming down the tap setting positions on its primary side, whilst at the same time T2 goes up the tap setting positions on its secondary side. To ensure sharing of duty between them and an overall compensation effect that maintains the receiving-end voltage at a fixed level, the product of the tap-changing ratios is made unity. Defining ts and tr as the fractions of the nominal transformation ratios, i.e. the tap ratio/nominal ratio for the two transformers, it can be shown from formulae developed earlier for the voltage drop that the load voltage V2 is given by:

1 (b) Voltage drops in the circuits will be neglected and nominal voltages of 1 p.u. assumed. The reactive power loss in an inductive reactance is given by I2X or in per-unit terms by:

In the diagram of Q 1 (b) the parallel per-unit reactance of the 132 kV lines and the transformers between Bus 3 and the 100 MW load at Bus 5 evaluates to 0.15 p.u. The reactive loss in this 132 kV section of line is therefore:

At busbar 3,

The reactive loss in the 275 kV section of line is therefore:

The I2X loss in the generator transformer has been ignored in this example and so the generator must deliver P = 2 and Q = 0.9 + 0.481 = 1.381 p.u. Therefore, the generator will operate at a power factor of:

1 (c) Using

this is to be zero after introduction of the compensation.

Hence 13.4 MVAr of capacitive type compensation must be introduced to maintain voltage constant.

Solution 2) a) Separation Method In order to obtain optimum accuracy both are combined in the separation method. For this, two test conditions are applied: (a) short-circuit at rated current (b) rated current at zero power factor and rated voltage. The zero power factor (ZPF) load test arrangement is shown in Figure 2(a). Figure 2(b) shows the resultant phasor diagram under this wattless generation condition in which the armature reaction Fa is subtracted from the field excitation Ff to give the resultant excitation Fr. This in turn produces the induced voltage E from which the voltage drop due to leakage inductance may be subtracted to give the rated terminal voltage for the machine.

b) Figure 3 below illustrates the expected plotted relationship from such tests. The shadow point on the ZPF plot may be obtained by subtraction of the leakage reactance effect (Ixal), which is TS, and the armature reaction effect (Fa), which is SP in Figure 3. These effects may be expected to be constant over the excitation current range and so the ZPF characteristic plotted for rated current over a range of excitation currents will shadow the open-circuit machine characteristic. The point on the ZPF characteristic giving rated output voltage and current is known as the Potier point.

c) For machine A

Taking V as the reference phasor, the excitation voltage in machine A is:

Solution 3) a) Factors that raise fault level are: addition of generating plant addition of interconnecting lines.

b) Methods of reducing fault level include (a) Reducing the number of paths by sectionalising the system. Opening a circuit breaker connecting two sections of a generating station may do this. (Or substation busbar, or by opening a circuit breaker on a distribution ring main). (b) Using reactors. Reactors may be connected: (i) in series with the generators (ii) in series with the feeders (iii) between busbar sections.

Method (iii) is most commonly used. Two examples of the latter, which have enjoyed some popularity for generating station busbars, are the ring and tie bar systems. Figures a and b below show these respectively.

c) The network interconnections require several delta-to-star conversions before the problem can be reduced to a single impedance supplied from a single voltage source. Figures shows the processes

Solution 4) a)

b) (i)

(ii)

Figure A shows the transformer and protection circuit arrangement. The stabilising resistor choice determines the voltage setting for the restricted earth fault protection and this level must be set above the voltage generated across the C.T. terminals during the most severe through fault external to the protected zone of the transformer. The first task, therefore, is to find the most severe through fault level. This is a three-phase fault just outside the secondary terminals of the transformer. The source fault level is quoted as 2000 MVA and if we use a base MVA level of 30 (that of the transformer) this converts to a source reactance of:

The transformer reactance is 0.18 per-units making a total of 0.195 per-unit reactance in the fault path. This gives a per-unit fault current of:

1 per-unit current is the base current level given by:

Hence the maximum through fault current level seen by the protection is:

(iii) The C.T. s on secondary are in the ratio 1400:1 and so the C.T. current circulating around the loop formed by their connection is:

This current produces a voltage drop of 9.6125 X 2.5 = 24 V across the relay element and stabilising resistor. Selection of the 25 V setting for the protection is therefore appropriate in this situation to prevent mal-operation.

(iv) The connection of four C.T.s in parallel gives the requirement that under an internal transformer earth fault condition, one C.T. must supply four magnetising currents as well as the relay current. The relay voltage setting is 25 V, and at this voltage level the magnetising current is 25 X 8 X 1 0 4 = 0.02 A. The minimum operating current for the protection is therefore 150 + 4 X 20 = 230 mA. Reflected into the star connected transformer winding using the C.T. ratio of 1400:1 this gives a minimum detectable current of 1400 X 230 X 103 = 322 A. The fault current limiting resistance is 1 per-unit in value and a fault involving the whole of

the winding to earth would have a fault current limited to the value of the rated current of the transformer, i.e. the base current 2624.3 A. A fault current level of 322 A would be produced by a fraction of the winding 322/2624.3 =0.123 This fraction infers that the percentage of winding protected by restricted earth fault protection is: (1 0.123) X 100 = 87.7%.

Solution 5) a)

b) TWO-TRANSISTOR ANALOGY OF PNPN OPERATION

Figure (b): Variation of with Emitter Current

A simple PNPN structure can be visualised as consisting of two transistors, a PNP and an NPN, interconnected to form a regenerative feedback pair as shown in Figure (a). From the two-transistor structure of the device, the anode current Ia is given by:

where

i.e. the common base gains of transistors T1 and T2. Ig is the injected gate current and Io is the total leakage current Ico1 + Ico2 for the device. The sum 1 +2 is called the loop gain. The sum is much less than 1 under the conditions of positive anode to cathode voltage and in the absence of gate signals. This condition is one of forward blocking or a high impedance off state. The current through the device in this state is the leakage current of the device, which may vary from a few microampers to a few milliamps depending on the size and operating conditions. Figure (b) shows the variation of with emitter current for a transistor. As may be surmised, if the loop gain 1 +2 in the thyristor structure can be raised to near unity, a large anode current will flow, provided of course that the external circuit connected to the thyristor allows it. This is achieved by momentarily

injecting a gate current that flows into the base emitter circuit of T1, or gate cathode of the thyristor. This results in T2 providing a collector current into this same point that suborns the role of the injected gate current, i.e. injection of gate current results in a regenerative action in which the thyristor is brought into forward conduction, and remains in this state, provided the current flow through it is sufficient to guarantee that the loop gain remains near unity. Under this condition, the gate current may be removed and the device will remain in conduction. The minimum current that must flow through the thyristor from anode to cathode to give this condition is called latching current. c) The common base gain of T1 is the ratio of T1 collector current to emitter current, i.e.

Now Ie1 is the same current as that flowing into the anode which is 1000 A. Hence the base current flowing into T1 is:

This is the minimum level of current that must be removed from the gate of the device to ensure its turn-off.

d) The normal firing sequence in a three-phase (RYB), fully-controlled converter is 1-2-3-4-5-6-1, etc. with the device numbering as in Figure below

To cater for an incorrect supply phase sequence, and keeping the same device numbering, this firing sequence would have to be modified to: 1-6-5-4-3-2-1, etc. i.e. treat device 2 as device 6, and device 3 as device 5 in this new phase rotation sequence. It can now be seen why it is important to get the phase sequence supplied to a converter correct. Modern converters incorporate supply phase sensing, and automatically switch their firing sequence to suit, thus obviating the need to check this at the commissioning stage.

Solution 6) a)

b)

c)

d) The maximum converter output voltage is given by:

Owing to the voltage drops in the two devices on within a converter at any one period of time the maximum armature circuit voltage is slightly less at: 560.25 3 = 557.25 V (i) With a motoring operation at a motor voltage of 450 V and Ia = 100 A, the dual converter will be in the rectification mode. Let rectification mode Quadrant 1 be selected and be associated with Converter No.1. The back e.m.f., Eb, is given by:

In this condition Ud is given by:

(ii) In regeneration operation, the motor delivers power to the supply, and the polarity of the potential drop across the armature resistance and the two conducting thyristors in the equation:

it is Converter No.2 that must operate to accept the reversed armature current and power. The equation relating its output voltage to firing angle is given by: