David Novak 2

COVENANT/CHOSENNESS
Beforewediscussthepatriarchalnarratives,itwouldhelpifwehadanunderstandingof whatcovenantandchosennessmeaninrelationtothosenarratives.Thefollowingreadings hopefullywillserveasentrypointsforabroaddiscussionofthetopic.Thefirsttwoarticlesare takenfromContemporaryJewishTheology:AReader.ElliotN.DorffandLouisE.Newman, editors.OxfordUniversityPress.NewYork.1999.Citationsfortheotheressaysaretobefound withthoseessays.IchosetoleadoffwithNovakbecausevirtuallyeveryoneelsewhowrites aboutthetopicincludingintheessaysthatfollowhisquotehim.Payparticularattention, however,toRaphaelJospesessay,whichbeginsonPage22.Also,youmightwanttoread whattheEncyclopaediaJudaicahastosay.ThatarticlebeginsonPage65.
TheElectionofIsrael
DavidNovak
DavidNovakisascholarofJewishphilosophy,lawandethics.Hehasrabbinicalordination andhastrainedwithCatholicmoraltheologians.NovakadvocatesaJewishsocialethicsdrawn fromboththenaturallawtraditionandhalachah.Tothisend,heinterpretstherabbinic approachtoNoahhidelawsasausefulgroundingforcrossculturalmoralreasoning.Healso writesextensivelyonJewishChristianrelations.HisspecificnormativeclaimsinJewishethics includeacuriousmixofwhatmaybecharacterizedasliberalandrightwingpositions.Novak isaffiliatedwiththeUnionforTraditionalJudaism.Pleasenotethatthefootnotesforthisessay havebeenomitted.Anyfootnotesthatdoappeararemine.
CreationandElection
InthenarrativeofScripture,theelectionofAbraham,theprogenitorofthecovenantedpeopleof Israel,comessuddenlyandwithoutwarning.Itseemstocatchusunprepared. TheLordsaidtoAbram:Yougoawayfromyourland,fromyourbirthplace,fromyour fathershousetothelandthatIwillshowyou.Iwillmakeyouagreatnationandblessyou.I willmakeyournamegreatandyouwillbeablessing.Iwillblessthosewhoblessyouand thosewhocurseyouIwillcurse.Throughyouallthefamiliesoftheearthwillbeblessed.And AbramwentastheLordhadspokentohim.(Genesis12:14) InthiselementarytextthereseemstobenoclueastowhyGodelectsAbrahamandhisprogeny orwhyAbrahamobeysthecalltorespondtobeingelectedbyGod.UnlikeinthecaseofNoah,who iselectedtosavehumankindandtheanimalworldfromtheFloodbecauseIhaveseenthatyouare righteous(tsadik)beforeMeinthisgeneration(Genesis7:1),andwhoobviouslyrespondstoGods callbecauseofthebiologicaldriveforselfpreservation,thereisnoreasongivenhereforeither GodschoiceorAbrahamspositiveresponsetoit.AnyrighteousnessattributedtoAbrahamisseen assubsequent,notprior,toGodselectionofhim.Itisthusaresultof,notareasonfor,election.And unlikeNoah,Abrahamdoesseemtohavethealternativeofstayingwherehealreadydwells.He
EssaysonChosenness,Page1
seemstohaveareasonablealternativetoobediencetoGodscall.FromthetextofScriptureitselfit seemsasthoughAbrahamcouldhavestayedhome.Inhiscase,thereisnodestructionlikea universalfloodontheimminenthorizon. Simplyleavingthematteratthismysteriouslevel,isnotspeculationaboutthedeepermeaningof thecovenantestablishedbythiselectionanditsacceptancetherebyprecluded?InthecaseofGods reasonforelectingAbrahamandthepeopleofIsraelhisprogeny,theanswerseemstobeyes.At thatsideofthecovenant,ScriptureitselfseemstoimplyMythoughtsarenotyourthoughts(Isaiah 55:8)whenitstates, ForyouareapeopleconsecratedtotheLordyourGod;theLordyourGodchoseyoutobe untohimatreasurepeoplefromoutofallthepeoplesonthefaceoftheearth.Itwasnot becauseyouweremorenumerousthanalltheotherpeoplesthattheLorddesiredyouand choseyou,foryouaretheleastofallthepeoples.ItwasbecauseoftheLordsloveforyouand hiskeepingthepromisehemadetoyourancestors.(Deuteronomy7:68) Ofcourse,takenbyitselfthisstatementisatautologyGodlovesyou/choosesyou/desiresyou becauseGodlovesyou/choosesyou/desiresyouforthereisnoreasongivenastowhyhemadehis promisestoAbraham,andtoIsaacandJacobinthefirstplace.AndthepeopleofIsraelthemselves cannotclaimanyinherentqualitiesthatcouldbeseenasreasonsfortheirelectionbyGod. Thisisconsistentwiththelogicofcreation.InScripture,unlikeotherancientsagas,wearenot toldaboutanylifeofGodpriortocreation.Indeed,onlytheGodtowhomalltheearthismine (Exodus19:5),towhomtheheavensandthehighestheavens(Deuteronomy10:14)belong,only thisGodhassuchabsolutefreedomfromanynaturalnecessitytocreateasingularrelationshiplike thecovenantwithIsrael.Thereisnothingthatcouldbeconsideredadivineapriorifromwhichone couldinferthepossibilityofanondivineworld,muchlesstherealityofanysuchworld.AllofGods relationswiththeworldare,therefore,aposteriori.FromrevelationwelearnsomeofthethingsGod wantstodowiththeworld,mostespeciallywhatGodwantshishumancreaturestodowiththe worldalongwithhim,butwedonotlearnwhyhemadetheworldthewayhedidinthefirstplace or,indeed,whyhemadeitatall.So,too,wedonotlearnwhyGodchosethepeopleofIsraelor, indeed,whyhechoseanypeopleatall.Allwelearn,aposteriori,iswhatGodwantstodowiththis people.ThesecretthingsarefortheLordourGod;buttherevealedthingsareforusandour childrenforever:topracticeallthecommandmentsofthisTorah(Deuteronomy29:28). However,onthehumansideofthisrelationshipofelection,itisnotonlyAbrahamwhoisto respondtoelection.Electionisprimarilygenericandonlysecondarilyindividual.Abrahamiselected astheprogenitorofapeople.EverymemberofthispeopleiselectedbyGod,andeverymemberof thispeopleiscalledupontorespondtohisorhergenericelection.[Emphasisadded.]So,evenif AbrahamsindividualreasonsforacceptingGodscallcouldwellbeleftaloneashisownprivateand inscrutablebusiness,speculationabouthisgenericreasonsforacceptingitisourbusiness,aswell, inasmuchashisresponseisarchetypalforallofuswhofollowafterhim.Foracommunalresponseis apublicmatter,onewhosereasonshavetoberootedincontinuingcommonexperiencebeforethey canenterintopersonalreflection.This,then,callsforourreflectiononourownhumansituationand whatconditionsinitenableustorespondtoGodselectingpresencewithoutcaprice.Projectingour ownreflectiononthehumanconditionsforelectionbacktoAbrahamretrospectivelyisessential midrashicthinking.Withoutit,wewouldloseoursingularconnectiontothetextofScripture.It wouldbecomemerelyadatumamongotherdataratherthanthedatumforus. Ofcourse,atthemostoriginallevel,theprimereasonforobeyingGodisthatGodisGod.In
Scripture,Godsoriginalpresenceisexplicitlynormative:hisfirstcontactwithhumansintheGarden issetforthinthewords:TheLordGodcommandedthehumans(Genesis2:16).Normsarea necessityforhumanlifebecausehumansarebeingswhomustconsciouslyordertheconflictingparts oftheirexperienceiftheyaretosurviveandcohere.Thatorderingrequiresaprimarypointof authority.(Onecanonlybeamoralrelativistwhenlookingatsomeoneelseschoicesfromafar,not whenoneisrequiredtomakehisorherownchoicesathand.)Ahumanlifewithoutanordering hierarchyofauthoritycouldonlybethatofanangel:aninfalliblelifewithoutconflict.Soitfollows thatanyrejectionofGodsnormspresupposesthesubstitutionofGodsauthoritybytheauthorityof onewhoisnotGodbeingmadeintoGod.TheprimeauthoritywhereverisalwaystakentobeGod. Therecanbenonormativevacuum.ThatiswhythefirsttemptationtodisobeyGodisthe temptationthatyouwillbelikeGod(Genesis3:5).You,notGod,willbecometheprimeauthority. Withoutabsoluteauthority,thecreatorwouldnolongerbethecreator;hewouldbeforcedto abdicate,asitwere. TherelationshipwithGodthecreatoratthisoriginallevelisessentiallynegative,however.Itonly consistsofprohibitionsthatfunctionasdivinelimitationsofhumanillusionsofselfsufficiencyand autonomousauthority.Sofar,thereisnothingpositivebetweenhumansandGod.Itiswith Abrahamscallthatwebegintoseetheestablishmentofasubstantiverelationshipofhumanswith God.Andinorderforanysuchpositiverelationshiptobesustained,theremustbethediscoveryof positivereasonsbyhumanswithinthemselvesforthemtowanttoacceptandmaintainthis relationship.Thus,whereasresistancetotheidolatroustemptationtosubstitutetheauthorityof notGod(theworldorthehumanperson)forGodinvolvestheaffirmationoftruth,theresponseto thecovenantinvolvesthedesireforgood.ByobeyingGod,whatgooddidAbrahamdesire?Whatdid hisresponseintend? Thecovenantitselfmustbetheobjectofhumandesire.Thisdesireforitasgoodisanessential componentofit.Henceinpresentingthepositivecovenantalnorms,Mosesappealstothedesireof thepeopleforwhatistheirgood.TheLordcommandedustopractice[laasot,literallytodo]all thesestatutes,tofeartheLordourGod,whichisgoodforusalltimesforourvitality,asitistoday. Anditwillberight(tsedakah)forustobecarefultodothiswholecommandmentbeforetheLord ourGodashehascommandedus(Deuteronomy6:25).Andshortlybeforethispassage,eachoneof thepeopleiscommandedtolovetheLordyourGodwithallyourheart,withallyourlife,andwith allyourmight(6:5).Butcantherebeanylovewithoutdesire?Andisnotdesireexperienced, inchoatelytobesure,evenbeforeitsdesideratumcomestoit? ItseemstomethatthereasonsforAbrahamsansweringtheelectingcallofGod,andthusthe paradigmforallsubsequentJewishansweringofit,canbeseeninthepromisemadeintheinitialcall itselfthatAbrahamandhisprogenywillbethesourceofblessingforallhumankind.Accordingly, AbrahamsrelationshipwithGodiscorrelativetohisrelationshipwiththeworld.Andtheprecise presentationofthatcorrelationisfoundinAbrahamsdialoguewithGodoverthejudgmentofthe citiesofSodomandGomorrah.GodjustifiesincludingAbrahaminthisdialogueasfollows: HowcanIconcealwhatIamdoingfromAbraham?AndAbrahamshallsurelybecomea greatandimportantnation,inwhomallthenationsoftheearthshallheblessed.ForIknow him,sothathewillcommandhischildrenandhishouseholdafterhimtokeepthewayofthe
Lordtodowhatisright(tsedakah)andjust(mishpat).(Genesis18:1719)1
Thequestionnowistodeterminetheconnectionoftheblessingofthenationsoftheearthto AbrahamandhispeoplekeepingthewayoftheLordtodowhatisrightandjust. ThefirstthingtonoteisthatGodsstatementofhisknowingdoesnotseemtobeanoetic prediction.ThetextdoesnotsayIknowthat,butratherIknowhim.Abrahamisthedirectobject ofGodsknowing,andtheresultofhisbeingawareofGodsknowinghimwillbethathewillbeable tokeepthewayoftheLord.WithoutGodsknowinghimandhisbeingawareofit,Abrahamwould notbeabletorecognizethewayoftheLordandkeepit. Hereknowingisnotajudgmentofastateofaffairsdrawnfromtheobjectsofpastexperience andthenprojectingfromthemintothefuture.Thisknowingis,rather,arelationshipofdirectand intimatepersonalcontact.Itispresence.ThusintheGardenthetreeoftheknowledge(etsha daat)ofgoodandbadisasymbolforthedirectcontactwithalltheexperiencetheworldnowhas toofferandwhichthefirsthumanpairdesire.Sincetheywereabletojudgefavorablythatthefruit ofthistreeisgoodtoeatanddelightfulinappearance(Genesis3:6)evenbeforetheyateit,their judgmentprecededtheirexperienceorknowledge.Theirjudgmentisinessenceapredictionof whattheythinktheywillexperience.Thisiswhyknowledgeisusedtodesignatetheintimacyof sexualcontactAndthemanknew(yada)Evehiswifeandsheconceived(Genesis4:1)although itisnotlimitedtosexualcontact.Itissomethingthatcanbejudgeddesirablebasedononesdesire ofitinadvance,butitcanonlybeexperienceddirectlyinthepresent. InconnectionwiththeelectionofIsrael,theprophetAmosconveystoIsraelGods announcement:OnlyyouhaveIknown(raketchemyadati)ofallthefamiliesoftheearth(Amos 3:2).Now,theprophetcouldnotbesayingthatGodisunawareoftheothernationsinasmuchashe himselfhasalreadybeencalledtoprophesyaboutthembyGod.Whattheprophetissayingisthat GodsharesauniqueintimacywithIsraelthatisthebasisfortheuniqueclaimshemakesuponher. TheclaimsarebecauseGodcaresforIsrael.Sincetheseclaimsaremadeinthecontextofcovenantal intimacy,theprophetthensaysintheverynextverse.Cantwowalktogetheriftheyhavenotmet eachother(noadu)?IsraelisintimatelyknownbyGodandistoactbaseduponherintimate experienceofthatknowing.Therelationshiphereisnotanoeticrelationofasubjectandanobject. ItisthedivineIreachingouttoembraceahumanthouwhothenchoosestobesoembraced.Thus attheverybeginningofGodsregenerationofthecovenantwithIsraelinEgypt,Scripturestates: AndthechildrenofIsraelgroanedfromtheirtoilandcriedout,andtheircryreachedupto Godfromoutoftheirtoil.ThenGodtooknoticeofHiscovenantwithAbrahamandIsaacand Jacob.AndGodlookedwithfavoratthechildrenofIsraelandGodcared.(Exodus2:2325) AsforAbrahamsresponsetoGodselection,itisinitiallyaresponsetobeinginintimatecontact withGod.Thatiswhathedesires.Thatintimacyis,asweshallsoonsee,themaincharacteristicof thecovenantallifeoftheJewishpeopleinthepresent.ThosecommandmentsoftheTorahthat specificallycelebratethehistoricalsingularityofthecovenantaleventsgivethatlifeitsrich substance. WhatwemustnowseeishowtheexperienceofbeingknownbyGodleadsAbrahamandhis progenytopracticethewayoftheLord.Thatcanbebetterunderstoodifwerememberthattheact
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Analternatetranslationfortsedakahumishpatisequitableandjust.
ofelectionisfirstapromise.Thusthecovenantitselfisfoundedinapromise.ButwhydoesAbraham believethepromiseofGod?Ishisresponseanythingmorethanaleapoffaith? Intermsofthesequenceofthebiblicaltextitself,itisimportanttorememberthatthepromiseof GodtoAbrahamisnotthefirstpromiseGodhasmade.AftertheFlood,GodpromisesthatIshall upholdmycovenantwithyou...andtherewillbenofurtherdelugetodestroytheearth(Genesis 9:11).TheRabbiswereveryastuteininsistingthatunconditionaldivinepromisesaremadeasoaths. AnyoathmadebyGodcouldnotbeannulledbyGodthereafterinasmuchastheannulmentofan oathcanonlybedonebyahigherauthoritythanthatoftheonewhomadeit.Buttherecouldbeno higherauthoritythanGodtoannulit.GodmustkeepHisownword,then;ifnot,Hiscredibilitywould betotallyundermined.Moreover,theconnectionbetweenthepromisemadetoNoahandthe promisemadetoAbrahamisexplicitlymadebyDeuteroIsaiah.Forthisistomelikethewatersof Noah:justasIpromisedthatthewatersofNoahwouldneveragainpassovertheearth,sodoI promise...thatevenifthemountainsbemovedandthehillsbeshaken,mykindnessshallnotbe movedandmycovenantofpeaceshallnotbeshakensosaystheLordwholovesyou(Isaiah54:9 10).Furthermore,welearnthatGodsrelationtotheworldisthecorrelateofhisrelationshipwith Israel,andIsraelsrelationshipwiththeworldisthecorrelateofherrelationshipwithGod. Ithinkthatonecanseetheinnerconnectionofthesetwopromisesinthetermusedto characterizethewayoftheLordthatAbrahamistoteachhisprogeny:whatisrightandjust (tsedakahumishpat).Butthisrequiresthatwelookuponthetwowordsinthetermasdenotingtwo separatebutrelatedacts.Theusualinterpretationsofthemseesthemasdenotingonesingleact, namely,correctjustice,whichisthestandardwherebythedistinctionbetweentheinnocentandthe guiltyisconsistentlymaintainedinadjudication.Thisinterpretationofthetermisappropriatetothe immediatecontextofthedialoguebetweenGodandAbrahaminwhichAbrahamindicatesthat consistencyinjudgmentisthebareminimumtobeexpectedfromGod,whohaschosentobethe judgeofalltheearth(Genesis18:25).Thisinterpretationconcentratesontheethicalissuesinthe text.However,lookingattheevendeepertheologicalissuesinthetext,onecantaketsedakahas onetermandmishpatasanother.Alongtheselines,onecaninterprettsedakahasthetranscendent aspectofGodsrelationtocreationandmishpatastheimmanentaspectofit.Theelectpeople, then,aretoimitateboththetranscendentandtheimmanentaspectsofGodsrelationtotheworld. TsedakahisthetranscendentaspectofGodsrelationtocreationbecauseitissomethingtotally gracious.Godscreationoftheworldisanactofgrace;thereisnothingthatrequiredthattherebe somethingcreatedratherthannothing.AndaftertheFlood,therenewalofcreationinthecovenant withtheearthisevenmoregraciousinasmuchasGodshumancreaturesmadeinHisownimage weresoungratefulforthegiftoftheirexistenceandthatoftheworld. Godstsedakahistheultimateexplanationofthecontingencyofexistence.Assuch,itcouldonly beexpressedinapromise,whichextendsfromthepresentintothefuture.Forthepastbyitself neverguaranteesanycontinuityorpermanence.Itsimmanentorderisitselfcontingent.So,tousea currentmetaphor,relianceonthisorderinitselfmightbenothingmorethanarrangingdeckchairs ontheTitanic.Butaprimarypromiseinandofitselfhasnoantecedents;indeed,ifitdid,itwould betheprocessofmakinganinferenceandthenapredictionbaseduponthatinference.Itwould, then,designatearelationwithintheworldalreadythere.Aprimarypromise,conversely,isinfinitely moreradical,infinitelymoreoriginating.Accordingly,itcouldnotcomefromtheworlditself,whose realexistence(ratherthanitsabstractBeing)isnomorenecessarythanreal,mortal,human existence.ItcouldonlycomefromtheOnewhotranscendsboththeworldandhumankind.
Yetdespiteitsultimatecontingency,worldlyexistencehasstructureandcontinuity.Theprimal eventofcreationfoundsexistenceasanorderlyprocess.Thatisbecausethedivinepromiseisitself covenantal.Thestructureandcontinuityofexistence,itsessentialcharacter,iswhatismeantby mishpat.Itisthroughmishpatthatexistencecoheres.Minimally,thatcoherenceisseeninthe principleofcontradiction,bywhichthingsmaintaintheirdistinctidentitiesinrelationtoeachother. AbrahamschallengetoGodthatthejudgemustactjustlyandconsistentlydistinguishbetweenthe innocentandtheguiltyisthebiblicalpresentationofthisbasicprincipleofallreason.Mishpat,then, isthestandardwherebytheboundariesbetweenthingsandbetweenactsaremaintained.Mishpat isviolatedwhenthoseboundariesarenotrespected.Thatiswhymishpatisbasicallynegative.It functionsasalimit.Indeed,itisnotinappropriateheretouseSpinozasformula:determinatio negatioest2.Mishpatisthatfundamentaldeterminatiothatmakesanorderedapproachto existencepossible.Nevertheless,mishpat,preciselybecauseitisessentiallynegative,cannever guaranteethefacticity3ofexistence;italwayspresupposesthatexistenceisbeingmaintainedby Godstsedakah.Expressionsofmishpatarealwaysultimatelyconditional,namely,ifthereisaworld, thenitmusthavecertainstructurestocohere.AsJeremiahputsit,WithoutMycovenantbyday andbynight,Iwouldnothaveputthelaws(chukot)ofheavenandearthinplace(Jeremiah33:25). Essenceinbiblicaltheologyfollowsfromexistence,butexistenceisneverderivedfromessence. Thatiswhytruth(emet)isGodsfaithfulnessbeforeitisexternalcorrespondenceandbeforeitis innercoherence.TruthisfirstGodsfaithfulpromisethatcreatedexistencewillabide.Hemakes heavenandearth,theseaandallthatisinthem,keepingfaithforever(Psalms146:6).Onlywhen natureisYourfaithfulseasons(Isaiah33:6)canitfunctionasastandardtowhichhumanjudgment cantrulycorrespond.Andhumanjudgmentandactioncanonlycoherefully,canonlydojustlyand seekfidelity(Jeremiah5:1)whenitisawareofthecoherenceofcosmicmishpat.Thatcomplete awarenessonlycomeswhentheTorahfunctionsasthetruewitness(Proverbs14:25)ofcreation anditsorderinbothnatureandhistory. TheworlduntilthetimeofAbrahamwascertainlyawareofcosmicmishpatandthenecessityto practiceitinsociety.ThusaftertheFloodandthereconstructionofhumanlifeonearth,thebasic morallawprohibitingbloodshedandestablishingitscommensuratepunishmentonewhosheds humanbloodshallhavehisbloodshedbyhumans(Genesis9:6)isdirectlyprecededbythe affirmationofthecosmicorder:Foraslongastheearthendures,therewillbeseedtimeand harvest,coldandheat,summerandwinter,dayandnight,theyshallnotcease(Genesis8:22).That cosmicorder,inwhichboththehumanandthenonhumanparticipate,isitsmishpat.ThusJeremiah employsananalogybetweenhumanandnonhumanmishpattomakethefollowingpoint:Eventhe storkintheskyknowsherseasons,andtheturtledove,theswift,andthecranekeepthetimeof theircoming;butmypeopledonotknowthelaw(mishpat)oftheLord(Jeremiah8:7).Clearly,the seasonsofthestorkandtheregularcyclesoftheotherbirdsaretheirmishpat. Mishpat,however,isknownonlyasanegative,limitingforce.Becauseofthat,theviolationofitis consideredadenialofthefearofGod,whichisineffectrestraintbeforethehighestauthority,the
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Itmeansdeterminationisanegation. Yes,itisaword.Itmeansthequalityorconditionofbeingfact.Sorry,buthehastoomanydegreestosimply usethewordfact.

epitomeofmishpat,thepinnacleofcosmicjustice.ThuswhenAbrahamassumesthatthereisno respectfortheboundariesofthemaritalrelationinthePhilistinecityofGerar,specificallyassuming thathiswifeSarahwillbeabductedintotheharemofthecitysrulerAbimelech,hejustifieshislying aboutSarahbeinghiswifebysaying,surelythereisnofearofGodinthisplace(Genesis20:11).In otherwords,thereisnomishpatthere.31 Whatisnotrecognized,though,untilthetimeofAbraham,istherealitywhoisthesourceofthis cosmicorder,thismishpat,therealitywhocreatedandsustainsthecosmosinwhichmishpatistobe operativeasitsnorm.Butthephilosophicalquestionstobeaskednoware:Whatdifferencedoesit makewhetherweknowordonotknowthesourceofthiscosmicorder?Indeed,whydoesithaveto haveasourceatalltobeappreciatedtheoreticallyandimplementedpracticallybyus?And, furthermore,whydoesthissourcehavetorevealHispresencetoAbraham,whichissimultaneously anactofelection,asbiblicalrevelationalwaysis?Andifthereissuchacosmicsource,whycantthis sourcebediscoveredbyratiocination,whichisuniversalinprinciple? Onlywhenthecosmicorderisperceivedbythosewhosufferenoughphilosophicalunrestcanthe mostbasicexistentialquestionbeaskedauthentically:Whatismyplaceintheworld?Thatquestion liesattheheartofAbrahamsdesireforGodspresence. Thisquestionarisesfromourexperienceofthephenomenalorderofthingsweimmediatelyand regularlyexperiencearoundusthroughourbodilysenses.Whatwesoonlearnfromthisorderisour ownmortalvulnerability,oursuperfluityintheworld.Whenweeatofthetreeofknowledgeof goodandbad(Genesis2:17)whichistheacquisitionofworldlyexperiencewesimultaneously discovertheimminenceofourowndeath.Dustyouareandtodustyoushallreturn(Genesis 3:19).Allisfutile.Whatadvantageisthereformaninallhisaccomplishmentsunderthesun?One generationgoesandanothercomesandtheearthremainsthesameforever(Ecclesiastes1:24). Therefore,throughouthumanhistory,perceptivepersonshavebecomeawarethattheirplaceisnot immanentlyavailableasananimallikeinstinct.Asaresultofthisexistentialpredicament,the transcendentdesirethatgoesbeyondimmanentneedarises. Thefirstpossibilityisforustodiscernwiththeintellectahighernoumenal4orderundergirdingthe phenomenalorderinitiallyperceivedbythesenses.Ourmotivationistosubordinateourselvesto thisorder.Italoneoffersusatranscendentendforourparticipation.Thisistheattitudeofscientific (understoodasscientiaorWissenschaft,thatis)homospectator.Thesecondpossibilityisforusto despairofeverfindingthehighernoumenalorderoutthereandthustolookwithinourhuman selvesforanorderofourowndevicewithwhichtouseandcontrolasmuchoftheworldaswecan. Thisistheattitudeoftechnologicalhomofaber.Thethirdpossibilityisforustocryoutforthe personwhostandsbehindthiscosmicordertorevealhimselftous;sincethepresenceofpersons canneverbeinferredfromsomethingnonpersonal,itmustalwaysbeselfrevelation.Thisisthe attitudeofhomorevelationis,thepersonoffaith.FortheBible,Abrahamisthefirsthomo revelationis. InthebiblicalnarrativeprecedingtheemergenceofAbraham,wefindhintsofboththefirstand thesecondpossibilitiesandtheirattendanthumanattitudes.Andbothareseenasbeinginessence
4
ThisisatermthatcomesfromKant(sorryaboutthat);itmeansathingasitreallyis,ratherthanasitappears tobe.
idolatry. Asforthefirstpossibility,ScripturenotesthatduringthetimeofEnosh,thegrandsonofthefirst couple,thenameoftheLordbegan(,huchal)tobeinvoked(Genesis4:26).Rabbinic interpretationnotesthatthewordforbeginisetymologicallysimilartothewordforprofane (,chol).ThusitseesthetimeofEnoshasthebeginningofidolatry,nottheworshipofthetrue God.Thequestionhereis:Ifthisinterpretationisaccepted,whatdidtheidolatryconsistof? Maimonides,inintroducinghiscomprehensivetreatmentofthespecificsofJewishtradition concerningidolatry,speculatesthatatthistimehumanbeingsweresoimpressedwithwhatthey perceived,namely,thecosmicorder,thehighestmanifestationofwhichistheastronomicorder, thattheyforgotwhosoorderedit.Theirworship,then,wastransferredfromthecreatortohismost impressivecreations.Inanearlierdiscussionoftheessenceofidolatry,Maimonidesspeculatesthat theworshipofthecosmicorderitselfinevitablyleadstoasituationwheresomepeopleunderstand thisordermuchbetterthanothersbyvirtueoftheirgreaterpowersofdiscovery.Assuch,they translatetheirnoeticpowerintopoliticalpowerbyconvincingthemassesthattheyshouldbegiven absoluteauthority,beingtheeffectiveconduitsofthatcosmicpower.Theyalonecanchannelitfor thepublicweal.Herewehavetheruleofthephilosophicalguardian.InMaimonidesreadingof Scripture,tyrannyisthepracticalresultoftheoreticalidolatry. Asforthesecondpossibility,Scriptureismoreexplicit.DuringthetimeoftheTowerofBabel, humankinddespairedofeverdiscoveringthecosmicorder,muchlessmakingpeacewithitinorder tolivewithinitslimits.Thecosmicorderisnowtheenemytobeconqueredbytechnologicalmeans. Andeachmansaidtohisneighbor,comeletusmakebricksandfiretheminakiln...;comeletus buildforourselvesacity,andatowerwithitsheadintoheaven,andwewillmakeanamefor ourselves,lestwebescatteredoverthefaceofalltheearth(Genesis11:34).Inresponsetoall this,theLordsays,thistheyhavebeguntodo,andnownothingtheyareplottingtodowillbe withheldfromthem(Genesis11:6).Animportantthingtonotehereisthatinthepreceding passage,dealingwithwhatwemightinmoderntermscallheteronomous5idolatry,thename soughtisstillsomethingexternaltohumansthemselves.Here,however,dealingwithwhatwemight inmoderntermscallautonomousidolatry,thenamesoughtisoneofhumanmaking. Theconnectionbetweenthisidolatryandpoliticaltyrannyisevenmoreobvious.Herewehavethe ruleofthetechnocrat.Heretheexerciseofpowerbecomesanendinitself.Thereisnolongereven thepretenseofahigherjustificationandpurposefortheexerciseofhumanpower.Thusinrabbinic interpretation,NimrodisthetruefounderofShinar,theplacewheretheTowerofBabelwasbuilt. AboutNimroditissaid,Hebegantobeamightymanonearth.Hewasamightywarrior6beforethe Lord(Genesis10:89).Andinrabbinictradition,AbrahamsquestforGodquicklychallengedthe tyrannyofNimrodandwastakenasamortalthreatbyNimrod. Asforthethirdpossibility,whichisthecryforthepersonbehindthecosmicordertoreveal himself,weonlyhaveourspeculationthatGodscalltoAbrahamisintrutharesponsetoan existentialquestion.Andthereisalongtraditionofspeculationaboutjustwhatthisquestionis.In thistradition,Abrahambeginshiscareerasaphilosopher.Theerror,however,ofmanyinthis
5 6
Meaningsubjecttoalaworstandardexternaltoitself. Ormightyhunter,whichwouldseemthebettertranslation.
traditionwastoassumethatAbrahamfoundGodthroughwhatiscalledtheargumentfrom design,namely,thattheperceptionoforderleadsonetoconcludethatthereisanordererwho broughtitabout.Butasmanyphilosophershaveargued,nosuchconclusionisnecessary.Onecan taketheorderitselfasultimate.Andifthereissuchanorderer,thenthemostonecanrationally concludeisthattheordererandtheorderareessentiallyidentical,andthattheorderercannotbe understoodastranscendinghisorderinanyway,asinSpinozasviewofGodascausasui,aswehave alreadyseen.Inotherwords,theordererneednotbetakenasaperson,thatis,oneconsciously engagedintransitiveacts,letalonemutualrelationships. AbrahamscryfortheMasteroftheUniversetorevealHimself,tofollowthespeculationofawell knownmidrash,isnotanexerciseininferentialthinking.WithouttherevelationwherebyGod personallyelectshimthroughapromiseandestablishesaperpetualcovenantwithhimandhis progeny,withoutthat,Abrahamscrywouldhavebeentheepitomeoffutility,anunheardcryinthe dark,adangerousgamble,anexerciseinwishfulthinking.ThefreechoiceofGod,Hislibertytobe whenHewillbe,whereHewillbe,withwhomHewillbe,cannotinanywaybethenecessary conclusionbyanyinferencewhatsoever.ThemostAbrahamoranyhumanpersoncandoisto preparehimselforherselfforthepossibilityofrevelation,toclearthegroundforGod,butwithout anyimmanentassurancethatGodwillevercome. Onecanspeculate,fromphilosophicalreflectiononthehumanconditionitself,thatAbraham couldnotacceptthefirstandsecondapproachestothecosmos(thatofhomospectatorandthatof homofaber)becauseneitherofthemcouldestablishthecosmosastheauthenticdwellingplacefor humans.Abrahamthebedouinislookingforhishome. Toregardorderitselfasultimate,asdoeshomospectator,istoregardhumansassoulsfrom anotherworld,soulswhosetaskistoescapeandbecomelikeGod.Andinthisview,Godiseternal andimmutableBeing.ButthereisnorelationshipwithBeing;thereisnomutualitybetweenBeing andanythinglessthanitself.ThereisonlyarelationtoBeing.GoddwellswithHimselfalone.Thatis whyinthisviewofthings,thehighestachievementofhumansistoreachthelevelwheretheycan onlysilentlygazeonthatwhichiseternal.Thephilosopher,likeGod,isultimatelybeyondhuman communityandbeyondtheworld.Andtoregardthecosmicorderasmerepotential,aresourcefor itsownuse,asdoeshomofaber,somethingtobeultimatelyoutsmarted,istoregardthecosmosas ultimatelydisposable.Allbeingisengulfedbyhumantechn.7Thereis,then,noauthenticbeingat homeintheworld.Oneisinconstantstruggleagainsttheworld.Humansdwellwithandamong themselvesalone,butthatbringsthemnorest.Forthestruggleagainsttheworldisextendedinto theirstrugglewitheachotherformastery.Forhomofaber,thereisnotenoughtrustofeitherthe worldoronesfellowhumansforhimtobeabletoenjoythevulnerabilityofaSabbath. OnlyanauthenticrelationshipwiththecreatorGodwhomadebothworldandhumankindenables humanstoaccepttheworldastheirdwellingplace.Withoutthat,theworldbecomeseitherour prisonthatwearetoescapefrom,orourprisonagainstwhosewallswebattle,strivingtotearthem down.ForsosaystheLord,theCreatorofHeaven,HeistheGodwhoformedtheearth,whomade itandestablishedit,whodidnotcreateittobeavoid(tohu),butwhoformedittobeadwelling(la
7
Greekwordoftendefinedascraftorart,butinthewonderfulworldofphilosophymeansthesetof principles,orrationalmethod,involvedintheproductionofanobjectortheaccomplishmentofanend.
shevet8)(Isaiah45:18).Godbringsthelonelyhomeward(Psalms68:7).Alltruedwellinginisa dwellingwithmorethanourselves.Butitisonlythecasewhenwepreparetheworldfromour singularplaceforGodsdescentintotheworldtodwellwithusthereinincovenantalintimacy.They shallmakeforMeaholyplaceandIshalldwellintheirmidst(Exodus25:8).SurelytheLordishere inthisplace.ItwillbethehouseofGod(Genesis28:16,22). Herethepropensityfortyrannywenoticedinthefirstandsecondhumanapproachestothe cosmos(thatofscientifichomospectatorandthatoftechnologicalhomofaber)isless.Forhereis whereeveryoneinthecovenantistobedirectlyandequallyrelatedtoGod.Eventhequintessential modernapostatefromJudaism,BaruchSpinoza,wasimpressedbythispoliticalaspectofthe covenant,aswesawearlier.Hereiswheretheprophetcansay,Owereitsothatallthepeopleof theLordwouldbeprophets,thattheLordwouldplacehisspirituponthem(Numbers11:29). Thinkingalongtheselines,onecanseewhyScripturerequiresthepeopleofIsrael,whentheyare athomeinthelandofIsraelandsatiatedwithanabundantharvest,toremembertheirbedouin originsbydeclaringaboutAbraham(andperhapstheotherpatriarchstoo):awanderingAramaean wasmyfather(Deuteronomy26:5).Indeed,eveninthelandofIsrael,whichisatthesametimeas Abrahamselectionitselfelectedtobethehomeland,thedwellingplaceofhispeople,thispeopleis remindedinScripturethatthelandisMine,thatyouaresojourningtenantswithMe(Leviticus 25:23).Indeed,thepurposeofahomeistobethelocationforpersonstocoexist,aplacefor authenticmitsein9.Itisnotapartofthemandtheyarenotpartsofit,asisthecasewiththefirsttwo attitudeswehavedetectedabove.AlthoughGoddwellswiththepeopleofIsraelwhereverthey happentobe,themostcompletedwellingtogetherofGodandhispeopleisonlyinthelandof Israel.Therestoftheearthiscreated;thelandofIsraellikethepeopleofIsraeliselectedinhistory. Itisselectedfromamongmultiplepossibilities. Onthebasisofthistheology,timeandspacearetobeconstitutedasabstractionsfromeventand place.TimeisorderedbytheeventsinwhichIsraeliselectedandthecovenantwithhergivenits content.Theseeventsaretheprimepointoftemporalreference;theyarenotintime,butalltimeis relatedtothem.AsScriptureputsitinthefirstcreationnarrativeitself:AndGodsaid,lettherebe lightintheexpanseoftheskytodividebetweendayandnight,andtobeforsignsandseasons,for daysandforyears(Genesis1:14).AndspaceisorderedbyitsrelationtothelandofIsrael.Itisthe axismundi,theprimepointofspatialreference.Itisnotinspace,butallspaceisrelatedtoit.As ScriptureputsitjustbeforethepeopleofIsraelenteredthelandofIsrael:WhentheMostHigh gavenationstheirhomesandsetthedivisionsofman,Hefixedtheboundariesofpeoplesinrelation tothenumbersofthechildrenofIsrael(Deuteronomy32:8). GettingbackagaintoAbrahamskeepingofthewayoftheLordtodowhatisright(tsedakah)
Therootwordshev()inthebiblicallexiconalwaysconnotespermanentresidence,whereasgur() denotestemporaryresidence.ThiswillcomeupoftenintheGenesischaptersthatfollow. Dontbotherlookingitup;mostdictionariesdontlistit.ItsaGermanword(alsofoundinYiddish),which meansbewith(mitzein).Itsusedinphilosophy,especiallywhendiscussingtheworkofMartinHeidegger, whofirstcoineditforsuchuse.

andjust(umishpat),10wearenowinabetterpositiontodiscernthereasonforhisandour acceptanceofGodselection.ItmustbeimmediatelyrecalledthatAbrahamsconcernwithtsedakah umishpatisinconnectionwiththenationsoftheworldwhicharetobeblessedthroughhim. Indeed,hisconcernhereisthatjusticebedonetothepeopleofSodomandGomorrah,whom ScriptureshortlybeforedescribedasexceedinglywickedsinnersagainsttheLord(Genesis13:13). Abrahamisconcernedthatjusticebedonetothesepeopleasthedueprocessoflawthateventhey deserve,whetherthefinalverdictbeguiltorinnocence.Hisresponsetohisbeingknownandchosen byGodistowanttoimitateinmicrocosmthewayGodrelatestothewholeworldinmacrocosm. BothGodandAbrahamarenowconcernedwiththeearthandespeciallywithallthepeoplesinit. ThusAbrahamsconcernisthatmishpatbedone.Thatinitselfisanactofjustice;heactsastheir defenseattorneyseekingsomemeritinthem.Andtheveryfactthatheinvolveshimselfintheir case,whenheowesthemnothing,isanactoftsedakah.KnowingthatheisknownbyGod,Abraham isnowinapositiontoacttrulyasimitatorDei.HisbeingknownbyGodisnotonlysomethinghe enjoysandcancelebrate;itissomethinghecanacton. Ashomorevelationis,AbrahamdesirestodwellwithGodinandfortheworld.Conversely,the desireofhomospectatorisforabsorptionintoGodoutsidetheworld;andthedesireofhomofaber istobeGodagainsttheworld.OnlytherightrelationshipwithGodfoundsonesrightfulplaceinthe world.Andonlytheacceptanceofonesrightfulhumanplaceintheworldpreventsonefrom intendingeitherabsorptionintoGodorthereplacementofGod. Finally,inthecovenant,therelationofexistentialtsedakahandessentialmishpatisnotonlyone oforiginatingeventandsubsequentprocess.Sometimes,tsedakahissubsequenttomishpatandnot justtheoriginbehindit.Mishpatsworldisneversotightlyconstructedthattsedakahcannoton occasionintrudeintoit.Indeed,thecontingencyofcreatedexistencewouldbeeclipsedifevenGods mishpatweretobetakenasanimpermeabletotalorder,asasystemperfectinitself.Therealways remainsthepossibilityofmiracle.Tsedakahcanbedirectlyexperiencedatraretimesinhistory/ nature(time/space).Foramiracleistheunpredictableexceptiontoordinary,normalorder,anditis beneficialtothoseforwhomitisperformed.Infact,outsidethesingularexperienceofthefaithful, illuminatedbyrevelation,amiraclecansoonbeexplainedbymoremundanecategories.Thusthe splittingoftheRedSeaforIsraelwasseenbythemasthegreathand(Exodus14:31)oftheLord. ButprecludingthepresenceofGod,onecouldseetheactasthatofastrongeastwind(Exodus 14:21).IsraelsredemptionfromEgyptianslaveryilluminedbyrevelationisbecausetheLordtook usoutofEgyptwithamightyhand(Deuteronomy26:8).ButprecludingthepresenceofGod,one couldseeitasanescapebyfugitives:ItwastoldtothekingofEgyptthatthepeoplehadescaped (Exodus14:5). TheelectionofIsraelisassumedtobethegreatestintrusionofdivinetsedakahintotheusual orderofnatureandhistory. Youhavebuttoinquireaboutbygoneagesthatcamebeforeyou,eversinceGodcreated humansonearth,fromoneendoftheheavenstotheother:hasanythingasgreatasthisever existedorhasiteverbeenheardof?HasanypeopleeverheardthevoiceofGodspeakingout offire,asyouhaveandarestillalive?OrhasGodeversomiraculouslycometotakefor
10
Tellthetruth,folks;eitheryouthoughtthatheforgotwhathisactualpointwasforthisessay,oryouforgot. Forme,itwasboth.
Himselfonepeopleoutofanother?(Deuteronomy4:3234)
Thisnotionofintrusivetsedakahmiraculousgracebecamethebackgroundforexplaininghow Godcanmercifullycanceltheinevitableconsequencesofsinbyforgivenessandatonement.Forthe Rabbis,theworldcouldnotbesustainedifstrictjustice(mishpatasdin)werealwaysmaintained consistentlybyGod.Andthecovenantalcommunitycouldnotbesustainedwithoutperiodic infusionsofgracebythoseinlegalauthority,attimesrulingdeeperthanthelimitofthelaw(lifnim mshurathadin).11Thetheologicalimportofallofthisisenormous. Also,intermsofourphilosophicalretrievalofthebiblicaldoctrineofelection,nophilosophical reflectioncanignoretheoutlookandfindingsofitscontemporaryscience.Atthisjunctureinhistory, theoutlookandfindingsofQuantumTheorycanbehelpful.Forunlikeearliermodernscience,where atotallyinterconnecteduniversalcausalmodelwasrequired,QuantumTheoryonlyrequiresa statisticalmodel.Herephenomenaingeneral,butnoteachphenomenon,haveacausalexplanation. Furthermore,heretheintrinsicroleplayedbyscientificobserversthemselvesmakesthetotal abstractionofscientificobjectsimpossible.ThusQuantumTheoryconstitutesaphysicaluniversein whichtheunusualandthesubjectivearenotprecludedinprinciple.Anditistheunusualdatumplus theintegralroleoftheoneforwhomitisperformedthatistheontologicalsinequanonfora philosophicalacceptanceofthepossibilityofmiracles.ItisnotthatQuantumTheoryprovesany miracleorevenengenderstheconceptofmiracleatall.Whatitdoesforus,however,istopresenta naturalsciencethatdoesnotcontradictwhatrevelationteachesaboutmiracles.Thatisenoughfor ourtheology.
11
Thishalachicprinciple(whichliterallymeanswithinthelineofthelaw)allowsdecisorsandjudgestomake decisionsoutsidetheletterofthelaw,honoringintentratherthanliteralness.
TheBodyofFaith
MichaelWyschogrod
MichaelWyschogrodtheBerlinborn,Brooklynbred,YUColumbiaCityCollegeeducated retiredUniversityofHoustonphilosophyprofessorhasspentalifetimedevelopinga comprehensivereligiousphilosophy,heavilyinfluencedbythephilosophyofSrenKierkegaard. HeisbestknownforhisbookTheBodyofFaith,acomprehensiveinterpretationofJudaismin whichthefollowingessayoriginallyappeared.Wyschogrodsthesisiseasilysummedup:Gods loveforthepeopleIsraelisfreeandirrevocable,andthroughIsrael,Hisloveextendstothe worldasawhole.
LoveandElection
WhydoesGodproceedbymeansofelection,thechoosingofonepeopleamongthe nationsashispeople? Whyishenotthefatherofallnations,callingthemtohisobedienceandofferinghislove toman,whomhecreatedinhisimage? Morefundamentally,whymusttheconceptofnationintrudeitselfintotherelation betweenGodandman? DoesnotGodaddresseachindividualhumanbeingashestandsalonebeforeGod?
Becausethosequestionsaresofundamental,wemustanswerthemwithcaution.Wemustavoid ananswerthatdoestoomuch.AnyanswerthatwoulddemonstratethatwhatGoddidwastheonly thinghecouldhavedoneorthatitwastherightthingtodowouldbetoomuchofananswer.God mustnotbesubjecttonecessityortoagoodnotofhisownmaking.Heissovereignandhisown master,andmustnotbejudgedbystandardsexternaltohim. Muchofreligiousapologymisunderstandsthisfundamentalpointandthereforedefeatsitselfjust asitsucceedsbecauseitlimitsGodssovereigntyasitprovesthathecouldnothavedoneanything otherthanwhathedidor,moreusually,thatwhathedidmeasuresuptothehigheststandardsof morality.HavingthussucceededinprovidingthebestpossiblereasonsforGodsactions,the apologistdoesnotrealizethathehassubjectedGodtojudgmentbycriteriaotherthanhisfreeand sovereignwillandthat,howevermuchhehasjustifiedGodsactions,hehasinfringedhissovereignty andisthereforenolongertalkingofthebiblicalGod. Wemustavoidthissortofjustificationatallcostandthereforebeginouranswertothequestions posedbynotingthatGodchosetherouteofelection,andoftheelectionofabiologicalinsteadofan ideologicalpeople,becausethiswashisfreechoice.Hecouldhaveactedotherwise.Hecouldhave dispensedcompletelywithelection,orhecouldhaveconstitutedtheelectedgroupinsomeother way,andhadhedoneso,wewouldhavepraisedthosechoicesaswenowpraisethese. RarelyhasanytheologycometogripswiththecontingencythatfollowsfromGodsfreedom. ChristiantheologyhasrarelyconcededthatGodcouldhavedecidedtosaveallmenwithoutthe needforanincarnation,crucifixionandresurrection.ThevastpreponderanceofChristianthought makesitseemthatgivenmansfall,onlythesacrificeofGodsonlybegottensoncouldhaveserved asatonementformanssin.TheChristianfaithoughttocontendthatthewayoftheincarnationwas thewaychosenbyGod,thoughhecouldhavechosenanother.Correspondingly,wewillassertthe
sameoftheelectionofIsrael,dispensingwithallclaimsofnecessityorthatthiswasthebest possiblecourseforGodtotake. Havingsaidthismuch,wemustalsopermitthepraiseofGod.Thereishardlyanyliteraryactivity moreprevalentintheBiblethanthepraiseofGod.TheBibleisfirstandforemostthewordofGod, inwhichmanistoldwhatGodwantshimtoknow.ButtheBibleisalsothewordofmanasman respondstothewordofGod.Thisresponsetakesanumberofforms.Thereisthedirectresponseof those,likeAbraham,Moses,andothers,whomtheBiblereportsasbeingaddressedbyGodand whoseresponsesarereportedaspartofthedialogue.ThereisthebiblicalWisdomliteraturemost prominentinProverbs,which,inasense,istheformthatmostcloselyresemblesphilosophybecause itseemstoconsistoftheinsightsofhumanexperiencedistilledoverthecenturies.Thereisalsothe praiseofGodthatwefindinPsalmsaswellasmanyotherplacesintheBible. ThehumanencounterwithGodthatisexpressedinpraiseistheoneresponsemostdifficultfor modernman,andparticularlyforthecontemporaryJew,tounderstand.ForpostAuschwitzJewry,it isthevoiceofAbrahamcontestingthejusticeofthedivinedecreeagainstthecorruptcitiesofman thatspeaksmostrecognizablyofthehumancondition.Therehascreptintoourconsciousnessa profoundangeratGod,andthisangerissharedbyallJews,eventhosewhowillnotpermitthis angertobecomeconscious. YetwemustrecognizethattherewasatimewhenmeningeneralandJewsinparticularwere overwhelmedbyadeepemotionofgratitudeforthewonderfulfavorsbestowedbyGod.InPsalms, thisisrootedinDavidsunshakablefaithinhiselectionandthedivineprotectionthatinsured triumphoverthosewishingGodsanointedill.PraiseofGodisthusrootedingratitudeandwonder atthecomplexitiesandbeautyofcreation. MostimportantforourpurposeistherecognitionthatpraisedoesnotinvolvemeasuringGods creationandconductbyexternalstandardsanddeclaringthemgoodbecausetheyliveuptothose standards.PraiseisanactofgratitudethatistotallyfocusedonGodtowhomwearegrateful. Gratituderisesinthehumansoulwhenanactofloveisbestowedthatisfeltnottobedeserved.Itis difficulttobegratefulforwhatisowedone.When,however,manisdealtwithkindlywithout deservingit,itisnaturalforhimtobegrateful.Ingratitude,thereisafeelingoflovingdependence ontheotherbecausegratitudemakesitnecessaryformantofeelhisvulnerability,intheabsenceof whichhewouldnotneedthefavorthathasbeenbestowedonhim.Israelmustthereforepraise God.ThiswillnotjustifyGodselectionofIsrael,butitwillenableustoexpressourwonderand gratitudefortheelectionofIsrael. Allthis[is]preliminarytoourdiscussionofelection,whichwewillnotjustifybutwhichwemight cometounderstandsomewhatfromthestandpointofpraise.Thequestionweaskedwas,Whydoes Godproceedbyelectionratherthanbybeingtheimpartialfatherofallpeoples?Behindthese questionslurksthepainofexclusion.IfGodelectsoneindividualorgroup,thereissomeoneelse whomhedoesnotelectandthatotherislefttosufferhisexclusion.Withexclusioncomesenvyof theoneelectedandanger,perhapsevenhatred,oftheonewhohasdonetheexclusion.Davidslove forGodreachesgreatpeaksbecauseheissodeeplygratefulforhiselection,butthemodernreader findsitdifficultnottohavesomesympathyforhisenemies,whosedownfallissocertainbecause theyhavenotbeenchosenandhavedaredtoconspireagainsttheelectofGod.Webegintofeelthe painofexclusionandaskwhyitwasnecessaryforpaintobecausedbylove.Woulditnothavebeen betterforGodnottohavefavoredIsrael,soasnottohurttheotherpeoplesoftheworld?
Thisleadsustothinkaboutthewonderoflove.Westernmanhas,aswehaveseen,distinguished betweenerosandagape1.Erosissensuallove,theloveofmanforwoman,wherejealousyisa possibility.Inerostheotherisameanstowardthepleasureoftheself,sothaterosisreallyselflove. Agapeistheloveofparentforchild.Sometimesthisloveisdistortedwherechildrenaremadeinto appendagesoftheparentsandusedforselfgratification.Trueagapedemandsnothinginreturn becauseitisalovetrulydirectedtotheother,tohiswelfareandprosperity,towhatisgoodforhim ratherthanthepleasureoftheonewholoves.Agapeisthuscharityinthepurestsensebutwithout condescensionandanysenseofsuperiority.TheloveoftheGreekworld,ithasfurtherbeensaid,is eros,whilethatoftheJudeoChristian,agape.Thequestionwehaveposedisthusaquestionabout agape.Godsloveformanissurelyagaperatherthaneros.How,then,canitexclude?Doesaparent wholovesonechildexcludeanother?Isnotequalloveofallchildrentheessenceofparentallove? Thereissomethingwrongaboutthedistinctionbetweenerosandagape.Itresemblesthe distinctionbetweenbodyandsoul.Erosseemstobeabodilyloveandagapeloveofandbythesoul. Suchadistinctionwouldbevalidifthedistinctionbetweenbodyandsoulwere.Butinthebiblical view,bodyandsoulareaspectsoftheonebeingthatGodcreatedinhisimage.Humanlove, correspondingly,mustnotbebifurcatedintotheagapeerosmoldoranysimilarscheme.Thereisno doubtthatthereareimperfectexamplesofhumanlove,asthereareimperfecthumanbeings.Butit issimplynottruethatloveascharityappliesequallytoallandmakesnodistinctionsastoperson. Thiswouldbeconceivableifcharitablelovewereprimarilyanemotionwithinthepersonwholoves, withtherecipientofthelovebeingadimimageattheperipheryofconsciousnessservingasan occasionfortheactivationoflove. Ifthiswerethecase,wewouldbedealingwithanIItrelationshipinBuberssense,hardlythe modeloftrueloveincharity.LovethatisintherealmoftheIThouisdirectedtowardtheotherwho isencounteredinhisbeingandonwhomwedonotimposeourpreconceptions.Undifferentiated love,lovethatisdispensedequallytoall,mustbelovethatdoesnotmeettheindividualinhis individualitybutseeshimasamemberofaspecies,whetherthatspeciesbetheworkingclass,the poor,thosecreatedintheimageofGod,orwhatnot.Historyaboundswithexample,suchfantastic lovesdirectedatabstractcreationsoftheimagination.Inthenamesoftheseabstractionsmenhave committedthemostheinouscrimeagainstreal,concrete,existinghumanbeingswhowerenot encounteredintheirrealitybutseenasmembersofademonicspeciestobedestroyed.Boththe objectofloveandthatofhatewereabstractandunreal,restrictedtotheimaginationofthelonely dreamerwhowouldnotturntotheconcretelyrealpersonsallaroundhim. Unlikesuchfantasies,thedivineloveisconcrete.Itisagenuineencounterwithmaninhis individualityandmustthereforebeexclusive.Anyrealloveencounter,ifitismorethananexample oftheloveofaclassorcollectivity,isexclusivebecauseitisgenuinelydirectedtotheuniquenessof theotheranditthereforefollowsthateachsuchrelationshipisdifferentfromallothers. Butdifferenceisexclusivitybecauseeachrelationshipisdifferent,andIamnotincludedinthe relationshipofothers. Anditalsofollowsthattheremustbeaprimacyofrelationship.Theauthenticpersonisopento
1
No,notagape,butahGAHpei,anoriginallyGreekwordturnedintoatheologicalone,andmeaning Christian loveasdistinctfromeithertheerotickindorthesimpleaffectionvariety.

all.Whenheiswithaparticularindividual,hedevoteshimselftothatpersoncompletely,listening withallofhisbeingtothepresenceoftheother.Suchlisteningcannotbeatechniquethatsucceeds equallyinallcasesatalltimes.Thecounterfeitofsuchlisteningcouldpresumablybestandardized andappliedwithregularitytopersonafterperson.Butitwouldthenclearlynotbearealencounter butacleverimitationofrealrelationship. InanytrueIThouencounter,nothingcanbecontrolled,nocertaintyofresultcanbepreordained. Itisforthisreasonthatthosewholivewiththepossibilityofmeetingfindthatithappenswithsome andnotwithothers.Insteadoflamentingthisfact,theyprayforthecontinuingpossibilityof meeting,whilerecognizingtheinherentexclusivityofthosemeetingsthathavehappened.Thereis nodenyingadimensionofguiltintheknowledgethattheprimacyofrelationshipwithafewcannot berepeatedwithmanyotherswhothusremainstrangers.Evenamongthesmallcircleofpersons withwhomthereisanongoingrelationship,somearelovedmorethanothersbecauseeachiswho heisandbecauseIamwhoIam.Theonlyalternativeisaremote,inhumanlove,directedat universalsandabstractionsratherthanrealpersons. OurpraiseofGodexpressesourgratitudethathelovesmaninahumanway,directinghisloveto eachoneofusindividually,andthatbysolovinghehaschosentosharethehumanfatesuchlove involves.TheelectionofIsraelisthusasignofthehumanityofGod.Hadhesowilledit,hecould haveplayedamoregodlyrole,refusingfavoritesandlovingallhiscreaturesimpartially.Hislove wouldthenhavebeenafarlessvulnerableonebecauseimpartialitysignifiesacertainremoteness, theabsenceofthatconsumingpassionthatisasignofneedoftheother.Hereinresidesthe inhumanityofagapeandthehumanityoferos.Agapedemandsnothinginreturn.Itasksonlyto give,nevertoreceive.Howevernoblethissoundsatfirsthearing,itmustquicklyberealizedthatit alsoimpliesanincrediblepersonofstrength.Tobeableonlytogive,nevertoneed,nevertoaskfor anythinginreturnforwhatwegive,isapositionthattrulybefitsaGod.Andtoneedsomethingfrom theother,toneedthebodyoftheotherformysatisfaction,isthemiseryofhumanbeing.Human beingisneed,thestateofincompletenesswithinmyselfandthereforethelongingforwhatthe othercangive.TheerosofDonJuanisthereforeamorehumanconditionthantheagapeofthe saintwhoneedsnothingandnooneanddistributeshisgiftsfromtheheightofhisOlympianself sufficiency. Thetruthisthathumanloveisneithererosnoragape.Botharecaricaturesbecauserealityisa combinationofthetwo,whicharenotdifferentkindsoflovebutaspectsofhumanlovewitha constantlychangingcompositionofelements.Nohumanloveistotallyindifferenttothereactionof theother.Iftherelationshipisahumanone,ifthepersonlovedisnotperceivedasanobjectto whichthingsaredonebutapersontowhomonespeaksandwhoseansweroneawaits,thenthe responsereceivedmustbeanimportantelementinthedirectionofthedevelopingrelationship. Thisdoesnotmeanthatarebuffnecessarilyresultsintheterminationofconcernorevenlove.It ispossibletoloveandhereisthetruthofagapeinspiteofrebufforabsenceofresponse.But suchabsenceisneveramatterofindifferenceandplaysanimportantroleintherelationship becauseresponseisalwayssought,needed,andhopedfor.Similarly,thereisnoeroticrelationship withoutanelementofconcern.Thesexual,eveninitsmostexploitingandobjectifyingform,reveals aglimmerofgratitudeandaffection.Iftotalitarianstatesfinditnecessarytorepressthesexual,itis becausetheyaredimlyawarethatthepersontowhomthesexualisarealityisapersonwhose humanityhasnotbeentotallydepositedwiththestateandwhoisthereforeuntrustworthyforthe purposesofasystemwhosepresuppositionisdehumanization.
Allthisisnottodenythattherearelovesinwhichagapepredominatesandthoseinwhicheros does.ButnoneisexclusivelyoneortheotherbecausemaniscreatedintheimageofGodasabeing constitutedbyneedwhogivesandalsoaskstobegiveninreturn. ThelovewithwhichGodhaschosentolovemanisaloveunderstandabletoman.Itisthereforea loveverymuchawareofhumanresponse.Godhastherebymadehimselfvulnerable:heasksfor mansresponseandishurtwhenitisnotforthcoming. Forthesamereason,Godsloveisnotundifferentiated,havingthesamequalitytowardallhis children.Godsloveisdirectedtowardwhoweare.Weareconfirmedaswhoweareinour relationshiptoGod.AndbecauseGodissodeeplydirectedtowardus,becausehisloveisnotself love(inspiteofPlato,Neoplatonism,andthetraditionflowingfromthese)buttruemeetingofthe other(andthereisanotherforGod;thisisthemysteryofcreation),therearethosewhomGod lovesespecially,withwhomhehasfalleninlove,aswithAbraham. Thereisnootherwayofexpressingthismysteryexceptintheseterms.Godsrelationshipto Abrahamistrulyafallinginlove.Thebiblicaltexttellsusthiswhenitfailstoexplainthereasonfor theelectionofAbraham. Therabbis,ofcourse,wereawareofthisomissionandperplexedbyit.Theysuppliedreasons, makingofAbrahamthefirstnaturalphilosopherwhosawthroughthefoolishnessoftheidolworship ofhistimeandreasonedhiswaytotheoneGod.IntheBible,itisnotAbrahamwhomovestoward God,butGodwhoturnstoAbrahamwithanelectionthatisnotexplainedbecauseitisanactoflove thatrequiresnoexplanation.IfGodcontinuestolovethepeopleofIsraelanditisthefaithofIsrael thathedoesitisbecauseheseesthefaceofhisbelovedAbrahamineachandeveryoneofhis childrenasamanseesthefaceofhisbelovedinthechildrenofhisunionwithhisbeloved.Gods angerwhenIsraelisdisobedientistheangerofarejectedlover.Itisabovealljealousy,thejealousy ofonedeeplyinlovewhoisconsumedwithtormentattheknowledgethathisbelovedseeksthe affectionofothers.Tomuchofphilosophicaltheology,suchtalkhasbeenanembarrassmentin urgentneedofdemythologization.ButtheologiansmustnotbemoreprotectiveofGodsdignity thanheisofhisownbecauseGodstruedignityisthesovereigntyofhischoiceforgenuinerelation withman. What,now,ofthosenotelected?Thosenotelectedcannotbeexpectednottobehurtbynot beingoftheseedofAbraham,whomGodlovesaboveallothers.TheBibledepictsclearlythe sufferingofEsau.TheBibleis,afterall,thehistoryofIsraelandcouldthereforebeexpectedtobe partialtotheJewishcause.Andyet,inrecountingtheblessingofJacobandtheexclusionofEsau,no carefulreadercanfailtonoticethatthesympathyshownEsauisgreaterthanthatforJacob.God showsEsaucompassionevenifJacobdoesnot.Theconsolationofthegentilesistheknowledgethat Godalsostandsinrelationshipwiththemintherecognitionandaffirmationoftheiruniqueness.The choice,afterall,isbetweenaloftydivineloveequallydistributedtoallwithoutrecognitionof uniquenessandrealencounter,whichnecessarilyinvolvesfavoritesbutinwhicheachisuniqueand addressedassuch.IfAbrahamwasespeciallylovedbyGod,itisbecauseGodisafatherwhodoes notstandinalegalrelationshiptohischildren,whichbyitsnaturerequiresimpartialityand objectivity.Asafather,Godloveshischildrenandknowseachoneaswhoheiswithhisstrengths andweaknesses,hisvirtuesandvices. Becauseafatherisnotanimpartialjudgebutalovingparentandbecauseahumanfatherisa humanbeingwithhisownpersonality,itisinevitablethathewillfindhimselfmorecompatiblewith
someofhischildrenthanothersand,tospeakveryplainly,thathelovesomemorethanothers. Thereisusuallygreatreluctanceonthepartofparentstoadmitthis,butitisatruththatmustnot beavoided.Anditisalsotruethatafatherlovesallhischildren,sothattheyallknowofandfeelthe lovetheyreceive,recognizingthattosubstituteanimpartialjudgeforalovingfatherwould eliminatethepreferenceforthespeciallyfavoredbutwouldalsodepriveallofthemofafather. ThemysteryofIsraelselectionthusturnsouttobetheguaranteeofthefatherhoodofGod towardallpeoples,electandnonelect,Jewandgentile.Wemust,atthesametime,reiteratethat noneofthisamountstosomesortofdemonstrationofthenecessityofelectioninanysense.It canbeunderstoodonlyfromthepointofviewofmansgratitudeforthefatherhoodofGod,since onlytheinvocationofthecategoryoffatherandthedivinepermissionwehavetoapplythis categorytoGodenableustobegintofathomthemysteryofelection.Whenwegraspthatthe electionofIsraelflowsfromthefatherhoodthatextendstoallcreatedinGodsimage,wefind ourselvestiedtoallmeninbrotherhood,asJoseph,favoredbyhishumanfather,ultimatelyfound himselftiedtohisbrothers.Andwhenmancontemplatesthismystery,thattheEternalOne,the creatorofheavenandearth,chosetobecomethefatherofhiscreaturesinsteadofremainingself sufficientuntohimself,asistheAbsoluteofthephilosophers,therewellsupinmanthatpraisethat hasbecomesorareyetremainssonatural.
NationalElection
TherestillremainstheproblemofthenationalelectionofIsrael.Evenifweseetheelectionof AbrahamasflowingfromthefatherhoodofGod,wecanstillremaininthedarkestofpuzzlementin regardtotheelectionofawholepeople,theseedofAbraham,untoalleternity.Whatisthe meaningbehindthespontaneousemergenceofthenationatthemomentGodentersintoromance withAbraham?Whatisthegreatbeastofnationalexistence(touseSimoneWeilsphrase)doing intheinnersanctumofmansrelationshipwithGod?Isthisnotproperlythedomainofthesingle one,themanwhostandsalonebeforeGodandisabletohearGodonlybecausehehasescaped thepowerofthecrowd,whichdrownsoutthevoicefromabove?Finally,andperhapsaboveall,why acovenantwiththecarnalinsteadofthespiritualseedofAbraham?Isitphysicalrelationshipthatis essential?AretherenotthosewhoareAbrahamschildreninthespiritwhoaremoredeartoGod thanacrass,perhapsunbelieving,JewwhoisrelatedtoAbrahaminthefleshbutwhosespiritual illuminationisquitedim?Arenottherealelectthearistocratsofthespirit,whoderivefromall peoples,cultures,andraces? ThesearethequestionsthatarehurledatIsrael.Mostoften,theyarenotrealquestionsbecause noanswerisexpected,sincenoneisthoughtpossible.ThefaithofIsraelisdismissedasprespiritual, acarnalandearlyphaseofhumanconsciousnessdestinedtobeoutgrowninthematurationofthe race.ChristianitysselfunderstandingasthenewIsraelofthespiritexpressesthisconvictionandso does,thoughproceedingfromsharplydifferentpremises,modernhistoricalscholarship,whichis determinedtofindearlyandlatestagesineverything,withtheearlyalwaysinferiortothelater. Againstallofthese,IsraelreaffirmsitselectioninitsphysicaldescentfromAbraham,aphysical bondeveryJewwhoisnottotallyalienatedfromhisbeingexperienceseverydayofhislifeashe movesamongmen,allofwhomarehisbrothersinwhomheperceivestheimageofGodbutall ofwhomarenotJewsinwhomheperceivesafamilykinshipuniquetoJews.Itisthisthatwemust trytounderstand.
ThenatureofGodisspiritual.Thisisthealmostunanimous,andnotuntrue,wisdomofmost religions,EastandWest.Asspirit,Godsnaturalkinshipiswiththespiritualman,withhissouland mind,whichisuniquelycapableofgraspingtherealityofthespiritualGod.Mansrelationshipwith Godthereforecomestobecenteredinthespiritualand,moreparticularly,intheethical,whichis spiritualizedbytheeliminationoflawandthesubstitutionofloveasthedominanttheme. ThedifficultywiththisspiritualizationoftheGodmanrelationshipisthatitisuntruetomans nature,whichislargelycarnal.Thedivisionofmanintothespiritualandthematerialisitselfanact ofabstractionthathasalimitedvaliditybutthatmustnotobscurethebasicunityofhuman existence.Thisunitymustnotbeconceivedasacouplingofthespiritualandthematerialbecause anycouplingpresupposesanoriginalseparation,whichissimplynotwarranted.Manisnota couplingofthespiritualandmaterial,butacreaturewhothinksandruns,grievesandcries,is amusedandlaughs.Heis,inshort,whatheis:abeingwithanidentityandaworldinwhichhelives. Here,again,Godcouldhaveplayedagodlyrole,interestedincertainfeaturesofhumanexistence, thespiritual,butnotinothers,thematerial.Hecouldevenhaveassignedmanthetaskofwrenching himselfoutofthematerialsoastoassumehisspiritualidentity,whichisjustwhatsomanyreligions believehedid.Instead,theGodofIsraelconfirmsmanashecreatedhimtoliveinthematerial cosmos.Thereisthereforenopossibilityofadivinerequirementforthediscardingofapartof humanexistence.Instead,thereisarequirementforthesanctificationofhumanexistenceinallof itsaspects. Israelssymbolofthecovenantiscircumcision,asearingofthecovenantintothefleshofIsrael andnotonly,orperhapsnotevenprimarily,intoitsspirit.AndthatiswhyGodselectionisofa carnalpeople.ByelectingtheseedofAbraham,Godcreatesapeoplethatisinhisserviceinthe totalityofitshumanbeingandnotjustinitsmoralandspiritualexistence.Thedomainofthefamily, themostfundamentalandintimatehumanassociation,istherebysanctified,sothatobedienceto Goddoesnotrequirehateoffatherandmother. Itisalsotruethatsimple,undialecticalattachmenttothenaturalcanbeincompatiblewitha hearingofthedivinecommand.Abrahamiscommandedtoleavehisland,birthplace,andfathers houseandfollowGodtoaplacethathewillshowhim.ThemanwhohearsGodswordistherefore wrenchedawayfromhisnaturalsetting,fromthebondsthattiehimtohisparents,brothers,sisters, andthewholeworldintowhichhewasbornandthatgivesmanhisnaturalsecurity.Ifthedivine commandwentnofurther,ifitmerelyinstructedhimtoleavehisbirthplaceandthenpreachamoral visionorreligiousdiscovery,thenthenaturalwouldhavebeenslainonceandforallandKierkegaard wouldberightinsayingthatarealrelationwithGodexcludesrealrelationswithhumanbeings.But thedivinecommanddoesnotstopthere.AftercommandingAbrahamtoleavehisfathershouse,it promisestomakeagreatnationofhisseed.Thenaturalisnowreinstated,projectedintothefuture insteadofrootedprimarilyinthepast,and,aboveall,sanctifiedasanaturalcommunity.Thedivine doesnot,therefore,destroythenaturalbutconfirmsitbyplacingitinitsservice. Andverymuchthesameistrueofthenationalorder.SimoneWeilisfarfromwronginspeakingof societyandthenationasthegreatbeasttowhichmensacrificetheirindividuality,sothatthey neverdreamitpossibletobecomeasingleonebeforeGod. NoonewhohasreadtheprophetsofIsraelcanbeunawareoftheextenttowhichIsraelsfaith fearsthearroganceofthecollective.Butthequestionis,Whattodo?Shallthedomainofthestate bewrittenoffasthedomainoftheDevil,beyondthehopeofsanctification,orshallitbeseenasthe
mostdifficultchallengeofall,whichmustbewonfortheholypreciselybecauseofitsremoteness fromit? Israelattemptstosanctifynationalexistenceinobediencetothedivineelection,whichisa nationalelection.AnditisanationalelectionpreciselybecausethenationismostremotefromGod andisthereforecommandedtobethemostproximate.Tobelievethattheindividualcanbelifted outofhisnationandbroughtintorelationwithGodisasillusoryastobelievethatmanssoulcanbe savedandhisbodydiscarded.Justasmanisbodyandsoul,somanisanindividualandmemberofa nation.Tosavehimasanindividualandtoleavethenationalsocialorderunredeemedistotruncate manandthentobelievethatthisremnantofahumanbeingistheobjectofsalvation. ThenationalelectionofIsraelisthereforeagainasignofGodsunderstandingofthehuman predicamentandtheconfirmationofandloveforthathumanity.Bysanctifyingthenationhoodof Israel,Godconfirmsthenationalorderofallpeoplesandexpresseshislovefortheindividualinhis nationalsettingandforthenationsintheircorporatepersonalities. InthecaseofIsrael,therelationshipthatstartedwithAbraham,theindividual,soonbecomesa relationshipwithanationthatbecomestheelectnation.Thepromiseofsalvationisthusnotheld outtomanasanindividualbutasamemberofhisnation.Itisheldouttothecompletemanand thereforetoallnations,withoutwhichwehaveapartratherthanallofman.Inaddition,bytaking thenationalorderseriously,redemptionofthehistoricalorderbecomesapossibility.History pertainstonationsandifonlytheindividualisreal,historyisnotreal.Purelyspiritualreligions,those thatdonothesitatetoaddressonlythespiritualinman,donottakehistoryseriously. ThistendencyispronouncedinearlyChristianity,whichdistanceditselffromthepoliticalorder becauseitscitizenshipwasintheheavenlycitythatwasnotofthisworld.ThesalvationthatIsrael awaitsmustoccurinthehistoricalorder,anditthereforeisforcedtocontinuetowaitaslongasthat orderisunredeemed.Israelcannotbelievethatinthemidstofanunredeemedworldthereisan islandofredemption,theChurch,towhichmencanfleefromthesorrowsoftheworld.Butthis tenacityinitsholdonrealityflowsfromGodsconfirmationofthatrealityinrefusingtoexcludefrom thepromiseofredemptionthosestructuresthatthespiritualreligionshavenohesitationin discardingbutthat,becausetheyarereal,defeattheirpurelyspiritualvisions. WewereledintoanexplorationofJewishexistenceasanationalfamilyfromourdiscoverythat philosophyhasplayedalesscentralroleinJudaismthaninChristianity.Judaism,wesaid,wasnot firstasetofideasbutanexistingpeopleonwhomcommandsareimposedandfromwhomideasare generated,butwhoseownbeingistheexistentialsoilfromwhicheverythingelseemerges.Before wecanexplorethisrelationshipbetweensoil,orground,andidea,wemustalludetoanother fundamentalreasonforthedifferentrolesplayedbyphilosophyinJudaismandChristianity. Christianityseesbeforeitacompletedsalvationhistory.Creationtoresurrectionconstitutesa totalityofpromiseandfulfillmentthatisavailabletoviewingandthereforetothought.Israelsstory isincomplete.Itisrepletewithgreatpeaksanddeepdisappointments,butitis,aboveall, incomplete.TheredemptionimplicitintheveryfirstpromisetoAbrahamisstillinabeyance.The Exodus,Sinai,theTempleareallpeaksandpreviewsofwhatisinstoreforIsraelandhumanityinthe fulfillment.Butthatfulfillmenthasnotyetoccurred,andwearethereforedealingwithan uncompletedtalewhoseoutcomeweknowbecauseofourtrustinthesourceofthepromise. Nevertheless,howevergreatourtrust,wemustnotconfusepromisewithfulfillment,especiallyfor man,wholivesintimeandforwhomthefutureisshroudedindarkness.
Becausethisisso,thephilosophicalcannotnowbecentralforJudaism.Philosophydemandsa revealedandthereforeknowableobjectthatitcaninvestigate.Itrequiresstablecategoriesby meansofwhichitcangraspitsobject.Philosophy,asaformofknowledge,isthereforemost comfortablewiththepastandleastsecurewiththefuture,aboutwhichitknowslittle. BecauseJudaismthoughthisisoftenforgottenissomuchaventureintothefuture,themode ofknowledgewillneverbeasnaturaltoitastoafaiththatisfulfilled.Itisbynomeansacoincidence thatMaimonides,thegreatestJewishphilosopher,isalsothemanwhohadthemostprofound problemswiththeresurrectionandthemessianicideaasawhole.Inregardtotheresurrection,itis thematerialityofitthatcauseshimdifficulty.WiththeMessiah,itistheapocalypticdimensionthat mustbetoneddown,sothatthefuturenotbemadetoodissimilartothepast. Alltheseareexpressionsoftheincompatibilityofthephilosophicstandpointwithagenuinely transformedfuturewhosedissimilaritytothepastisapremiseofpropheticthinking.AJudaismthat remainstruetoitsmessianicfaithcanonlyplaceprovisionaltrustincategoriesofthoughtderived fromanunredeemedworlddestinedtopassaway.Ifthefutureisdecisive,reasonmustbeprepared toseeitselftranscendedbydevelopmentsthatcannotyetbedreamtof.Butnoreasonworthyof itselfcanbethatmodest,sinceitwouldthenbeuntruetoitsessence,whichconsistsinconfidence inthepowerofitsillumination.Initsownway,reasonparticipatesintheillusionofredemptionfor whichJudaismispreparedtohopebuttherealityofwhichitisnotpreparedtoproclaim.Becauseit isthereforestillontheway,Judaismcannoteasilyexpressitselfinthephilosophicalidiom,muchof whichisrootedinametaphysicsofcompletion.
Chosenness:SomeConceptions, Misconceptions,andComparisons
RaphaelJospe
RaphaelJospe,aspecialistinmedievalJewishphilosophy,teachesintheDepartmentof JewishPhilosophyatBarIlanUniversity,andalsointheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem InternationalSchool.Foratime,healsoservedasprofessorofJewishStudiesatBrigham YoungUniversitysJerusalemCenterforNearEasternStudies.Theauthororeditorofeight booksandseveraldozenscholarlyarticles,hismostrecentworkisathreevolumeHebrew historyofJewishphilosophyintheMiddleAges.HeisalsoeditoroftheJewishphilosophy divisionofthenew(revised,2nd)editionoftheEncyclopaediaJudaica.Thefootnotesherein arehisunlessotherwisenoted. Theconceptofthechosenpeoplehasbeenwidelymisunderstood,byJewsandGentilesalike.It has,inaddition,beenoneofthefocalpointsofJewishChristiandispute,goingbacktotheearliest centuriesofChristianity,withChristiansclaimingtohavesupplantedtheJewsasVerusIsrael(the trueIsrael),whiletheJewscontinuedtoregardthemselves,andthemselvesalone,asmaintaining AbrahamsspecialcovenantalrelationshipwithGod.1 Theconceptofchosennessisclearlycloselyconnectedorcorrelativetothisconceptofcovenant (berit).WhatIshallattempttodemonstratebelowisthatchosennessmeansneitherprivilegenor anyinnateJewishsuperiority,whetherexplicitorimplicit.Rather,whatthebiblicalandpostbiblical sourcesemphasizeisaninternallydirectedJewishresponsibilitytoliveinacertainway,basedonthe Torah,andthepromisesofdivineblessingareconditioneduponIsraelsfulfillingthosecovenantal responsibilities.2 BecauseofthecentralityoftheconceptoftheChosenPeopletomuchofJewishreligious experience,andbecauseofitshavingbeenthefocusofsomuchanimusinJewishChristianrelations overthecenturies,Ibelievethattheconceptmeritsseriousreconsiderationandreevaluationinour day.Besidestheobvioushistoricalfactors,ourgeneration,whichhaswitnessedboththemurderof onethirdoftheJewishpeopleintheHolocaustandtherenewalofJewishnationhoodinthestateof
1
InRomans11,Paulemploystheimageryofthenative(i.e.,Jewish)branchesbrokenoffoftheolivetree,with alien(i.e.,Gentile)branchesgraftedintheirplace.ForinterestingChristianandJewishstatementsonVerus Israel,cf.DisputationandDialogue:ReadingsintheJewishChristianEncounter,ed.FrankE.Talmage(New York,1975),PartI. Spacedoesnotpermitciting,letalongexplicating,themyriadtexts,fromtheBibleon,assertingorreferring tochosenness.Theconsistenttheme,however,isthatIsraelscovenantalobligationsinvolveloyaltytoGod andobservanceoftheTorahscommandments.OnlythendoesIsraelqualifyasakingdomofpriestsanda holynation(Exod.19:54).ChosennessisthusexplicitlycorrelatedtotheTorah.Inthewordsoftheliturgy, GodhaschosenusfromallthenationsandhasgivenushisTorah;Youhavechosenusfromallthe nations,youhavelovedusanddesiredus,youhaveraisedusabovealltonguesandhavesanctifiedusby yourcommandments;youhavebroughtusclosetoyou,ourking,toserveyou....Themutualobligationsof thecovenantarediscussedbelow.
IsraelthepolesofJewishnationalpowerlessnessandpowerneedstoreassesswhatmeaning chosennesscanhaveinourlivesasJewsandinourrelationswithnonJewsingeneralandChristians inparticular. IsingleouttheChristiansherefortworeasonswithoutimplyinginanywaythatotherreligious traditions,especiallyIslam,arelessworthyofseriousconsiderationandrecognitionbyJews.3 Nevertheless,Islamdoesnotspecificallypositaconceptofchosenness,andtheconceptofthe ChosenPeoplehasthereforenotbeenthefocalpointofJewishIslamicdispute,asithaswith Christianity.Moreover,whereasinrecentdecadeswehavebeenwitnesstoanincreasinglyopenand frankrelationshipbetweenJewsandChristians,atleastinsomepartsoftheworld,thesamecannot, regrettably,besaidofJewsandMuslims.TheunavoidableinvolvementofreligionintheJewishArab dispute,whichisprimarilynationalratherthanreligiousperseinnature,andthegrowthofmilitant Islamicfundamentalism,4byandlargeprecludethekindofdialoguebetweenJewsandMuslimsto whichmanyJewsandChristianshavebecomeaccustomed. Thispaperattemptsaninterpretationofsomedominantthemes,anddoesnotintendto presentanaccountofhowtheconceptoftheChosenPeopleisdealtwithinJewishliteratureand thought,fromtheBibledowntoourownday. Letmenoteatthispointthatwhilechosennessasaspecificallytheologicalnotionmaywellbe uniquetotheJewishpeople(andtothoseChristianswhoseetheChurchassomehowsupplantingor supplementingtheJewsasVerusIsrael),inabroadersensewefindparallelsinothercultures.The Jewsarenottheonlynationtoseethemselvesasdistinctiveandspecial,asbeingchallengedwith exemplarymoraltasksorasbeingobligedtofulfillauniquehistoricdestiny. TheGreekstookunderstandablepride,howeverarrogantfromourpointofview,intheir accomplishments,andtheirregardforthenationstheyencounteredandconqueredasbarbaroi5 wasnotalwaysunwarranted. Consider,forexample,thefuneralspeechofPericles(d.429B.C.E.)inancientAthens.Asreported bythehistorianThucydidesinBookIIofThePeloponnesianWar.6 Letmesaythatoursystemofgovernmentdoesnotcopytheinstitutionsofourneighbors.It
3
Cf.myarticle,ChristianityandAntiSemitism:SomeReflections,inForumontheJewishPeople,Zionism andIsrael,No.59,Summer1986,pp.5364.FranzRosenzweig(Germany,18861929)arguedthat Christianityisthewayforthepagans,buttheJewishpeopledonotneedthewaybecausetheyare eternallywithGod.ItisonethingforChristianstoclaimthattheirsistheonewaytoGod.Itis somethingelseforJewstoendorsethatclaim.IseenoreasonforJewstorecognizeChristianityastheonly legitimateoreffectivewaytoGodfornonJews,totheexclusionofIslamandotherreligions. Somearguethatthetermfundamentalism,asaChristiantechnicalterm,cannotproperlybeappliedto othertraditions,inthiscaseIslam.Iconcedethetechnicalpoint,butknowofnobettertermtodescribethe phenomenon. Thetermoriginallywaslinguistic,denotingaforeignerwhodidnotspeakGreek;laterittookonthe connotationsofsomeoneuncultured,uncivilized,inPsalm114:1,theHebrewtermloez,meaninganon Hebrewspeaker,istranslatedasbarbarosintheSeptuagint(andintheVulgatefollowingit).Interestingly, theAramaicTargumalsousestheGreektermhere,whereastheSyriacPeshittaretainstheHebrewroot. Thucydides,ThePeloponnesianWar,trans.RexWarner(Baltimore,1954),BookII,Ch.4,pp.117119.
ismorethecaseofourbeingamodeltoothers,thanofourimitatinganyoneelse.Our constitutioniscalledademocracybecausepowerisinthehandsnotofaminority,butofthe wholepeople....Thisisonepointinwhich,Ithink,ourcitydeservestobeadmired.Thereare alsoothers....Again,inquestionsofgeneralgoodfeelingthereisagreatcontrastbetweenus andmostotherpeople....Weareuniqueinthis....Takingeverythingtogether,then,Ideclarethat ourcityisaneducationtoGreece.
TheRomanstookoverfromtheGreeksmuchofthissenseofhistoricsuperiority,includingits corollarynotionofakindofnoblesseoblige.AsVirgil(7019B.C.E.)putitintheAeneidVI:851: You,Roman,remembertorulethepeoplesbyyourpower(thesebeingyourarts),toimpose thewayofpeace,tosparetheconquered,andtoputdowntheproud. TheJewishnotionofchosennesscannotnecessarilybetranslatedoutsidethecontextofbiblical monotheismintopaganGreekandRomanterms.Butthepaganmindcould,inasense,goeven furtherthanclaimsofdivineelection,bybelievinginthedivinedescentofthenation.7Aeneaswas, afterall,thesonofVenusandtheTrojanAnchises,andRomulusandRemuswerethesonsofMars andthepriestessIlia. Modernnationshavenotnecessarilyemployedancientreligiousterminologyandimageryto expresstheirfeelingsofhistoricmissionanddestiny,buthowdifferentaretheGreekattitude towardthebarbaroiandtheRomanconceptofPaxRomanafromtheBritishimperialismofRudyard Kipling(18651936),whenhewrote: TakeuptheWhiteMansburden.Sendforththebestyebreed.Go,bindyoursonstoexile. Toserveyourcaptivesneed;TowaitinheavyharnessOnflutteredfolkandwildYournew caught,sullenpeoples,Halfdevilandhalfchild. Inthiscontext,onemightalsoconsiderthe19thcenturyAmericandoctrineofManifestDestiny, orinthe20thcentury,thePericleanechoesresoundinginWoodrowWilsonscallthattheworld mustbemadesafefordemocracy,8andagaininJohnF.Kennedysinauguraladdress. Thesecallsdiffersubstantively,intheiridealisticspiritanddemocraticintent,fromclassicaland Europeanimperialism,buttheyhaveincommon,atleastformally,theideathatthisparticular nationwashistoricallydestinedtoplayagreaterroleandtoleadothernationstowarduniversal goals. Whateverformalsimilaritiesmay,then,existbetweentheconceptoftheChosenPeopleandthe claimsofotherculturestonationalpreeminence,thereisoneclearessentialdifference.Whether becauseJewshave,formostoftheirhistory,lackedthepowertoimposetheirwillorreligiouswayof
7
BiblicalreferencestoIsraelasGodsson(ben)orfirstborn(bchor)donotimplysuchanationalclaimof divinedescent,whichinanyeventwouldcontradictthecreationstoryandgenealogiesofGenesis.The referenceinExodus4:22isclearlyrhetorical.MosesistoldbyGodtowarnPharaohakingclaimingdivine personalstatusthatifhedoesnotreleasemyfirstbornsonIsrael,thenIwillkillyourfirstbornson. AccordingtoMartinBuber,onlyanactofdivinefavorcanbemeant.FornotonlycanGodelevateaperson tobeHissonbyanactofdivineadoption(2Sam.7:14;Ps.2:7),HecanalsomakehimHisfirstborn(Ps. 89:28),withspecialdutiesandprivilegesandsolikewiseHispeople.Cf.MartinBuber,TheElectionof Israel:ABiblicalInquiry,inOntheBible:EighteenStudies,ed.NahumN.Glatzer(NewYork,1982),p.84. WoodrowWilson,AddresstoCongress,April2,1917,askingforadeclarationofwar.

lifeupontheirnonJewishneighbors,9orwhethertheyfoundnosuchimpulsemandatedinthe Torah,thebeliefinchosennesshasrarely,ifever,beentranslatedintodominationorcoercionof nonJews. Moreover,althoughthemedievalpoetandphilosopherJudahHaLevi(10851141)proposedwhat wewouldcategorizeasaracialtheorytoexplainthehistoricanomaliesofJewishnationalsurvival anddistinctiveness,histheorycannotbeconsideredracist,inthesenseofassertingthattheJews shouldconquerordominateothergroups.Infact,histheoryhastheoppositeintent.10Itisofferedas anattempttoprovideanaturalscientificexplanationofwhatHaLeviconsideredtobeanomalous butindisputablehistoricfacts,andheemphasizedthat,onmoralandintellectualgrounds,thereare nodifferencesbetweenJewandnonJew.11Eventheappropriation(or,tomywayofthinking, misappropriation)ofHaLevistheoryinlatermysticalandchasidicthoughtdowntoourownday, doesnotproposeracistdominationsuchaswefindinKipling.12 AsIunderstandthem,therefore,theJewishsourcesdonotsupportinterpretingchosennessto meansomekindofJewishracialsuperiority.Nevertheless,intermsofsocialpsychology,thenotion ofspiritualsuperiority,howeverinaccurateacademically,mayhavebeenvaluableforthesurvivalof aminorityconsistentlyoppressedforsome2,000years.Whereas,bycontrast,blackAmericansin recentdecadeshavehadtoovercometheindoctrinationofracialinferioritybywhiteAmerican culture,aJewishspiritualormoralsuperioritycomplexcanonlyhavebeenreinforcedby oppressiveandcoercivebehavioronthepartofthemajorityculture.Afterall,Jewsthought,ifthe ChristiansorMuslimsreallyrepresentedreligioustruth,astheyclaim,whycannottheypersuadeus ofit,andwhydotheyhavetoresorttoforce?Themoredesperatetheoppression,themorethe oppressorsreinforcedtheJewishviewthatthey,thevictims,werethetrueChosenPeople,andthat theoppressorreligionswereallthemoremorallyandspirituallybankrupt.
9
Exceptionalperiods,whenJewsdidhavethepowertocontroltheirneighbors,wouldincludetheunited monarchy,inthetimeofDavidandSolomon,andduringthetimeoftheSecondTemple,thereignofthe HasmoneanrulerJohnHyrcanus(134104B.C.E.).JudahHaLeviraisesthequestionofwhetherJewish meeknessisavirtueassumedvoluntarily,orwhether,giventhepower,Jewswouldalsokill.Cf.TheKuzari1: 113115. Similarly,inthepassagecitedinnote9(Kuzari1:113115)HaLeviarguesthattheJews,ineffect,practice whattheChristiansandMuslims(whowagewars)preach,namely,meekness.Jewishsufferingisessentially voluntary,becausebymerelyutteringawordJewscouldescapepersecutionandconverttoChristianityor Islam,whereasaconverttoJudaismmustundertaketoobservealltherigorousresponsibilitiesofJewish law. Cf.JudahHaLevi,Kuzari2:48and3:7.ForHaLevi,thehistoricanomaly,i.e.,thatprophecywaslimitedto onlycertainpeople,cannotbeexplainedbytherationalistview(ofSaadiaGaon,Rambam,andothers)that prophecyisfundamentallyafunctionofreason,sincereasonisuniversal.AlthoughIagreewiththosewho arguethatHaLevisracialtheoryisnotracistasthetermiscurrentlyunderstood(see,e.g.,Lippmam Bodoff,WasYehudahHaleviRacist?,JUDAISM,Vol.38,No.2,Spring1989,pp.174184),wecannot honestlydenythatHaLevisracisttheoryhasthepotentialforracistmisappropriation.Seethenextnote. AclassiccaseofsuchmisappropriationofHaLevistheorymaybefoundinthefirstchapteroftheTanya (Teaching)ortheLikkuteiAmarim(CollectedSayings)ofShneurZalmanofLyady(17451813),founder oftheChabadLubavitchmovementofchasidism.
10
11
12
Howeverusefulasuperioritycomplexmaythereforehavebeeninsocialpsychologicalterms,it isinaccurateandunjustifiedbytheclassicJewishsourcesofchosenness.
2.ChosennessandSalvation:InclusiveorExclusive?
TheconceptoftheChosenPeoplemaybeclarifiedifwefirstattempttounderstandwhatitisnot. Inthiscontext,thefirstpointwhichcannotbeoveremphasizedisthatchosennessdoesnotimply anyexclusivityofsalvation. Forourpurposes,thepreciseconceptionofsalvationthisworldyorotherworldly,collectiveor individual,naturalisticorsupranaturalisticisimmaterial.Whatissignificantinthiscontextisthat theconceptoftheChosenPeopledoesnotimplythatonlyJewsbenefitfromsuchsalvation. UnlikemuchofclassicalChristianity,whichclaimsthattheonlywaytosalvationisthroughChrist13 (Iamthewayandthetruthandthelife;noonecomestotheFatherbutbyme,John14:6),orthe ChristianChurch(Nullasalusextraecclesiam[nosalvationoutsidethechurch]),theJewsclaimno suchexclusivityofsalvation.Tothecontrary;theviewwhichbecamenormativeandwascodifiedby Rambam(MosesMaimonides,11351204),isthatchasideiumothaolamyeshlahemchelekba olamhaba,therighteousofthenationsoftheworldhaveaportionintheworldtocome.14 Astudyofthepertinentrabbinicsourcesmakesitapparentthat,despitethelackofasystematic theory,thecriteriaappliedbytherabbisforsalvationweregenerallymoral,notnationalor partisan15:wickedJewsaredenied,andrighteousGentilesaregranted,aportionintheworldto come.Forexample: RabbiEliezersays:NoneoftheGentileshasaportionintheworldtocome,asitsays:The wickedwillreturntothegrave(sheol),allthenationsforgetfulofGod(Ps.9:18).Thewicked willreturntothegrave,thesearethewickedofIsrael.RabbiJoshuasaidtohim:Had Scripturesaid,Thewickedwillreturntothegrave,allthenations,Iwouldhavebeensilent, andIwouldhaveagreedwithyou.However,Scripturesaid,forgetfulofGod;thereare righteouspeopleamongthenations,andtheyhaveaportionintheworldtocome(yesh tzadikimbaumotsheyeshlahemcheleklaolamhaba).16
13 14 15
Cf.note3. Maimonides,MishnehTorah,BookofKnowledge,LawsofRepentance3:5. Ontheotherhand,someoftheinstancesofJewsexcludedfromtheworldtocome,inrabbinicsourcesas wellasinMaimonidescode,arevarioushereticalcategories.Nevertheless,eveninsuchinstances,aswith thebiblicalobjectiontoidolatry,whethertheoffenseisprimarilytheoreticalheterodoxbeliefperseor practical,i.e.,unacceptablebehaviorresultingfromsuchheterodoxy.Maimonidesinsistenceonopinionsas wellasproperbehaviorisbasedontwophilosophicconsiderations.First,heregardedtheTorahasanideal systemofdivinelawleadingtotheultimatehumanperfection,namely,thatoftheintellect,i.e.,knowledge ofthetruth.ForMaimonides,theTorahthusleadstotikkunhanefesh,thewelfareofthesoul,andnot merelytotikkunhaguf,thewelfareofthebody.Second,Maimonidesconceptofimmortality(i.e.,a portionintheworldtocome)isalsointellectual,andfollowstheAristotelianidentityofthesubject,and objectofintellectionintheactualintellect.Idonotseehowthisschemecanberegardedassomehow analogoustojustificationbyfaithinPaulineChristianity,assomehavesuggested. Tosefta,Sanhedrin13:2,ed.M.S.ZuckermandelandSaulLiebermann(Jerusalem,1970),p.434.Cf. BabylonianTalmud,Sanhedrin105a.
16
Inotherwords,whereasRabbiEliezerbelievedthatwickedJewsandallGentileshavenoportion intheworldtocome,RabbiJoshuapointedoutthatRabbiEliezerwasmisreadingtheverseinPsalm 9:18.ThePsalmistdidnotrefersimplytoallthenations,buttoallthenationsforgetfulofGod. Thecriterionforexclusionfromsalvation(aportionintheworldtocome)is,therefore,not national;theGentilespersearenotexcluded.Thewickedareexcluded,betheythewickedof Israelorthenations[=Gentiles]forgetfulofGod. Christianity,withPaul,extendeditselfbeyondthebondsofwhatitsawascarnalJewish peoplehoodandwaswillingtoincludeinitsmidstonlybelieversinitsmessage,thenewspiritual Israel,whileexcludingfromsalvationeveryoneelse.RabbinicJudaismcouldnotpossiblyincludein theJewishreligionpeoplewhowerenotmembersoftheJewishnation17,buthadnoreasonto excludefromsalvationtherighteousofothernations.Inshort,whereasChristianityismuchmore inclusiveinthisworld,itismuchmoreexclusiveinthenext,whileJudaismismuchmoreexclusivein thisworldandinclusiveinthenext. AsIunderstandthem,boththeJewishandChristianpositionsonsalvationdevelopedlogicallyand consistently,basedonradicallydifferentpresuppositionsaboutrealityandreadingsofGenesis. IntheclassicalChristianview,18becauseofAdamandEvesoriginalsinintheGardenofEden,all peopleeversincehavebeen,andare,inastateofsin.Sinistheultimateandinevitablehuman condition.Nopersoncanthereforebesoperfectinhisorherdeeds,soblamelessinhisorher behaviorastomeritdivinesalvationorfavor.Therefore,withJesusasChrist,anewopportunityfor salvationwaspresentedtopeople. TheprophetChavakukhadsaid:vetzadikbeemunatoyihyeh,therighteouswilllivebyhis faithfulness(Hab.2:4).Thetermemunahinbiblicalusagedoesnotmeanfaithinthecognitive senseoffaithorbeliefinsomething.Rather,liketheEnglishtermsfaithfulnessandfidelity (aswellastheGreektermpistis,whichtheSeptuagintuseshere),thetermindicatestrust,loyalty, honesty,muchasitdoesinamaritalcontext.Itdoesnotmeantobelievein(suchasthecognitive statement,IbelieveinGod,i.e.,IacknowledgeastruethepropositionthatthereisaGod),butto believe(aswhenapersonsays,Believeme),i.e.,totrust.Thetermemunahinthispassage meansthattherighteouspersonshouldlivefaithfully,i.e.,heshouldliveatrustworthy,honestlife; or,alternatively,thattherighteouspersonshouldlivebyhis,i.e.,Gods,faithfulness(sincethe pronomialsuffixhishereisunspecified).19
17
ConsiderthetellingaswellasbeautifulwordsofRuthtoNaomi:Donotaskmetoabandonyou,toturn awayfromyou;forwhereveryougo,willIgo,andwhereveryouliedown,willIliedown;yournationismy nation,andyourGodismyGod(Ruth1:16).HadRuth,thearchetypalproselyteinJewishtradition,notnow beenamemberoftheJewishnation,thentheGodofIsraelwouldnothavebeenherGod. IamawareofdiverseChristianopinionsandinterpretationsonthesematters,todayandhistorically.Iuse thetermclassicaltomeanthemajorityornormativeviewsoverthecenturies,inthosechurcheswhich considerthemselvesOrthodox(suchastheWesternRomanCatholicandEasternOrthodoxcommunions), aswellasinsignificanttrendswithinmodernProtestantism.ItisobviouslynottheplaceofanonChristian todeterminewhichChristianopinionsaretrueorOrthodox,asopposedtoheterodoxorheretical. Itispreciselyinthissensethatthetermemunahisusedinthecentraldailyprayer,theAmidah,whereGod isdescribedasmekayyememunatolisheneiafar,fulfillinghisfidelitytomortals.Emunahisthusoften attributedtoGod.Cf.Psalms92:3.
18
19
Inanycase,whateverChavakukoriginallymeanthere,theversewastakenbyPaul,andby subsequentChristianthought(especiallythatofMartinLuther,forwhomthisPaulinedoctrinewas ofcardinalimportance),inanentirelydifferentdirection.AsPaulconstruesit,itisthroughfaith (pistis),ratherthanthroughdeeds,thattherighteouspersonwillattaintheeternallifeofsalvation. ForIamnotashamedoftheGospel;itisthepowerofGodforsalvationtoeveryonewhohas faith,totheJewfirstandalsototheGreek.ForinittherighteousnessofGodisrevealed throughfaithforfaith;asitiswritten,Hewhothroughfaithisrighteousshalllive.(Rom.1: 1617) NowitisevidentthatnomanisjustifiedbeforeGodbythelaw;forHewhothroughfaithis righteousshalllive.(Gal3:11)20 Classical,i.e.,Pauline,ChristianitythusdevelopsalogicallyconsistentreadingofGenesis. AccordingtothisChristianview,salvation,inthesenseofjustificationbeforeGod,cannotbemerited onthebasisofonesdeeds;originalsinprecludessuchperfection.Salvationcanbeattainedonlyby theunmeritedgraceofGod,onthebasisoffaithinJesusasChrist. RecognizingtheconsistencyoftheChristianreadingdoesnot,however,constituteagreement withitsinterpretationofGenesisoritsunderstandingofhumanlife. TheHebrewtermforsinischet,fromtheverbchata,whichliterallymeanstomissthemark(as whenshootingatatarget).Assuch,itdoesnotindicateaconditionorstateofbeing,butacting improperly,inawrongdirection.Therefore,MartinBuber,whosefineinsightsintothenuancesof theHebrewlanguagepermeatedhisbiblicalinterpretations,suggestedthatsinningisturningaway from,ratherthanturningtoward,theother. TheChristianconceptoforiginalsinaccordinglyfollowsneitherfromthetextofGenesisnor fromhumannature,asunderstoodJewishly.Sinisnotinevitable.Genesis4:7doesnotstatethata personwillinevitablyornecessarilysin,butonlythatthereisalwaystheopportunitytosin:Ifyou donotdowell,sinfulnessliesatthedoor.Thedoorisalwaystherebuttheverseinnowayimplies theinevitabilityofpassingoverthatmoralthreshold.Tothecontrary,theversecontinuestoassert thatthepersoncancontrolthesinfulimpulse:Itsdesireisforyou,butyoucanruleoverit.Atleast fromaJewishperspective,thisversecannotbeconstruedassuggestingthedoctrineoforiginalsin. Similarly,Genesis8:21alsohasbeenconstruedbyChristiansasteachingthedoctrineoforiginal sin.ThereareJewishinterpretationswhichunderstandthenature(yetzer)ofmansheartisevil fromhisyouth(mineurav)asmeaningthatmanhasanevilimpulsefromthetimeheisborn(cf. Rashi),althoughthey,too,donottherebyconcludethatsinisinevitable,letalonecausedbyAdam andEvesoriginalsin.AmorecreativeinterpretationisofferedbyRamban(MosesNachmanides, 11941270),whosuggestedthattheparticlemibeunderstoodnotasfrombutasindicating causation(onaccountof),sothattheversemeansthatthenatureofmansheartisevilon accountofhisyouthfulness,i.e.,theimpetuousimmaturityofthehumanbeing. Howeverthetextualdifficultiespresentedbytheseversesshouldberesolved,themainpointis clear.ThestoriesofGenesisarenotusuallyunderstoodasteachingthenotionoforiginalsin.As MartinBuberhasputit,wesinnotbecauseAdamandEvesinned,butastheysinned. EventhoseJewishinterpretationswhichdodrawsomekindofcausalconnectionbetweenwhat
20
QuotationsfromtheNewTestamentareaccordingtotheRevisedStandardVersion.
AdamandEvedidandhowwebehave,donot,andcouldnot,possiblytherebyconcludethat, becauseoforiginalsintheworksoftheLawaretobereplacedbyasystemoffaithasthebasisfor salvation. ChristianitysexclusiveviewofsalvationandJudaismsinclusiveviewarebothconsistenttheories basedondiametricallyopposedreadingsofthetextofGenesisandthehumancondition.Froma Jewishperspectivehowever,theexclusivityoftheChristianschemeofsalvationisinconsistentwith thejusticeofGod,Whocannotbeconceivedascondemningtodamnationthebulkofhumanity (wholivedbeforethetimeofChristianityorwhoneverhadtheopportunitytoheartheGospel).In thewordsofMosesMendelssohn(17291786): InasmuchasallmenmusthavebeendestinedbytheirCreatortoattainsalvation,no particularreligioncanbeexclusivelytrue....Arevelationthatclaimstobetheoneandonly roadtosalvationcannotbetrue,foritisnotinharmonywiththeintentoftheallmerciful Creator.21 Who,then,aretherighteousGentilesrecognizedassharingintheworldtocome?Accordingto Rambam,22theyarenonJewswhofollowwhattherabbiscalledthesevencommandmentsofthe childrenofNoah.ThesevencommandmentsofthechildrenofNoah,whichtherabbisdeducefrom Genesis,include(1)theprohibitionofidolatry,(2)theprohibitionofblasphemy,(3)theprohibition ofmurder,(4)theprohibitionofincestandadultery,(5)theprohibitionoftheft,(6)theprohibition ofeatingalimbofalivinganimal,and(7)therequirementtoestablishalegalsystemofjustice.23 RegardlessofhowtheselawswerespecificallydeducedbyJewishtraditionandwhatevertheir precisemeaningandauthority,whatisclearisthattheyareconsistentlyregardednotasJewishlaws butasuniversallyapplicable.TheyweregiventoAdamandNoah,therespectiveprogenitorsofallof humankind.TheiruniversalprioritytothenationallawsgiventoIsraelintheTorahisthusboth logicalandchronological.Theyare,inbasicterms,thelawsuponwhichanyjustandethicalsociety mustbefounded,andtheyprovidethestandardtowhichallpeopleareexpectedtoadhere. Aclearcorollaryofonesattitudetowardtheinclusivityorexclusivityofsalvationisonesattitude towardproselytism.Themissionaryimpulse,whichissocentraltocertaintypesofChristianityandis sowidelyresented,ifnotfeared,bymanyJewsandothernonChristians,isalogicallyconsistent
21
Mendelssohn,LettertoPrinceKarlWilhelm,inJerusalemandOtherJewishWritings,ed.AlfredJospe,pp. 126127.Cf.thetranslationbyEvaJospe,MosesMendelssohn:SelectionsFromHisWritings(NewYork, 1975),pp.116117. MTBookofJudges,LawsofKings8:11. MaimonidestheoryoftheNoachidecommandmentsiscomplicatedbythefactthatherequiresnotonly thatthenonJewobeythesevencommandments,butrecognizethemasbeingdivinecommandments whicharetaughtintheTorah,ratherthansimplydoingthemonthebasisofhisreasonandconscience. Therearealsotextualdifficultiesinthiscriticalpassage,anditisnotdefinitelyclearwhetherRambamstated thatapersonwhoacceptstheNoachidecommandmentsonthebasisofrationaldecisionorconscienceis notoneoftherighteousGentilesnor(velo)oneoftheirsages,areadingfollowedbymanyJewish traditionalistsbasedontheprintededitions,orthatsuchapersonisnotoneoftherighteousGentilesbut rather(ela)oneoftheirsages,areadingjustifiedbysomemanuscriptsandfollowedbymanyinthe academiccommunity.Cf.IsadoreTwersky,IntroductiontotheCodeofMaimonides(NewHaven,1980),p. 455.
22 23
outgrowthofChristianexclusivism.Ifapersontrulybelievesthatheorshehastheexclusivekeysto salvation,basichumandecencyandmorality,aswellaslogic,dictatethatthosekeysbesharedwith, oratleastofferedto,onesfellowman,whowillotherwiseperishindamnation. Themissionaryimpulse,then,neednotbeatallinsidious.EvenintheMiddleAges,therewere PopesandotherChurchleaderswhorecognizedthatcoercivemethodsarenotonlywrongin principlebutpracticallycounterproductive.AndinourpostHolocaustday,manysensitiveChristians recognizethatovertmissionaryactivityaimedattheJewsisoutofthequestion,theologically, politically,andasamatterofgoodtasteandfriendlyrelations.Sometoday,forexample,arguethat theonlywaytoteachtheGospelistoliveit,nottopreachit.Nevertheless,thelogicaldilemmafor Christiansremains.Ifthereisonlyonewaytosalvation,howcantheJewsnotneedthatway?Andif, conversely,theJewsdonotneedthatway,whydoesanyoneelse? WhereasChristianexclusivismlogicallyleadstoproselytism,whetheractiveorpassive,Jewish inclusivismneednotleadinanysuchdirection.Infact,althoughproselytesareacceptedinJudaism, theyaregenerallynotactivelyencouraged(andoftenareactivelydiscouragedinatleastsome circles).AsRambamwrote:24 MosesourteacheronlybequeathedtheTorahandthecommandmentstoIsrael...andto thoseoftheothernationswhowishtoconvert....Butonemaynotcoerceapersonwhodoes notwishittoaccepttheTorahandthecommandments.Moseswascommandedprophetically tocompelallhumanstoacceptthecommandmentsenjoinedonthechildrenofNoah.... Sincealltherighteousshareinsalvation,thereisnoinherentreasonforanonJewtotakeonthe additionalburdensofbeingaJew.ThenonJew,aswehaveseen,mustfulfillthesevenNoachide commandments;insimpleterms,hemustbeadecent,moralhumanbeing.Nomoreisrequiredof himforsalvation.TheJew,however,hastheobligationtoliveaccordingtothelawsoftheTorah, whichcontains,accordingtorabbinictradition,613commandments. AccordingtothelogicofChristianexclusivism,whenapersonacceptsJesus,hetherebygainsthe keytosalvationbyfaith.ButthereisnoparallellogicinJewishinclusivism.Sinceallpeoplewhoare morallyuprightcanattainsalvation,whytakeontheheavyobligationsoftheTorahs613 commandments? ThereweretimesinhistorywhenJewsengaged,oraresaidtohaveengaged,inactive proselytism.However,formuchofJewishhistoryinthepast2,000yearssuchproselytismwas strictlyprohibited,andseverelypunished,inChristianandIslamiccountries.Regardlessofthe particularhistoricalcircumstances,theresimplyisnologicalimpulsetoencourageactively,letalone toseek,proselytes. TheconceptoftheChosenPeoplethusdoesnotimplyanyexclusivityofsalvation.Tothecontrary, itimpliesnoadditionalbenefits,butonlyadditionalresponsibilitiestheregimenofthe613 commandmentsoftheTorah.Proselyteswhowishtotakeontheresponsibilitiesoflivingaccording totheTorahmayjointheJewishpeople,buttheyhavenoobligationtodoso. ChosennessthusimpliesnorequirementforJewstoimposetheirwill,todominateorrulethe nonJews(aswesawinthefirstsectionofthispaper);nordoesitprovidethemwithanyinherent reasontoseektoconvertthem(aswehaveseeninthesecondsectionofthispaper).
24
MTBookofJudges,LawsofKings8:10.
3.Chosenness:AMutualCovenant
Accordingtoafamousditty:HowoddofGod/TochoosetheJews.Towhichtheresponseis:Its notsoodd/TheJewschoseGod! Chosennessismutual;thechosenpeopleisalsothechoosingpeople.Therearethosewhoargue that,logicallyandchronologically,Godmusthaveinitiatedthechoice,andthatthealternativeisto preemptthedivineinitiativeandtoforceGodshand,asitwere.Eventhen,Godschoiceof Abrahamandhisdescendantswouldhavebeenmeaninglesshaditnotbeenreciprocated.David Novakproposessuchaviewinaforthcomingstudy:25 TheelectionofIsraelinvolvesnotonlythefreeactofGodbut,also,thefreeactofIsrael.The factofelectiondesignatedbythewordcovenant(brit)isnotabilateralpactmutually initiatedbyGodandIsrael.Itis,rather,anhistoricrealitycreatedbyGod.Nevertheless,this historicalrealitywouldhavenohumanmeaningwithoutIsraelsfreeacceptanceofitand participationinit. ThecovenantcouldnotfunctioninthehumanworldifIsraelhadnot,doesnot,andwillnot respondtoGodselectionofher.However,theresponseisanacceptanceoftheprioreventofGods choice.WhenIsraeldoesnotrespondwhichisalltoofrequentGodreiteratesthechoiceagain andagainandagain.ThecovenantisalwaysinitiatedbyGod,notbyIsrael,evenwhenIsraels reiterationofitcomescenturiesaftertheinitialcovenantalevent. Novakspositioniswellreasonedandcertainlyisinharmonywithmanyofthetraditionalsources. However,asmightbeexpected,otherviewsmaybefoundintheliterature.Letmetouchontwo radicallydifferingmedievalviews,bothofwhichreversethelogicandchronologyofelection. JudahHaLevi,ashasbeenmentionedabove,developedatheorythattheJewspossessadivine biologicalfacultyenablingthemtocommunicatepropheticallywithGod.Justasanimalshave facultiesofsensationandvoluntarylocomotionlackinginthevegetablekingdom,andasonlythe humanspecies,amongtheentireanimalkingdom,possessesthefacultyofreason,sothereisone nationendowedwiththisdivinepower(Arabic:amrilahi;Hebrew:inyanelohi).Adamwas createdwiththisfaculty,anditwastransmittedamongcertainindividualsoverthegenerations downtoAbraham,IsaacandJacob,afterwhichitbecametransmittedtoallofJacobschildrenand alltheirdescendants.HaLevimakesitclearthatthisfacultyisbiological;itisnottheTorahwhich enablestheJewstoattainthedivinepower.Rather,becausetheyarebornwithit,they,andonly they,couldreceivetheTorahindivinerevelation. Theimplicationforourpurposes,therefore,issimplythis.HaLevistheorymeansthatonecannot arguethatGodchoseAbrahamandhisprogeny.Rather,becauseonlyAbraham,andsubsequently theJewishpeople,werealreadyendowedwiththebiologicalcapacitytoreceivedivine communication,GodcouldrevealtheTorahtothem.ThisisnottosaythattheJewsfirstchoseGod. ItmeansthatGodcouldchooseonlythemtoreceivetheTorahbecausetheyalonehadtheprior capacitytoreceiveit.TheJewsdidnotchooseGod,butitwastheJewswhomadeGodschoice possible. TheapproachtakenbyRambamintheGuideofthePerplexed1:63differsfundamentallyfromthat ofJudahHaLevi.Nevertheless,wehavehereanevenclearercasefortheinitiativeoftheJews,
25
DavidNovak,TheElectionofIsrael:OutlineofaPhilosophicAnalysis,pp.3and19.
specificallytheirancestorAbraham,who,Rambamsuggests,arrivedatarationalunderstandingof Godthroughspeculationandreasoning(Arabic:nazarwaistadal;Hebrew:iyyunumofet): Atthosetimeseveryonewhoclaimedtobelistenedtoeitherclaimed,likeAbraham,that speculationandreasoninghadcometohimindicatingtohimthattheworldasawholehasa deity,orelseheclaimedthatthespiritofastaroranangelorsomethingsimilarhad descendeduponhim.Yetthatanindividualshouldmakeaclaimtoprophecyontheground thatGodhasspokentohimandsenthimonamissionwasathingneverheardofpriorto Moses.26 Inhisearliercode,RambamdescribedAbrahamasweaninghimselffromtheprevailingidolatry andcontemplatingthecosmos,withoutthebenefitofanyteacher,until,attheageof40, heattainedthewayoftruthandapprehendedtherightlinebyhiscorrectreason,andheknew thatthereisoneGodwhogovernsthesphereandcreatedeverything,andthatinallexistence thereisnoGodbesidesHim.27 WhereasJudahHaLevihadarguedthatthephilosophicalconceptoftheimpersonalGodof Aristotleisintellectuallyinferiorto,andlessexistentiallycompellingthan,thebiblicalconceptofthe personalGodofAbraham,RambamineffectisarguingthattheGodofAbrahamistheGodof Aristotle. Returningnowtothequestionofchosenness,whetherornotwefindRambamsportraitof Abrahamasaphilosopherorprotophilosopherpersuasive,theinterestingthingisthattheinitiative isentirelyAbrahamsGoddidnotchooseAbraham;rather,AbrahamdiscoveredGod.28 TheissueofchosennessisfurthercomplicatedbyacertainambivalenceinJewishtradition regardingIsraelswillingnesstobecomeGodscovenantalpartner.Therearetwoopposingtrendsin JewishtraditionregardinghowtheJewsreceivedtheTorah.Accordingtotheoneview,Godfirst offeredtheTorahtoothernations.However,onlyIsraelwasultimatelywillingtoacceptthe covenantalrelationshipwithGod:Mosestookthebookofthecovenantandreaditinthehearingof
26 27 28
Maimonides,GuideofthePerplexed1:63,trans.ShlomoPines(Chicago,1963),p.153. MTBookofKnowledge,LawsofIdolatry1:3. Interestingly,theTorahdoesnotprovideanyexplicitrationaleforGodschoiceofAbram(hewasnotyet Abraham).Thebareexistentialfactisallthatwearegiven,whenGodcommandsAbramtoleavehis homelandandtogotothecountrywhichIwillshowyou(Gen.12:1),andinthereaffirmationofthat choiceinthecovenantbetweenthepieces(britbeinhabtarim)inGenesis15.Subsequently,Godagain reaffirmshiscovenantinordertobeyourGodandofyourseedafteryou(Gen.17:8),butwhyAbraham andhisprogenyaremoreworthythanothersofdivinetrustandchoicebelow:Ihaveknownhim,inorder thathemightcommandhischildrenandhishouseholdafterhim,thattheyobservethewayoftheLord,to dorighteousnessandjustice(Gen.18:19).Therefore,itisthroughAbrahamthatallofthenationsofthe earthwillbeblessed.TheMidrashattemptstofillinwherethebiblicaltextissilent,andsuggeststhat Abraham,fromtheveryearliestage,recognizedtheabsurdityofidolatryandacknowledgedtheoneGod. WhileobviouslynotsuggestingthatAbrahamwasaphilosopher,theMidrashthussetsthestagefor Rambamsinterpretation.AftertheExodus,theIsraelitescouldregardthecovenantwithAbrahamasan establishedhistoricfact,requiringnofurtherexplanationorjustification,butobligatingthemtofulfillits conditions:Now,ifyouobeymeandobservemycovenant,youwillbeatreasureformeofallthenations (Exod.19:5).
thepeople;theysaid,WhatevertheLordhasspokenwewilldoandwewillobey(naasehve nishma)(Exod.24:7).29Theothertraditionalview,whichisequallyauthentic,isthatGodheld MountSinaiovertheheadsoftheIsraelites,andthreatenedtodropitonthemiftheydidnotaccept theTorah.30 Whetherthedivineorhumanpartnersareseenashavinginitiatedthecovenant,andwhether Israelisseenashavingagreedtothetermsofthecovenantfreelyorundercoercion,therecanbe littledoubtthatthesubsequentrelationshipbetweenGodandIsraelwasseenasamutual partnership. Thetermbritisetymologicallyobscure,butatleastaccordingtosomescholarlyopinionitis derivedfromtherootbchr,tochoose.Thebritthusmeansthatthepartnerschoosetoestablishan ongoingrelationship,andthebiblicalusagesofthetermdenotewhatwewouldcallatreaty, alliance,orconstitution.Thestoryofthecovenantbetweenthepieces(britbeinhabtarim)in Genesis15suggestswhythetermforestablishingorformalizingsuchabritiskarat,meaningtocut. ThemutualityofthecovenantalrelationshipbetweenIsraelandGodisexpressed,implicitlyor explicitly,throughouttheTorah,Prophets,andWritings,andperhapsmostclearlyinDeuteronomy. Initsmostbasicterms,IsraelsresponsibilityistobeloyaltoGodaloneandtoobeythedivinelaw. God,inturn,promisesIsraelcontinuedprotection,nationalsuccessandprosperityinthePromised Land.Inaddition,whenIsraelwillreceivedrasticbutdeservedpunishment,Godwillnotpermithis promisetotheirancestorstobebrokenbyallowingthemtobecompletelydestroyed.Theywill suffer,butultimatelytheyhavethereassurancethattheywillberestoredtotheirformerposition.31 Godspromises,however,areconditionaluponIsraelsfulfillingitsobligations.Itisultimately, therefore,howtheJewsbehavethatwilldeterminetheirfate.Thecovenantconfersuponthemno privilegeorlicense.Tothecontrary,itimposesuponthemheavyresponsibilities. Asthesignofthecovenant,Abrahamisgiventhecommandmentofcircumcision,whichis accordinglycalledbritmilah,thecovenantofcircumcision. Thisismycovenantwhichyoushallobservebetweenmeandyouandyourseedafteryou: circumciseforyourselveseverymale.Becircumcisedonthefleshofyourforeskin,thatit becomeasignofthecovenantbetweenmeandyou.Attheageofeightdaysshalleachmalefor allyourgenerationsbecircumcised...sothatmycovenantmaybeinyourfleshasaneternal covenant.Asforanyuncircumcisedmalewhodoesnotcircumcisethefleshofhisforeskin, thatpersonshallbecutofffromhispeople;hehasviolatedmycovenant.(Gen.17:1014)
29
ForthecollectedrabbinicstatementsinEnglishtranslation,cf.LouisGinzberg,TheLegendsoftheJews (Philadelphia,1955),Vol.III,pp.8082. Cf.Ginzberg,LegendsoftheJews,Vol.3,p.92. Thus,thenationaltochechah(rebuke,warning,admonition)inLeviticus26andDeuteronomy28promise direpunishment,butnottotaldestruction,asaconsequenceofthefailuretoobeyIsraelscovenantal obligations.However,asidefromgeneralandperennialquestionsoftheodicy,ourgenerationmust reevaluateourunderstandingofthemeaningofthetochechah.AsIrvingGreenberghaspointedout,inthe HolocaustJewssufferedcalamitiesfarmorehorrifyingandextensivethanwhatevertheTorahthreatensfor disloyaltytothecovenant,asaconsequenceoftheirortheirparentsoreventheirgrandparentsloyaltyto it,byidentifying,evenhoweverminimally,asJews.
30 31
Inadditiontotheplayonwordshere(whoeverfailstocutthecovenantbycircumcisionwillbe cutoff),Ithinkitisparticularlysignificantthatthecovenantofcircumcisionisestablishedjustat themomentwhenAbrahamhasbeenpromisedprogenythathisnameandideaswouldsurvive.The promiseofnationalsurvival,physicalandspiritual,isthusinscribedontothefleshoftheorganof procreation. ThecovenantofcircumcisionissofundamentalinJudaismthatittakespriorityoverotherlaws oftheTorah,suchastheSabbath.Thatpriorityisbothlogicalandchronological.Itischronological becauseitisthefirstspecificallyJewishcommandment(beforeitthereareonlythesevenNoachide commandmentsaswellasthegeneralcommandmenttoAdamandEve,tobefruitfuland multiply).Assuch,itprecedesbyseveralhundredyearsthecommandmenttoobservetheSabbath, whichtheJewsreceivedaftertheExodusfromEgypt,astheyenteredtheSinaiwilderness.The Sabbath,then,isthesecondsignofthecovenant: ThechildrenofIsraelshallobservetheSabbath,tomaketheSabbathfortheirgenerations aneternalcovenant.ItiseternallyasignbetweenmeandthechildrenofIsrael.(Exod.31:16 17) CircumcisionisalsologicallypriortotheSabbath,becauseitisperformedonthemalechildby virtueofthesimplefactofhisbeingaJew,ofhisveryJewishidentity.Itisnotdependent,asisthe Sabbath,uponanyparticularsubsequentaffirmationorobservance.OneisaJew,andismarkedas suchininfancy.TheSabbath,ontheotherhand,isanobligationconsequentuponthatprior existentialfact.
4.ChosennessandMoralResponsibility
Chosennesscannotlegitimatelybeconstruedtoindicatesomekindofprivilegeorlicense.It certainlydoesnotmeanthatIsrael,infact,isbetterthan,orsuperiorto,anyothernation.Thisis mostclearlyenunciatedbytheprophetAmosintwopassagesthat,atfirstglance,appear contradictory.32 InAmos9:7wefindGodreaffirminghumanequality;eventheExodusfromEgyptisnotunique: ChildrenofIsrael,areyounotlikethechildrenoftheEthiopianstome,saystheLord;haveInot broughtIsraelupoutofthelandofEgypt,andthePhilistinesfromCrete,andAramfromKir?This wouldseemtocontradictAmossearlierstatement,OnlyyouhaveIknownamongallthefamilies oftheearth(Amos3:2). Theearlierstatement,however,doesnotgranttheJews,infactorintheory,anysuperiority.The termyada(know)inbiblicalusagedoesnotrefertoabstractcognitiveknowledge,buttoan intimateexperientialknowledge,whichiswhythetermalsomeansandisnotaeuphemismfor sexualintercourse.33 GodandIsraelhaveanintimaterelationship.ThisgrantstotheJews,however,nospecialrightsor privileges.Onthecontrary,theversecontinues:ThereforeIwillinflictuponyouallofyour transgression.
32
Cf.MartinBubersinterestingdiscussionofthisinTheElectionofIsrael:ABiblicalInquiry,inOntheBible: EighteenStudies,ed.NahumN.Glatzer(NewYork,1982),pp.8092. Cf.Genesis4:1.

33
Itispreciselybecauseofthespecial,intimaterelationshipthatIsraelhaswithGodthatitcanbe heldaccountableforitswrongdoing.Othersmayseektoexcusetheirbehaviorbecausetheydidnot realizewhattheyweredoing.Israelcanmakenosuchexcuse;theJewishpeopleshouldknowbetter. Puttingitdifferently,transgressionisalwaysinherentlywrong.However,foraJew,who,asAmos suggests,shouldknowbetter,thattransgressionisadoublewrong,becauseitissimultaneouslya violationofthecovenant.Anyhumanbeinghasthebasicobligationsofthesevencommandmentsof thechildrenofNoah.TheJewhasthebroaderrangeandhigherstandardofthe613commandments oftheTorah.Thecovenantgrantsnospecialprivileges;itimposesspecialresponsibilities. Thisperspectiveonchosennesscanperhapsbeunderstoodintermsofthestandardthatparents applytotheirchildren.Whenthechildcomeshomefromschoolorplay,andtheparentsseethe childhasdonesomethingwrong,theyask:Youknowthatswrong;whydidyoudoit?Towhich,if thechilddoesntsay,Idontknow,heorsheoftenresponds:Buteveryonewasdoingit. Typically,then,theparentswillreply:Itdoesntmatterwhateveryoneelsewasdoing.Youareour child,andhavingtaughtyouwhatiscorrectweexpectmoreofyou. Thepointhereisnotthatthechildis,infact,betterthantheotherchildren.Theparentsare tellingthechildthat,becausetheylovehimorher,andcareespeciallyabouthimorher,they thereforeexpectmore;whateverothersmaydo,theyexpecttheirchildnottobetraytheirloveand trust,buttodowhattheyknowisright. MoralresponsibilityisthebasisofthecovenantfromitsverybeginningwithAbraham.Thisis evidentnotonlyinthelaterrabbinicandphilosophicliterature,butinthebiblicalliterature;and withinbiblicalliterature,itisevidentnotonlyinthelaterwritingsoftheprophets,butintheTorah itself. ConsiderthefactthatthefulfillmentofGodscovenantalpromisestoAbrahamandhis descendants(possessionoftheland,nationalvictory,successandprosperity,etc.)isconditionalon Israelsbehavior. TheethicalimperativeofthecovenantclearlyunderliesthestoryinGenesis18ofthedestruction ofSodomandGomorrah: TheLordsaid,ShallIcoverupfromAbrahamwhatIamabouttodo?ForAbrahamwill becomeagreatandmightynation,throughwhomallofthenationsoftheearthwillbe blessed.Ihaveknownhim,inorderthathemightcommandhischildrenandhishousehold afterhim,thattheyobservethewayoftheLord,todorighteousnessandjustice(laasot tzedakahumishpat).(Gen.18:1719) ThenAbraham,wholater(inGenesis22)wouldrespondhineni(HereIam)whenGodcalledhim tosacrificehissonIsaac,protestsandargueswithGod.Noah,itwillberecalled,utterednoprotest whenhewasinformedoftheimpendingdestructionofthewholeworld.Abraham,bycontrast, proteststhedestructionofatowninfamousforthewickednessofmostofitscitizens: Forbidittoyou,todosuchathing,tokilltherighteoustogetherwiththewicked,sothatit wouldbethesamefortherighteousandforthewicked.Forbidittoyou.Willnotthejudgeof alltheearthdojustice?(Gen.18:25) WhatgaveAbrahamtherighttoarguewithGod?Noahhadnotprotestedauniversaldestruction, butnowGodnotonlyacceptsAbrahamschallenge,heanticipatesit. Inasimilarvein,contrastGodsacceptanceofAbrahamschallengewithhisresponsetoJobout ofthestorm:
Whoisthiswhodarkenscounselbywordswithoutknowledge?WherewereyouwhenI roundedtheearth?(Job38:24)
WhydoesGodresorttoanadhominemargumenttodisqualifyJobschallenge,whereashe acceptsandmeetsAbrahamschallenge?Theanswerinbothcases,Ibelieve,isthatbothNoahand Jobwererighteous,uprightmen(cf.Genesis6:9andJob1:1),whoaredescribedasinnocent(tam, tamim).However,neitherisamemberoftheChosenPeople.Noah,ofcourse,antedatesthe covenant.InthecaseofJob,thereisnoobviousevidencetoindicatehisprecisenationalbackground ortime,althoughhiscountryUzandtheethnicgeographicbackgroundoftheothercharactersin thebookarenotIsraelite.Accordingtoatleastonerabbinictradition,Jobwasthemostrighteous (tzadik)Gentilewhoeverlived.34TheethicaldilemmasraisedbyNoahandespeciallybyJobarenot especiallyJewish.Theproblemsofevil,injusticeandthesufferingoftheinnocentarefundamentally humanproblemsofuniversalimportandapplication. Abraham,however,isthefounderoftheChosenPeople;heisnotauniversalfigure,but,rather,is thefirstpersonwithwhomGodhadthespecialrelationshipofcovenant.Abrahamwasthefirst personofwhomGodcouldusetheintimatelanguage,Ihaveknownhim,etc.,and,inturn,wasthe firstpersondescribedasbeingaloverofGod:YouareIsraelmyservant,Jacob,forIhavechosen you,theseedofAbrahammylover(Isa.41:8). Theintimacyofthecovenantpermits,andthehigherethicalresponsibilityofthecovenant requires,Abrahamtochallengedivineinjustice.God,asthesourceofjustice,mustbejust.
5.ChosennessandHoliness
ThecovenantsetstheJewsapartfromothernations.Theyareexpectedtobeakingdomof priestsandaholynation(mamlekhetkohanimvgoykadosh),inthewordsofExodus19:6.The Hebrewtermkadosh(usuallytranslatedasholy)denotessomethingdistinctive,differentor special.Thatiswhyitisused,forexample,asthetermforbetrothalandmarriage(kiddushin),where thepartnerssanctifyorhalloweachothermostbasicallybytheexclusivenatureoftheir relationship,inwhichtheyarespecialtoeachotheranddifferentfromallothers. Theethicalimperativeofthecovenantrequiresasenseofbeingspecialordistinctive:behavior whichmaybepermittedortoleratedinothersisunacceptableinsomeonespecial.Therefore,the holinesscodebeginswiththeIsraelitesbeingtold:Youbeholy,forI,theLordyourGod,amholy (Lev.19:2). Holiness,forexample,istheonlyrationaleexplicitlyandconsistentlymentionedintheTorahin connectionwiththesystemofkashrut(thedietarylaws).AlthoughsomelaterJewishphilosophers attemptedtoexplainkashrutnaturalistically,allegingthatvariousphysicalbenefitsaccruetothose whoobserveitandthattheTorahprohibitsharmfulfoods,theTorahmakesnosuchclaim.The promiseoflengtheningofdays,foundelsewhereintheTorah,isnevermentionedinthiscontext. WhattheTorahdoessayisthatkashrutservestodistinguishtheJewsasaholypeople. NotallJewsaffirmthisconceptofdistinctiveness.Nevertheless,therecanbelittledoubtthatdiet isanextremelyeffectivesocialmechanismforensuringdistinctions.
34
MidrashDeuteronomyRabba2:4.ForthecollectedrabbinicviewsinEnglishtranslation,cf.LouisGinzberg, TheLegendsoftheJews,Vol.2,pp.225242.
ItshouldbeclearthattheJewishpeopleareholyonlyiftheyobeythelawsoftheTorah.The holinessmustbeattained;itisnotinherent.EvenatheorysuchasJudahHaLevis,whichattributes Jewishdistinctivenesstoaninheringbiologicalfaculty,emphasizedthatthisdivinepowerislatent, andcanbeactivatedonlyundercertainconditionsandbycorrectbehavior. If,then,theJewsobservemycovenant,theywillbeholy: Now,ifyouobeymeandobservemycovenant,youwillbeatreasureformeofallthe nations,forthewholeearthismine.Youwillbeformeakingdomofpriestsandaholynation. (Exod.19:56) Again,ritualholinessfostersasenseofdistinctiveness,which,inturn,inculcatestherecognitionof aspecialethicalresponsibility,acommitmentofnoblesseoblige. Whatwewouldcalltheritualandethicaldimensionsofthecovenantarethuscorrelative:the ritualpromotestheethical,andtheethicalisthefoundationandpreconditionoftheritual.Howcan theJewpretendtofulfilltheadditional,specialobligationsoftheTorahifhedoesnotfulfillthebasic ethicalrequirementsexpectedofallpeopleintheNoachidelaws? InthewordsofJudahHaLevi: Wouldthatyouobservedthelawsobservedbythesmallestandleastimportant communities,i.e.,ofjustice,thegoodway,andacknowledgingGodsbeneficence.Forthe divinelawscannotbecompleteuntilafterthesocialandrationallawsarecomplete....If someonedoesnotupholdthese,howcanheupholdthesacrifices,Sabbath,circumcision,etc., whichreasonneitherrequiresnorprohibits?TheselawswhichdistinguishIsraelarein additiontotherationalones,andthroughthemtheyhavetheadvantageofthedivinepower.35 Infact,ourverydistinctionbetweentheethicalandritualdimensionsofthecovenantisaliento biblicalthought,whichrecognizesnosuchdichotomy.ThroughouttheTorahwefindbothkindsof commandmentsinterspersed.TheyareequallycommandedbyGod,andtheyarecommanded together. Whatcannotbeoveremphasizedhereisthattheritualethicalcorrelationinthecovenantisnota laterconstructorinterpretation,whetherprophetic,rabbinic,orphilosophical.Itcharacterizesthe covenant,goingbacktoAbraham(whoreceivedbothethicalimperativesandsuchritual obligationsascircumcision).Thecorrelationisafundamentalfeatureofthemostritualistic documentsintheTorah,inthebookofLeviticus. Leviticus,whichepitomizesmorethananyothersectionoftheBibleJewishconcernforformal, ritualbehavior,beginsbydescribingvarioustypesofsacrificestobeofferedondifferentoccasions andforvariousoffenses.Then,inLeviticus5:2026(inChristianBibles,Leviticus6:17),theTorah citesforthefirsttimethecaseofanoffenseagainstanotherperson,andstipulatesthattheguilty party shallrepaytheprincipalamountandaddafifthparttoit.Heshallpayittoitsownerwhenhe realizeshisguilt.Thenheshallbringtothepriest,ashispenaltytotheLord,aramwithout blemishfromtheflock,ortheequivalent,asaguiltoffering. Inotherwords,thepersoncouldnotbringhisguiltofferingtotheLorduntilhefirstcompensated thepersonwhomhehadharmed,addinga20percentpenaltytotheprincipalowed.Onlythen,
35
JudahHaLevi,Kuzari2:48.IntheHirschfeldtranslation,thispassageisfoundonp.112.
whenhehadrightedtheethicalwrong,couldhebeginhisritualatonementbeforeGod. TheclassicalprophetsofIsraelhaveoftenbeenfundamentallymisunderstood,byJewsandnon Jewsalike,regardingtheirattitudetowardritualandtheformalTemplecult.Whattheprophets opposedwasnotritualperse;tothecontrary,theyconsistentlyreaffirmedtheneedforritualand thecentralityoftheJerusalemTempleinJewishreligiouslife.Whattheyopposedandsharply condemnedweretheperversionofritualandthedefilementofthesacredbyseparatingwhat shouldbeorganicallycorrelated,byengagingintheemptyformsofritual,devoidofanyethical content,asifthedivineimagecanbeenhancedwhilehumandignityisassaulted. Thesameprinciple,thattheethicaldimensionistheabsolutepreconditionfortheritual dimensionoflife,isalsobasictotherabbisapproachtoreligiousbehavior.Intheirdiscussionofthe atonementritualsofYomKippur,theyruledthat RegardingtransgressionsbetweenapersonandGod,YomKippurcanatone.Regarding transgressionsbetweenapersonandhisfellow,YomKippurcannotatone,untilhesatisfies hisfellow.36 AsinLeviticus,weseeherethatwhenthetransgressionispurelyritual,i.e.,betweenaperson andGod,andinvolvesnootherpeople,thentheatonementisalsoritual.However,whenthe transgressionisintheethicalrealm,i.e.,betweenapersonandhisfellow,thenbeforetherecan beanyritualatonement,thetransgressormustsatisfy(i.e.,compensate)hisfellow.Theethical atonementmustprecede,chronologicallyaswellaslogically,anyritualatonement.Withoutthat ethicalprecondition,theritualisworsethanineffectual;itisatypeofmagic,anattempttoforce naturalordivinepowerstodoourwill,withoutanyregardfornaturalcausalityorethical consequences.Byitself,ritualislikealchemy;itdeludesusintothinkingthatwecanchangethe basenessofourlivesintosomethingprecious,thatwehavebeenrefined,whereas,infact,wehave notchangedourwaysatall.
6.Chosenness:ExternallyorInternallyDirected
ThereareJewstodaywho,liketheirancestorsinthedaysofMosesorIsaiah,thinkthat chosennessconfersuponthemsomespiritualorothersuperiorityovernonJews,andthattheritual componentofthecovenantsomehowexemptsthemfromfulfillingtheirmoralobligationstoboth JewsandnonJews.SuchabusehasledotherJewstorejecttheconceptoftheChosenPeopleon moralgrounds. Others,likeMordecaiKaplan(18811983),concludedthatitisnotonlytheabuseoftheconcept thatrendersitobjectionable;theconceptitselfisobjectionable.Kaplanregardedthenotionthatone nationissomehowclosertoGodthanareotherstobemorallyrepugnantandtheologically bankrupt,aswellasfundamentallyundemocraticandprimitive. Itseemstome,however,thatwhatisobjectionableisnottheconceptoftheChosenPeopleper se,butitsexternalization.AsIunderstandtheclassicalsources,andhaveattemptedtopresentthem here,chosennessisaconceptproperlydirectedinternallyratherthanexternally.Chosenness,thus understood,isnotacomparativecategory,externallydirected,tocomparetheJewsindividuallyand collectivelywithotherpeopleandnations.Keepinmind,again,thatevensuchanardentnationalist
36
MishnahYoma,Ch.8.
asJudahHaLevirecognized,inallhonesty,thatJewsare,infact,nobetterethicallyandnomore intelligentorwiserthananyotherpeople. Rather,chosennessisinternallydirected.ChosennessdoesnotmeanthatJewsarebetterthan others.Itchallengesthemtobetterthemselves.Itdoesnotmeanthattheyarebetterthanother people,butthattheyshouldbebetterpeople. ThefalsenotionthattheJewishpeoplepossesssomeuniqueclaimtomoralityandtruth,which wouldseemtohavenobasisinempiricalfactortheliterarysources,ledsomeJewishthinkersinthe 19thcenturytoadvocateamissiontheory,bothintheReformmovementandintheNeo OrthodoxyofSamsonRaphaelHirsch(18081888).Accordingtothemissiontheory,Jewshavea divinemissiontogooutandteachtherestofhumanitythetruthofethicalmonotheism.Thisdoes notcontradictwhatwassaidearlieraboutJudaismlackingalogicalmotiveforpromoting proselytism,becausethemissionherewastospreadbasicanduniversalethicalmonotheism,not Judaismperse,withitsadditionalrequirements. AccordingtothismissiontheoryoftheReformersandoftheirNeoOrthodoxopponentHirsch, JewsshouldnotseekaseparatenationalJewishlife,northerestorationoftheJewishpeopletoZion. Thedispersion,ratherthanbeingseenasdivinepunishment(onaccountofoursinswereweexiled fromourland,inthewordsoftheprayerbook),wasseenpositively,asopeningupnewfieldsfor theJewishmission. Thisandotherexternallydirectedviewsofchosennessareepitomizedbythephrase,orlagoyim, alighttothenations,asiftheJewsareinapositiontoenlightentherestoftheworld. Interestinglyenough,however,thisphrase,whichonehearsrepeatedsooftenthatonemight thinkitisfoundintheTorahorotherbiblicalbooks,isnotfoundanywhereintheBible,andina sensecontradictswhattheprophetsunderstoodJewishchosennesstomean. Jewshaveneitherthefightnortheabilitytosetthemselvesupasalighttothenations.What IsaiahchallengesIsraeltobecomeisnotorlagoyimbutleorgoyim,asalightofthenations. Isaiahsphrase(cf.Isa.42:67and49:6)isnotexternallydirected,thattheJewsshouldbealightto thenations.Itisaninternallydirectedchallenge:theJewsshouldconducttheirownnationallifein thepromisedlandofZioninanexemplarymanner,asalightofthenations,throughasocietythat isbasedonjusticeandtruth.IsaiahsvisionneithernegatesseparateJewishnationhoodnordoesit sendtheJewsouttoenlightenthenonJews.ItcallsforJewishnationallifetobeexemplary. Chosenness,thusunderstood,demandsthatJewishdistinctivenessbeinternallydirected,in fulfillmentofthemoralfoundationandethicalgoaloftheJewishpeoplescovenantwiththeGodof Israel.InthewordsofIsaiah: ItheLordhavecalledyouinrighteousness,Ihavetakenyoubythehandandprotectedyou; Ihavemadeyouasanationalcovenant,asalightofthenations;Toopenblindeyes,tobring theprisoneroutofthedungeon,andthosewhodwellindarknessoutofprison.(Isa.42:67) Ihavemadeyouasalightofthenations,tobemysalvationtotheendoftheearth.(Isa. 49:6) COPYRIGHT1994AmericanJewishCongress
Chosenness:CommentarytoExodus19:56
RabbiSamsonRaphaelHirsch
RabbiHirsch,the19thcenturyGermanrabbiwhofoundedneoOrthodoxy,wasabiblical commentatorandtheologian. V.5.AndnownowyouhavecomehithertotheplacetowhichIinvitedyoutoenterMyservice onthisMount.Ifthisiswhatyoureallyearnestlywish,toobeyMeandtocarryonthebondand relationshipyouhavestartedwithMe,thenthefundamentalconditionImakeisthatyoubecome, morethanallthenations,segulahtoMe.[T]heuseofthiswordforthefundamentalcondition whichisdemandedofusinourrelationshiptoGodindicatesthatwemustbecomecompletelyand exclusivelyHispossessionineveryphaseofourbeing,thatourwholeexistenceandallourdesiresbe dependentonHim.Foralltheearthismine:ForthisrelationshipyouaretobeartowardsMeis reallynothingexceptional,isnothingbutthebeginningofthereturntothenormalconditionwhich theworldshouldbeartowardsMe.Thewholeofhumanity,everynationintheworld,reallyis destinedtobelongtoMeandwillbeultimatelyeducatedbyMe. V.6.Anditisjustforthisultimatedestinyofthewholeworldthatyouaretobecomea mamlekhetkohanimandagoikadoshuntoMe.Akingdomofpriests:Eachandeveryindividualof youistobecomeakohen,apriest,inasmuchasheistoallowallhisactionstoberegulatedbyMe, totaketheyokeoftheKingdomofHeavenfaithfullyonhisshouldersandbecomeatruekohenwho byhiswordandexamplespreadstheknowledgeofGodandloyaltytoHim.AndaHolyNation,just as,individuallyyouaretoappearpriestlike,soistheimpressionwhichIsraelasanationistomake ontheworldtobeoneofholinesstoGod.Youaretobeauniquenationamongstthenations,a nationwhichdoesnotexistforitsownfame,itsowngreatness,itsownglory,butthefoundation andglorificationoftheKingdomofGodonEarth,anationwhichisnottoseekitsgreatnessinpower andmight,butintheabsoluteruleoftheDivineLawtheTorahforthatiswhatkedushahis. [Hirsch,S.R.,ThePentateuch:TranslationandCommentaryVol.2,SecondEdition,translatedinto EnglishbyIsaacLevy,Pages250251.Gateshead.1989,JudaicaPress,Ltd.]
TheChosenPeople:AnEssayonExodus19:56
W.GuntherPlaut,
RabbiPlaut,a20 centuryNorthAmericanReformtheologianandbiblicalcommentator,iseditor ofTheTorah:AModernCommentary,fromwhichthisessaywastake. YoushallbeMytreasuredpossessionamongallthepeoples(19:5).Thispromiseofspecial electionorchosennesshasbeenacorefactorofJewishlifeforthousandsofyears.Intimesofstress, itwasasourceofhopeandreassurance;Jewishsurvivalmightnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthe convictionthatIsraelwasindeedGodsbeloved,destinedforhighpurposeandspiritualglory.From this,somehavedrawntheconclusionthatinfacttheconceptoftheChosenPeoplewasessentiallya survivalmechanism,andthatthebiblicalphrasewhateveritmeantinitsdaybecamethe foundationforselfexaltation,religiousconceitandafalsesenseofsuperiorityonthepartofJews, aswellasacauseforcontemptandevenhatredonthepartofnonJews.Consequently,soitisheld, inanagethatdecriesinequalityofeverykind,thedoctrineofspecialelectionhasnofurtherplace andshouldforthwithbedisavowed.Ithaditsrole,butnolonger;itwasproductive,buthasbecome counterproductive.JewsandGentilesbothviewitwithsuspicion. Eveninthisnegativeevaluation,thedoctrineofelectionappearsasafactorofsurpassing importance.InthetheophanyaswellasinthepropheticbooksoftheBibleitprovidesthe frameworkofGodsrelationshipwiththepeopleofIsrael.Godhassingledthemoutbutalsomakes specialdemandsonthem.Theywillhavetoconformtoastandardsetfornootherpeople,andtheir failuretoreachitwillhavedireconsequences. Israelwastobeaholypeople,setapartforGodsservice.Thiswouldentailgreathappinessas wellasdeepsuffering,hopeaswellasdespair.TheprivilegeconferredonIsraelwastheprivilegeof dwellinginthecourtoftheAlmighty,alwaysreadyforeverytask,preparedtodoGodsbidding.In thebiblicaltext,therefore,therevelationisfollowedbylaws,fromtheexaltedrulesofthe Decaloguetoordinaryregulationsgoverningdiversematters.IntheconceptualworldoftheTorah (aswellaspostTorahJudaism),Godisservednotsomuchwithprinciplesandpronouncementsof faithaswithmitzvotdeedswithwhichtoapproachtheineffablePresenceasbeingtheGodwho hearsprayersandwhoprotectsthetreasuredpeople.
th
Jewishunderstandingsofthereligiousother
RuthLanger
RuthLangerreceivedherPh.D.fromHebrewUnionCollegeJewishInstituteofReligion, Cincinnatiin1994(whereshealsoreceivedrabbinicordinationin1986).Sheisassociate professorofJewishStudiesintheDepartmentofTheologyatBostonCollege,wheresheisalso associatedirectoroftheCenterforChristianJewishLearning.Thisarticlefirstappearedin TheologicalStudiesinJune2003.Init,sheoffersanononefootanalysisofchosennessasit relatestoourunderstandingoftheother,includingthetheologicalimplicationsofsuch understanding.Shealsosuggestswaysthatitmaybemodifiedinlightofnewdirectionsin JewishChristianrelations.Onthesurface,itmayappearthatthisarticleisabitofftopic,but itisnot.OnewaytounderstandtheconceptsofchosennessandcovenantinJudaismisto understandwhatJudaismhastosayaboutpeoplewhoarenotJews.Mostofthefootnotesare hers,thoughsomeareeditedandabouthalffromtheoriginalarticlearenotincluded. Humanselfidentitybeginswiththenegativedefinitionofselfasnotother,spanningfromthe infantilerecognitionthatparentshaveindependentexistencesandextendingtocommunal definitionsofcharacteristicsorboundariesthatplacesomepeopleinandothersout.Wealllive inoverlappingcirclesofsuchcommunalboundaries,definedbysuchthingsasfamily,geographic proximity,coworkers,ethnicity,andreligion.Whilesomeofthesesocialstructuresareinformal, othersaredefinedbycodifiedrulesdeterminingwhoisselfandwhoisother.Religious communitiesandnationalcommunitiestendtobethemostformalindefiningtheseboundaries. Judaism,asprimarilyanational/ethniccommunity,traditionallyhandlesthesedistinctionsthrough themechanismsofhalachah,ofrabbiniclegislation.Thishalachicdefinitionofselfcreatesthe underpinningsforthemoretheologicalexpressionsofthisconcept.1 InmyarticleIofferapreliminarysurveyofthetraditionalJewishhalachicdefinitionsofselfand otherandtheirtheologicalimplications.Ialsoexploresomeoftheattemptstomodifythese understandingstoanswerthechallengespresentedtothetraditionalconceptionsbythemodern world.Inthecourseofthesediscussions,IcompareJudaismsunderstandingswiththeCatholic position.However,thereisurgentneedformoreintensiveandseriousscholarlyresearchonthis questionbeforeamorecomprehensiveanswercanbepresented.Althoughafewbooksandmany
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Thisdistinctionbetweenhalachahandmoretheologicalmodesoverlapsbutdoesnottotallycorrespondtoa dichotomybetweentheworkofcanonlawandofficialchurchbodiesspeakingthroughapostolicauthority ontheonehandandtheworkoftheologiansontheother.OfficialstatementsoftheChurchoftendirectly addresstheologicalissues,blendingthesemodesofthought,butrabbinichalachicpronouncementsrarely do.However,thesesamerabbis,speakingorwritingindifferentmodes(thatcarrylessauthority)maywell concernthemselveswiththeology.Thishalachic/theologicaldefinitionalsostandsinsignificanttensionwith thecontemporarysociologicaluseofthetermidentity.Sociologistsbeginwiththeselfperceptionand selfdefinitionoftheindividualbasedonhisorherownexperiences,memoriesandsocialnetworks, whatevertheymaybe.Thehalachic/theologicalidentityexpressesanidealthatoftencountersthetrends thatsociologistsdocument.Thesocialsciencesapproachisunproductiveforatheologicallybased,norm orienteddiscussiongroundedinhowJewshaveunderstoodselfandotherthroughtheirhistory.
articleshaveappearedinrecentyears,nooneyethasseriouslyinvestigatedthefullrangeof medievalhalachicrulingsaboutpermittedandrestrictedinteractionswiththeChristianandMuslim worlds,particularlywithaneyetounderstandingtheirunderlyingtheologicalpositions.Suchworkis anecessarypreliminaryforthetaskthatmanyengagedinJewishChristianrelationsnowrecognize asurgent:thebuildingofaJewishtheologyofthereligiousotherthatwillrespondtothetheological revolutionintheChristianunderstandingofJudaismledbytheCatholicChurch.2
WHOISAJEW?
Atitsmostfundamentallevel,thedefinitionofJewisneitherreligiousnortheological,but ethnic.3ThispointiscriticalforunderstandingtraditionalJewishunderstandingsofselfandother. JosephDanarguesconvincinglythattheveryconceptsofreligionandtheologyastheacademy understandsthemtodayareChristianconcepts,derivedfromChristianitysearlyaccommodations withGrecoRomanculture,resultinginacleardifferentiationbetweentherealmsofchurchand stateandbetweentheologyandphilosophy.Judaism(andIslam),incontrast,havenosuch conceptualdifferentiationbetweentheprofaneandthereligiousrealms.Instead,thesearecultures inwhicheverythingideallyparticipatesintheholy,includingthemostmundaneactivities. Consequently,nothingliesoutsidetherealmofreligion;divinelyordainedlawgovernsliterallyevery aspectoflife,fromtheprivacyofthehome,tothemarketplace,tothegovernment,tomattersof worship.Thus,theJewishunderstandingofthenonJewbuildsfromanunderstandingoftheselfasa memberofthisholycommunityincontrastwithanoutsideworldthatlivesaccordingtoadifferent (ornonexistent)relationshiptoGod.4Modernityhaschallengedmanyaspectsofthistraditional identity,butonecannotunderstandthischallengewithoutunderstandingitspredecessors. ModernscholarshipalsoacceptsfairlyunanimouslythatperseJudaismisnotsomuchthereligion oforcontainedinthewrittenBibleasitisthereligionthatlivesbytheTorah,as[itis]interpreted
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DabruEmet:AJewishStatementonChristiansandChristianity,issuedinSeptember2000bytheJewish ScholarsGroup,sponsoredbytheInstituteforChristianandJewishStudiesinBaltimore,andits accompanyingbook,ChristianityinJewishTerms,ed.TikvaFrymerKenskyetal.(Oxford:Westview,2000) wasafirstattemptatsuchanunderstanding. ThewordJewderivesprimarilyfromtheGrecoRomandesignationoftheinhabitantsofJudaea,the designationofthelandofIsraelderivedfromthelargertribe,Judah(theotherbeingBenjamin),ofthe survivingsouthernkingdom.AlthoughthetermhasanauthenticHebreworiginyehudi,meaningJudah iteitisneverthepreferredtermofJewishselfdesignationinitsownlanguagesoflearning,Hebrewand Aramaic.There,followingbiblicalusage,thepeoplearemostcommonlydesignatedindividuallyand collectivelyasIsrael,Yisrael,orthechildrenorpeopleofIsrael,BneiYisraelorAmYisrael.However,itis commoninEnglishtoreserveIsraeliteforthepeopleoftheHebrewBible,andJewforthepeopleofthe lasttwomillennia.TheHebrewcognateforJudaism,astheabstracttermforthereligionofthesepeople, appearsfirstinmedievalphilosophicalHebrew,andeventhereitappliesmoregenerallytoallaspectsof Jewishculture.NotethatitisonlyinthisperiodthatHebrewdevelopsatermfortheconceptofreligion, adaptingthemeaningofthelatebiblicaldat(meaningthere,law,andappearingonlyinEsther,Ezra,and Daniel).TheseparationofJewishreligion(Judaism)fromotheraspectsofcultureisaproductofmodernity andtheintegrationofJewsintoWesternsocieties(largelyonitsterms). JosephDan,OnSanctity:Religion,Ethics,andMysticisminJudaismandOtherReligions[Hebrew](Jerusalem: Magnes,1997),especiallychap.1,SanctityandSanctification:BetweenJudaismandChristianity.
bythetraditionsoftherabbinicOralTorah.TheOralTorahistheongoingprocessofinterpretation andapplicationofthereceivedwrittentextembeddedinwhichareinfinitepossibilitiesof meaningsoastosanctifyallaspectsoflife.Assuch,biblicalconceptionsareformative,butnot alwaysdirectlynormative.FromthelattercenturiesofthefirstmillenniumC.E.,theTalmudand textsbaseduponithavebeenmuchmoredeterminativeofactualJewishinteractionswiththenon JewishworldthanhasbeentheBibleitself.Hence,ourdiscussionherewillreferonlyobliquelytothe biblicalperiod. BytheemergenceofrabbinicJudaisminthelateSecondTempleperiod,anyoneborntoaJewish motherwasautomaticallyconsideredaJew,acitizenofAmYisrael,thepeopleIsrael,anda participantinIsraelscovenantwithGod.(9) Atitsmostfundamentallevel,thisisanirrevocablestatus.AJew,evenifhehassinned,is[still]a Jew.5ThereareinnumerablelongerandshorterdefinitionsofwhatitmeanstobeagoodJew, discussingfundamentalsoffaithandbehavior,butanyonemeetingthisethnic/familial/national distinctionis,bydefinition,legallyaJew.6Atthesametime,therearecertainactionsthat communitiesatonetimeoranotherhaveconsideredsuchseriousbetrayalsthattheyhavebanned orexcommunicatedtheperpetrators.Intodaysworld,functionallymorethanofficially,oneis considerednolongeraJewifonewillingly7andpositivelyaffiliateswithanotherreligion.Formal declarationofthefundamentaltenetsofIslam,baptismintoChristianity(evenacceptanceofJesus asMessiahasinJewsforJesusorMessianicJudaism),oractiveparticipationinanyotherreligionor religiouscultallplaceonesociologicallyand,accordingtosome,halachically,outsideofthepeople ofIsrael.Inotherwords,oneneednotacceptanyelementofacreedalstatementofJudaism,8but onemaynotaffirmthecardinalbeliefsofotherreligiouscommunitieswheretheycontradictJewish teachings. ExaminationoftherequirementsforonewhowishestobecomeaJewthroughconversionpoints
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BTSanhedrin44a,citedwithreferencetoapostatesexplicitlyinnumerousmedievalsources.Intimesof forced(orhighlyencouraged)baptisms,thiswasanimportantinternalprinciple,bothregardingtheability ofJewstorenouncetheirbaptismandreturn,andregardingthelegalstatusoftheirfamilialandbusiness obligations. ThisissomewhatparalleltodefiningChristianidentitysolelybybaptism.Renunciationofbaptism,froma Christianperspective,issimilarlyproblematic.However,thereisnoritualthatmakesthechildofJewish parentsaJew.RituallycircumcisingababyboymarksonlyhisentryintoGodscovenantwithAbraham. Failuretodosoplaceshisparentsandhim(uponhismajority)inasituationofsin,butdoesnotexcludehim fromthecommunity.Itisimportanttonote,however,that,atthelevelofpopularreligion,circumcision doesmakehimintoaJew. Responseshistoricallyhavebeendifferenttothosewhoconvertedtoavoidpersecution,confiscationof property,orexpulsion(allrecurringtropesoftheJewishexperienceinChristianEurope)thantothosewho convertedoutofconviction.Rarelyisthefirstgroupunderstoodtohavelosttheirstatusasfullmembersof theJewishcommunity. Judaismhasnoofficialcreed.Variouscreedalstatementshavebeenformulatedoverthecenturies,themost wellknownofwhichistheThirteenPrinciplesofFaithcraftedbyMosesMaimonidesinthe12thcentury.It isfoundindeclaratoryform(Ibelievewithperfectfaithin...)andinpoeticrenditionsfordailyrecitationin traditionalprayerbooks,butitisnotamongtheobligatoryprayers.
toarequirementofstricterconformancewithcommunalideals.Inthetraditionalworld,9thisentails aprocessoflearningtolivelikeaJewandcommittingoneselftoanobservantlifestyle.Theritualof conversionbeginswithaformalexaminationofonescommitmenttolivealifeaccordingtothe Torahanditscommandments.Whilethisdoesnotdirectlyaddressonestheology,itishardto accepttheobligationsofTorahobservancewithoutalsoaccepting,inonewayoranother,their divinesource.LiberalconversioncurriculaarelessfocusedondietarylawsandSabbathobservance, devotinginsteadmoreenergytogeneralknowledgeaboutJudaism,includingtheologyandhistory. Thus,whilefailuretolivethelifeofagoodJewdoesnotchangethelegalstatusofabornJew, joiningthecommunitydoesrequireaffirmationofcardinaltheologicalconcepts.Afterexamination bytherabbinicalcourt,theactualritualofconversioninvolvesritualcircumcision(formalesand hereitisacriticalpartofmakingaJew),immersionintheritualbath(mikveh),andtakingona JewishidentitythroughaHebrewname.Thisnameconsistsofagivennameofchoice,butinsteadof thebornJewsidentificationasthechildofhisorherbirthparents,theconvertisnowknownasa childofAbrahamourfatherandSarahourmother,theprimevalparentsofthenation.Thus,one becomespartofthepeopleIsrael,asortoflegaladoptionornaturalization. WeknownowthatinpreConstantinianlateantiquityandevenafter,Judaismwasextremely attractivetoasubstantialpercentageoftheGrecoRomanworld.Ontheotherhand,theMishnah (ca.200C.E.)containsnodirectdedicateddiscussionofproselytismorconversion,suggestingthat thetopicwasnotofcentralconcern.WiththeChristianizationoftheRomanempire(andlaterunder Islamicrulealso),itbecamedangerousforJewstoproselytize.Earlyrabbinictextsteachthe obligationtodiscouragepotentialconverts,acceptingcandidatesonlyiftheydemonstratesincerity bytheirpersistence. Inotherwords,convertsarewelcome,butonlyiftheywillinglyandknowinglyacceptthe implicationsoftheirdecisions.
THENONJEWISHWORLDTHROUGHTRADITIONALJEWISHEYES
IntheviewoftheBibleandconsequentlyinsubsequentJewishliterature,theworldconsistsfirst ofus,Israel,andthenofthem,everyoneelse,thenations(goyim).Thesecategoriesaremutually exclusiveandareexpectedtoremainsofortheforeseeablefuture.Inthebiblicalworld,these nationswereuniformlyidolatrous.WhiletheBiblemaygrantthesenationssomeelementsof distinctidentitiesbasedontheirhistoricalpoliticalandmilitaryinteractionswithIsrael,theologically theyarealltotaloutsiders,uniformintheirfailuretorecognizeIsraelsGod.Strugglestowean Israelitesfromtheattractionsofidolatrousworshipfilllargesectionsofthehistoricalnarrativeof
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Orthodox,Conservative,Reform,etc.,aremoderndesignations,arisingonlyinthemid19thcentury. WhilenonOrthodoxgroupsdohavesomedegreeofinstitutionalidentitythroughtheirvariousrabbinicand congregationalorganizationsandseminaries,theOrthodoxworldisdiverseandwithoutcentralinstitutions. Forourpurposeshere,itisgenerallymoreusefultodesignatetheendsofthespectrumofcontemporary Judaismastraditional,referringtothosegroupswhoseethemselvesintotalcontinuitywith2000yearsof rabbinicJudaism,andliberal,referringtothosegroupswhodonotaccepttheauthorityofthissystemin partorinfull.Thus,ReformandReconstructionistJudaism,aswellaspartsoftheConservativeworldcanbe consideredliberal(andnewgroupssuchasRenewal,NewAge,HumanisticJudaism)whiletherestfrom themoreconservativeendoftheConservativeMovementthroughtheultraOrthodoxandchasidicmaybe termedtraditional.
theBibleandprovidefuelforpropheticire.Butthebiblicalcommand[againstidolatry]isclear. TherabbisoftheTalmudunderstoodthat,duringtheSecondTempleperiod,Jewshadceasedto betemptedbyidolatry.10However,theywerealsoveryawarethatmuchoftheircontemporary surroundingculturesritualpractices,manyaspectsofwhichwereveryattractivetomanyJews,still mettheBiblesdefinitionofidolatry.TherabbisabsolutelyprohibitedanyinteractionwithGentiles thatmightinvolveaJewinidolatry,evenindirectly.TheyprohibitedJewsnotonlyfromdirectlyand deliberatelypracticingidolatrythemselves,butalsoevenfromaccidentallybehavinginanywaythat mightbeinterpretedasthepracticeofidolatry11orfromindirectlycausinganonJewtoperforman actofidolatry.12Therabbiswantedtocreatesignificantbarrierstosocialandeconomicinteraction betweenJewsandnonJews,idealizingandintensifyingtheirsensethatIsrael,forselfpreservation, neededtostandapart.13Althoughrabbinicinfluenceintheseareasmayhaveonlygraduallyshaped actualJewishlife,increasingreligious,political,andeconomicmarginalizationofJewsbyChristian rulersmaywellhavehelpedJewstoacceptthisrabbinicviewoftheiridealrelationshiptotheworld. Inotherwords,theavailabletraditionbecameawayofunderstandingandjustifyinganunpleasant reality. Ontheotherhand,theeconomichealthoftheJewishcommunity,alsoarabbinicconcern(aspart ofthesanctificationofallaspectsoflifealreadydiscussed),demandedthatJewsbeabletofunction withinthegreatersocietiesinwhichtheylived.Therabbiswerecognizantthatiftheir interpretationsofTorahbecameoverlyrestrictive,tothepointthatpeoplecouldnotpossibly prosper,Torahwouldnolongerbeasourceoflife,contradictingthemetahalachicprinciplederived fromDeuteronomy30:15thatachoicetolivebyTorahmustbeachoicethatpromoteslife.Thus, theoreticaltheologicalpositionsandrealityexistinanacknowledgedtensionthatgeneratescreative applicationsof(biblical)principlessoastoameliorateTorahsrestrictions.Inourcase,almostfrom thebeginning,whileestablishingfirmrestrictionsondealingswithidolaters,therabbisfindwaysto excludetheGentilesamongwhomtheylivefromthiscategory,particularlywhereitaffectedthe economiclifeoftheJewishcommunity.Thetheologicalpositionneverreallychanges:traditional halachahretainsaratherbroaddefinitionofidolatrousreligiouspracticesinwhichJewsmaynot
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BTYoma69bandparallels.Thisassertionishardtosupport,exceptfromthelackofdiatribesagainstJewish idolatryintheSecondTempleperiod.SeeIdolatry,EncyclopaediaJudaica. Forinstance,theMishnahprohibitsenteringaplaceacityorapartofacityinwhichthereisidolatry (AvodahZara1:4);thetalmudiccommentonthiswarnsagainstanytemptationtobendover,evento removeasplinterfromonesfoot,totakeadrinkofwater,ortopickupspilledcoins,inthepresenceofan idol,lestitappearthatoneisbowingtoit(BTAvodahZara12a). ClassicexamplesofthisincludetheprohibitionondoingbusinesswithGentilesonthedayspriortotheir festivals,lesttheygivethankstotheirgodsontheirfestivalfortheirprofits(MishnahAvodahZara1:13) andaprohibitiononbusinessdealingsthatmightgenerateanoathinwhichthepaganinvokeshisgods(BT Bechorot2b;BTSanhedrin63b). ArcheologicalevidencefromtheLandofIsraelaswellasnonJewishliteraryevidencesuggeststhatthiswas morearabbinicidealthanthesocialreality.CurrentscholarshipsuggeststhatJewsandRomans,andlater, JewsandChristiansmixedfairlyfreelyintoatleastthefourthcentury.See,forinstance,thesummaryof evidenceinDanielBoyarin,DyingforGod:MartyrdomandtheMakingofChristianityandJudaism(Stanford, Calif.:StanfordUniversity,1999),especiallyhisintroduction.
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participateinanyway.However,therabbiscometounderstandmanyGentilereligiouspracticesas permitted,i.e.,notidolatrous,fortheGentilesthemselves,thuseasingtherestrictionsonatleast economicrelationshipsbetweenJewandGentile.
NONJEWSASNOAHHIDES
TheirinterpretationoftheBiblealsoledtherabbistoanother,potentiallymorepositive, understandingofthenonJew.AccordingtoGenesis,allhumanityisdescendednotjustfromAdam andEve,butmorespecifically,fromNoahandhissons.Therefore,allhumanity,JewsandnonJews, areofcommondescent,biologically(andhencespiritually)distinguishedfromanyothercreationby theircreationinthedivineimage.TherabbisunderstoodthatGodhadcommunicatedaspecificset ofexpectationstothispreIsraelitehumanity,expectationsthatholdforallitsdescendents.The nations(goyim)fulfillGodswillandareconsideredrighteouswhentheyacceptwhattherabbisterm thesevenNoahhidelaws.Israelsdistinctivenesswithinthishumanityconsistsinthefactthatfirst underAbrahamandthenunderMoses,shereceivedfurtherpromisesandcovenantsfromGod, makingherresponsibleforamorecomplexanddemandingsetofresponsibilities,conceptualizedas 613commandments.Israelschosennessisthusnotachosennessforrewardorspecialsalvation,but achosennessforspecial,loving,servicetoGod. DavidNovakpointsoutthatthistraditionrepresentsanewsituationinwhichthereisnolongeran intermediatestatus,liketheSecondTempleperiodgodfearerorresidentstranger(gertoshav), betweenJewandGentile.JewsaresubjecttoallofTorah;Gentilesaresubjecttothisshorterand olderlistofcommandments.JewsandGentilesaredifferentlycommandedintheirpathsto holiness.14 Howcanweunderstandthisconcept?Itiscriticaltostateheretheobvious:theconceptof NoahhidelawsoperatesaccordingtothemostfundamentaltheologicalcategoryofrabbinicJudaism andappliesthismodusoperanditotherestoftheworld.Thisisafunctionalequivalenttothe Christianassertionthatallpeople,eveniftheydonotknowit,aresavedonlythroughChrist Christianitysfundamentaltheologicalcategory. ForJews,properbehaviorbeforeGodisdefinedfirstandforemostbythetermsofIsraels covenantwithGod,theTorah.Thetermsofthatcovenantarespelledoutinthedetailsofthe mitzvot,givenbyGodandideallyobeyedfromaloveofGod.Thesecommandmentsstructurean individualandcommunalexistenceinwhichGodisapartner;theparametersoftheresultantculture setthetermsofJewishtheologicaldiscourse.BecauseGodgavetheTorahspecificallytoIsraeland nottotherestoftheworld,JudaismcannotsuggestthatGodwantstherestoftheworldtobe boundbyallitsterms.However,GodspreSinaidemandsofhumanitydidcontainashorterlistof commandments,whichincludeprohibitionsofthecardinalsinsofmurder,sexualimmorality [meaningincestandadultery],andidolatry.15These,then,setthestandardofproperbehavior,the mitzvot,fortherestofhumanityandJudaismeasilyfindssuchlegaldirectivesintheteachingsof mostworldreligions.Thus,thetraditionalJewishviewofthenonJewemergesfromthecategories
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Novak,Image2534.Novakshistoricalreconstructionoftheemergenceofthisconceptisinconsistentwith theunderstandingofothersthattherealseparationofthecommunitiesonlyoccurredinthethirdor fourthcenturies,adatenotinconsistentwiththeredactionoftheToseftatext. Allothercommandmentsarenegotiableinordertosaveahumanlife.

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ofJudaismsownunderstandingofitsrelationshipwithGod.TopremodernJews,this understandingoftheworldwasselfevidentandusuallysubconscious.Itisonlyinourtimesthatwe canquestionwhethertheconceptualcategoriesframingtheNoahhidelawsimposeacultural constructthatisincomprehensibleorinappropriateforournonJewishneighbors.However,these lawsremainacriticalpartofJewishheritage.Thechallengeistoreinterpretthemtoday. FromaninternalJewishperspective,theseNoahhidelawshadthepracticaleffectofcreatinga yardstickbywhichtocategorizethenationsandassessthedegreeofpossibleJewishcoexistence withthem.Peoplewhoaccepteduponthemselvesthesecommandmentswereipsofactorighteous andtheircommunitiescivilized.Thiscreatedthepossibilityofeconomicandpoliticalcooperationas wellas,possibly,culturalexchangeanddialogue.MostGentileswithwhomJewslivedeasilymet fouroftheserequirements.Theyhadgovernmentswithasystemofjustice;theyconsideredmurder, robbery,andsexualimmoralitytobecriminalactivities.Morecriticalwerethequestionsofidolatry anditsattendantcrimesofblasphemingGodandmakingofferingsfromlivinganimals. AsNovakpointsout,therearetwowaysofunderstandingtheNoahhidelaws.Eithertheyarea systemthatJewsuseforgoverningothernations,ortheyrepresentaphilosophicaltheologicalideal thatnationsshouldfulfilloftheirownchoice.Obviously,therehavebeenveryfewoccasionsinthe pasttwomillenniainwhichthefirstwasanythingmorethanatheoreticalconsideration,asJews werenotasovereignnationfromtheRomanconquestuntil1948,andeventhecontemporarystate ofIsraelisfundamentallyasecularstate,governedbyreligiouslawonlyonquestionsofpersonal statusforJews.Thus,inanypractical,noneschatologicalterms,theselawsneedtobeconsidered underthesecondcategory,assomethingakintonaturallaw.16 Butthisconceptdidhaveapracticaleffect.Intheircenturieslivingasaminoritygroup,where economicissueswereconcerned,Jewswereabletoovercomethehalachicprohibitionsagainst interactingwithidolatersbyunderstandingtheirneighborstobeoperatingwithincategories permittedtoNoahhides.ThetalmudicrabbisthemselvesunderstoodpaganRomanstobemerely participantsinancestralcustom,andnotactualbelieverswhenparticipatinginostensiblyidolatrous rites.BecausetheywereunderstoodtointendworshipofGodthroughtheserites,theywerenot trueidolaters.17Currentstateoftheevidencedoesnotallowustodeterminewhetherrabbinic JudaismdevelopedamorespecifictheologicalresponsetotheincreasinglydominantChristianity. RabbinictextsconsistentlypresenttheByzantineEmpireasRome,makingnodistinctionbasedon religion.TheGentilenatureofPaulineChristianity,thedevelopmentofTrinitariantheology, particularlywiththeconcomitantemergenceofarichiconography,madeitdifficultforJewsto acceptChristiansasmonotheistsandnonidolaters.Jewsprobablyfeltnoneedtodevelopanew
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NovakdevelopsthisthemeindetailinhisNaturalLawinJudaism(NewYork:CambridgeUniversity,1998) especiallychap.6,NoahhideLawandHumanPersonhood,14973. Novak,Image12429.ThereisnoquestionthatthiscategoryappliestoChristiansandMuslims,thepeoples withwhomJewshavehadthemostsignificantinteractionshistorically.Asianreligions,withtheexceptionof someformsofBuddhism,potentiallyprovidemuchdeeperchallengesbecauseoftheirpolytheismand idolatry.ItislikelythatweresignificantcentersofJewishcivilizationtocometohaveregularcontactwith adherentsofthesetraditions,wayswouldbefoundtodefinethemasNoahhides,too.

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categorytoaccommodateChristianreality.18 TheJewishencounterwithIslamsradicalmonotheismprobablycreatedopportunityforthe expansionandincreasedimportanceoftheconceptoftheNoahhides.IntheMuslimworld,from PersiatoSpain,JewishculturalinteractionswiththeirMuslimneighborsreachedenormousheights. ThecoincidencethattheadministrativecenteroftheMuslimworldmovedtoBaghdadin762,near theleadingrabbinicacademiesdedicatedtostudyandteachingoftalmudiclaw,contributedgreatly totheworldwidedominanceofthenowcodifiedBabylonianTalmudsunderstandingsofJudaism, includingitsteachingsabouttheNoahhidesandidolatry. AsJewsinmedievalEuropegainedinintellectualsophisticationandsimultaneouslybeganto interpretthesetalmudictraditionstofittheirworld,leadingrabbisconfrontedthechallenge presentedbyChristianity.19Onthesurface,itremainedobviousthatChristianitywasidolatrous.But itwasaneconomicandsocialnecessitythatJewsinEuropebeabletodobusinesswithChristians withoutconcernthatJewsmightcauseChristianstoperformidolatrousactionsforbiddentothemas Noahhides.Therefore,actingontheprinciplethatTorahcannotmeantoforcepeopleintoabject povertyandthatitwastheirmandatetofindnewinterpretations,leadingrabbisofthe12thcentury andlatersoughtanewunderstandingofChristianitythatwouldcircumventtalmudicrestrictions.20 RabbenuTamtaughtthatChristianreligiousimagerywasnotitselfanobjectofworship,andthat prayersdirectedtosaintsoreventheTrinitywereultimatelyreallydirectedtoGodjustina mediatedfashionthat,whileforbiddentoJews,couldbeallowedforGentiles.Therefore,causing someonetoswearanoathinvokingthesenamesdidnotconstitutetheforbiddenactofindirectly encouragingidolatry.21Asoathswereacentralaspectofmedievalbusinesspractice,thisrulinghad
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AfullexplorationofthisstatementrequiresunderstandingthecomplexinteractionsbetweenJewsand Christiansinthefirstthreeorfourcenturiesoftheirevolutionsintomaturereligioussystems.Undoubtedly, theydidinfluenceoneanother,positivelyandnegatively,andweknowthat,ontheonehand,therewas sufficientsocialandculturalinterminglingtoelicitstridentoppositionfromboththerabbisandpersonssuch asJohnChrysostom,and,ontheotherhand,significantscholarlyinterchangesbymensuchasOrigenand hisrabbiniccontemporaries.However,theologicalunderstandingsoftheotherdonotalwaysplayouton thestreet,forbetterorforworse. LiteraryrecordsfromtheRhinelandindicatethatseriousengagementwithtalmudictraditionsbeganthere attheearliestinthetenthcenturyandtheserecordsindicateareasonablestruggleagainsttheBabylonian geonicauthoritieswhostoodbehindtheTalmud.TheseschoolsdominatedChristianEuropeuntilthe massacresofthesecommunitiesintheFirstCrusade.Aleadingstudentoftheseschools,RabbiShlomo Yitzchaki(Rashi,d.1105)hadfortuitouslyfoundedhisownschoolinnorthernFrance,inTroyes,a generationearlier.HisgrandsonsbegantheTosafistmovementwhichsoughttoresolvecontradictions betweentalmudicteachingsandactualEuropeanpractice,includingtherulingswhichcastChristiansinto thecategoryofidolaters. OntheTosafistmethodologyonthisquestion,seeEphraimKanarfogel,ProgressandTraditioninMedieval Ashkenaz,JewishHistory14(2000)300.ItmustalsobeaskedtowhatextentJewstransferredtoChristian EuropepatternsofinteractiontheyhadcometocherishintheMuslimempire.[FYI:Kanarfogelisrabbiof CongregationBethAaronhereinTeaneck,inadditiontobeingaprominentmemberoftheSternCollege/YU faculty.] Tosafot,BTSanhedrin63b,s.v.asurandparallels.SeethediscussionofthispassageinNovak,Image130 35;andJewishChristianDialogue4253.
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significanteconomicimplicationsinaworldwhereJewishsourcesofincomewereincreasingly restrictedbychurch(orchurchencouraged)policies.Thisrulingalsocreatedthefoundationforeven moreopenacceptanceofChristiansasfull,moral,lawabidingNoahhidesinlatermedieval thought.22 Uptothispoint,thecategoriesIhavediscusseddonotdistinguish,intheory,betweenone nationandanother.However,someinfluentialsagesdoacknowledgepositivelybothIslamspure monotheismandChristianitysuseoftheOldTestament.Maimonides(d.1205,Cairo)taughtina passagecensoredbytheChurchbecauseitbeginsbydiscountinganychancethatJesuswasthe Messiah: AllthesemattersrelatingtoJesusofNazarethandtheIshmaelitewhocameafterhim,only servedtoclearthewayforthekingMessiah,topreparethewholeworldtoworshipGodwith oneaccord....ThustheMessianichope,theTorahandthecommandmentshavebecome familiartopics...[among]manypeoplesuncircumcisedofheartandflesh.23 Thus,MaimonidesunderstoodthatGodsentJesus(andMuhammad)aspartofthepreparation fortheMessianicage,theperiodofsalvationinwhichrighteousNoahhideswouldparticipate. Tobalancethissurvey,briefmentionmustbemadeofthefactthat,whereChristiancensorship allowed,JewishportrayalofChristiansandChristianity(andtoalesserextentMuslims)was overwhelminglynegative,includingtheoccasional,mostlypassing,mentionsintheliturgy.Thisarose asaresponsetolivinginaworldwheretheChristianChurchmarginalized,denigratedand persecutedJews,tothepointofexpulsions,massacres,limitationsonlivelihood,andconstant pressuretoconvert.TherewasnoincentiveforpremodernJewsinChristianlandstodevelopa positivetheologyofthereligiousother.
JEWISHESCHATOLOGYANDTHENONJEW
ThefundamentalquestionbywhichmuchofChristianteachingjudgesthereligiousotheris: Doesthatreligionsstructuresandbeliefscreatetheconditionsforthesalvationofitsadherents? Aswehaveseen,traditionalJudaismsfundamentalquestionisinstead:Doesthereligions structuresallowitsmemberstofulfillGodscommandments,theNoahhidelaws?Ifso,andifthe adherentsofsuchareligionfollowitsteachings,thentheyareamongthechasideiumothaolam (therighteous/saintlyofthenationsoftheworld)24i.e.,theyaregood,moralhumanbeingsbefore God.Consequently,(1)wecanlivetogetherproductivelyinthisworld;andlessimportantly,(2)the righteous,JewandnonJew,canexpecttohaveashareintheworldtocome.This,translatedinto Christianterminology,meansthatrighteousNoahhideswillbesaved.25Thereis,thus,nonecessary
22
MenahemHaMeiriacknowledgesthatChristianacceptanceuponthemselvesoftheobligationtofollow additionalcommandmentsofTorahbeyondtheNoahhidelawsislegitimatepositivereligiousexpression. MTLawofKings,chap.11,end.SeeNovak,Images13442whodiscussesalltherelevantMaimonidean texts. ThosenonJewswhohelpedsaveJewsduringtheHolocaustarecelebratedofficiallyinIsraeltodayas righteousGentiles. BecauseofitsheavyChristianovertones,EnglishdiscourseaboutJewisheschatologytendstoavoidtheword saveanditscognates,substitutingredeemanditscognates.Hebrewdoesemployatleastthree separatetermsforthisconcept,therootsYSH(fromwhichcomesthenameYehoshua,Joshua,andits

23
24
25
connectionbetweenIsraelschosenstatusandsalvation,althoughmosttheoriesaboutthenatureof salvationdovisualizeitinJudeocentricterms. ThereisnosingleunderstandingofsalvationinJudaism.NeilGillmansuccinctlysummarizesone classicviewasfollows: ...thatattheendofdays,thedeadwillberesurrectedandcomebeforeGodtoaccountfortheir livesonearth,thattherighteouswillberewardedandtheevilpunished;thatJews,freefrom theyokeoftheexile,willreturntotheirhomeland,rebuildit,andbecomemastersoftheir owndestiny;thattheywillrebuildtheTempleandreinstitutetheTemplecult;thatthenations oftheworldwillflocktostudyTorahwiththeJewishpeople;thatpeaceandjusticewillrule; thatthewolfshalldwellwiththelamb(Isaiah11:6);andthatallpeoplewillcometoknow andworshiptheGodofIsrael.Finally,thisentirescenariowillbebroughttopassthroughthe initiativeofacharismaticorquasidivinefigurecalledtheMessiah(literally,theanointed one).26 Gillmandoesnotmentiontheworldtocome,likelybecauserabbinictextsusetwodiscretesets oflanguageandtheirpointofoverlapisambiguous.TheMessiahwillcomeattheendofdays thepropheticterminologyandthiswillspellthebeginningofendofthisworld,i.e.,human historyasweknowit.Thiswillusherinanidyllicperiodonearthinwhichrightfulpoliticaland religiousstructureswillflourishinIsraelatleast,probablyprecededbyresurrectionandjudgment. GentilesparticipateinthisscenarioasGentiles;butasNoahhides,theyareinrelationshipwithGod. Itisnotclearthatthisscenariowillextendintoeternity.Someunderstandtheworldtocometobe theeternitythatfollowsthemessianicage;othersunderstandittobetherewardoftheindividual afterdeath(andbeforeresurrection). Notetoothatsinhasnotenteredourdiscussion.Judaismunderstandsthatthosesameaspects ofhumanitythatmakethemcapableofsinarealsothoseaspectsthatdrivehumanstonecessary andgoodachievements.Thehumantaskistochannelthisevilinclinationtosexualityandlove, toacquisitionsothatitisproductiveandnotsinful.Anyoutsideordivineinterventionthat changedthisstructurewouldalsodestroycivilization,forpeoplewouldceasetomarryand reproduce,buildhomes,orconductbusiness.27Thus,humanswhostriveforrighteouslivingand repentwhentheyerrcanpresumethattheywillberewardedintheeschatologicalscenario. AlthougheschatologicalhopespermeateJewishliturgyandareeverpresent,particularlyintimes oftrouble,eschatologicaldiscoursedriveslittleofnonmysticalJudaism.Therabbisoftenthreaten thatparticularactionswillguaranteeordenysomeoneaplaceintheworldtocome,buttheir purposeisconsistentlytospurpeopletoproperbehaviorinthisworld,ratherthantomakeanyreal statementabouteternity.GodhasredeemedIsraelinthepast,fromEgypt,andpromisesfuture redemption.Itsdetailshavenotbeengiventous,whileTorahsdefinitionsofhowtoliveinthis
GreekcognateJesus,Yeshuaforshort),GL,andlesscommonly,PDH.Allappearbiblically,rabbinically, andliturgicallywithreferencetoGodsactionsattheExodusandwithreferencetoGodsfuture saving/redemptionofIsrael.
26
TheDeathofDeath:ResurrectionandImmortalityinJewishThought(Woodstock,Vt.:JewishLights Publishing,1997)2122. GenesisRabbah9:7(andparallels),inacommentaryontheapplicationofverygoodtothecreationof humanity.

27
worldhave.Totheextentthatredemptionisdependentonhumanbehavior,then,ourresponsibility istodeterminepreciselyhowtoliveaccordingtoGodswillinthisworld.Therefore,themost privilegedmodeofdiscourseintraditionalJudaismishalachic.
MODERNITYSCHALLENGESTOTHISSTRUCTURE
However,tobeacceptedintoWesternsociety,Jewswereaskedto(andmanysoughtto)break downmanyoftheirownbarrierstointerminglingwithChristiansandtolosetheirdistinctiveness.In response,newformsofJudaismemerged,someofwhichchallengedtheverypresuppositionsof traditionalJewishlife.Initsmostradicalform,ReformJudaism,comingintoitsowninGermanyby themid19thcentury,taughtapureethicalmonotheism,apropheticJudaism,inwhichJews understoodthemselvesascommissionedbyGodtosetanexampleofmoralbehavior,butnotto structuretheirlivesbyincomprehensiblecommandmentsthatpreventedtheirfullparticipationin greatersociety. Iftheirworldwasnolongergovernedbymitzvot,categorizingnonJewsbytheirperformanceof them,eveniftheywereallethicalcommandments,madelittlesense.However,theologicalrigor hasrarelycharacterizedReformdecisionsanditdevelopednonewtheologyofotherreligions.28In the20thcentury,MordecaiKaplan,thefounderofReconstructionistJudaism,explicitlyrejected conceptsofJewishchosenness.Inboththesemovements,amongsecularJews,andtoacertain extentamongJewsevenfurtheralongthecontinuumtowardstraditionalpractice,Torahandits commandments,orthetraditionalunderstandingoftheseconcepts,nolongersettheparametersof theculturethatdefinedJewishidentity.IngenerationswhereJews,whileparticipatinginthecultural diversityofWesternsociety,havesimultaneousfelttheirverysurvivalasapeoplethreatenedby antiSemitism,genocide,assimilationandintermarriage,therehasbeensignificantdiscussionofhow toconstructJewishidentity.However,theexperience,particularlyofantiSemitismculminatingin theHolocaustandofIsraelsconstantstrugglesforexistenceinahostileArabworld,hasnot generallyencouragedinterestinthedevelopmentofpositivetheologiesofthereligiousother. However,thecontemporarysituationissubstantiallydifferentfromthemedievalworld.Inspiteof aburgeoningantiSemitism,especiallyinEuropeandintheMuslimworld(asofthiswriting),many Jews,especiallyinAmerica,rarelyexperiencetheChristianastrulyother.Religionismarginalizedin oursecularsociety,andforvirtuallythefirsttimeinthehistoryofChristianity,thereareessentially nochallengestoeconomicandsocialinterchange,oreventointermarriage.29Mostsignificantly, officialtheologicalstatementsoftheCatholicChurch(beginningwithNostraAetatein1965and furtherrefinedinaseriesofadditionaldocuments)andvariousProtestantchurcheshavebegunthe processofrevisingtheChristiantheologyofJewsandJudaism.30Butmuchworkremainstobedone intheimplementationofthisnewtheologyatalllevels.[T]heimplicationsofthesechangeshave
28
Seemyarticle,TheologiesofSelfandOtherinAmericanJewishLiturgies,forthcomingintheCCARJournal: AReformJewishQuarterly.ThisarticledocumentstheutterconfusiononthisissueinReformliturgies. IntermarriagewithnonJewsisnotacceptedintraditionalJudaismandisnotofficiallycondonedbyany movement.However,inthefreedomofAmericansociety,theintermarriagerateapproaches50%, indicatingabroadsocialacceptanceofthephenomenon. Themostuptodatecollectionofthesedocuments,frombothinternationalandnationalchurchbodies,can befoundathttp://www.bc.edu/cjlearning.

29
30
notbeeninternalizedatthehighestlevelsoftheChurch. Ofthesedocuments,onlyDominusIesus,perhapsbecauseitreceivedsomuchmediaattention, elicitedsignificantJewishresponse31.TheoutcryamongthoseparticipatingindialoguewithCatholics hasresultedinaseriesofclarifications,includingfromvariouscardinals,32clarificationsthatwould havebeenunnecessaryhadtheoriginaldocument(s)beenframedwiththefruitsofalmost40years oftheologicalrevisioninmind.TheseclarificationsmakeexplicitthatforCatholictheology,Judaism isnotanotherreligion,butratherareligionbasedonGodsbiblicalcovenantwithIsrael.IfGod promisedIsraelsalvation,andifdivinepromisesaretrue,thenthereligionofIsraelisatruereligion andasourceofsalvationforitsadherents.ThiseffectivelyremovesJudaismfromtherealmof discourseofthesedocuments.33 ThesechangesintheCatholicandbroaderChristianworldsnowchallengeJewstorespond.A seriousinnerJewishdialogueonconstructinganappropriatetheologyofotherreligionsand
31
FROMSHAMMAI:DominusIesus[JesustheLord]:OntheUnicityandSalvificUniversalityofJesusChristand theChurchwaswritteninmainpartbyJosephCardinalRatzingerin2000,whothenheadedthe CongregationfortheDoctrineoftheFaith,therenamedHolyOfficeoftheInquisition.Ratzinger,ofcourse, isknowntodayasBenedictumXVI.Initsfirstiteration,itwasprettymuchareaffirmationofthedoctrineof ExtraEcclesiamNullaSalus(nosalvationoutsidetheChurch;thisdoctrineisdiscussedbyJospe;seepage 26).Amongotherthings,itsaysthatnonChristiansareinagravelydeficientsituationincomparisonwith thosewho,intheChurch,havethefullnessofthemeansofsalvation.AsfornonCatholicChristians,they haddefects. SeethearticlesbyJosephCardinalRatzinger(TheHeritageofAbraham:TheGiftofChristmas,Osservatore Romano,Englishedition,December29,2000);EdwardCardinalCassidy,TheFutureofJewishChristian RelationsintheLightoftheVisitofPopeJohnPaulIItotheHolyLand,addressdeliveredattheAnnual GeneralMeetingoftheInterreligiousCoordinatingCouncilinIsrael,Jerusalem,March13,2001;andWalter CardinalKasper,DominusIesus,no.2,addressdeliveredatthe17thmeetingoftheInternationalCatholic JewishLiaisonCommittee,NewYork,May1,2001.Thearticlesarepostedatwww.bc.edu/cjlearning. ThedocumentReflectionsonCovenantandMission,issuedjointlyinAugust2002,bytheUnitedStates BishopsSecretariatforEcumenicalandInterreligiousAffairsandtheNationalCouncilofSynagogues, articulatedtheseissues,forthefirsttime,inaformalmanner.Discussionoftheissuesraisedthereisstillin itsinfancy.SeethedocumentitselfandCardinalKaspersresponsetoit(November6,2002)at www.bc.edu/cjlearning.However,thisdocumentdoesnotpresentanyprecedentsofvaluefordevelopinga positiveCatholictheologyoftheotherreligionsoftheworld.Particularly,becauseIthinkthatatheologyof otherreligionsingeneralmustbepriortospecifictheologicalunderstandingsofindividualreligions,Iamnot entirelysatisfiedwiththetheoreticalunderpinnings(asopposedtothepracticaleffects)ofthisCatholic move.AJewishtheologycannotfullymirrorthissenseofspecialrelationshipbeyondanacknowledgmentof thebiblicalfoundationsofChristianity.
32
33
particularlyofChristianityisonlyinitsinfancy.34AgroupofJewishscholarstookacriticalstepto enlargethisdiscussionwiththepublicationinSeptember2000ofabrieftextcalledDabruEmet:A JewishStatementonChristiansandChristianity,accompaniedbyabookofessays,Christianityin JewishTerms.35Atconferenceafterconferenceoverthepastseveralyears,leadingthinkershave calledforthedevelopmentofrigoroustheologicalstatements. Atthispoint,Icanonlytentativelysuggestsomeofthepointsandissuesthatsuchatheology mightaddress.Nodoubt,otherswilldisagree,butonlywithdiscussioncanaconsensusbeginto emerge.Forbetterorworse,Judaismlacksstructuresofauthoritythatcandemandbroaddeference andimposetheologicalchange.Theemergingtheologyofthereligiousotherbuildsonand reinterpretsthetraditionalunderstandingsoutlinedabove.36 ThestartingpointremainsthatJudaismitselfisthespecificrelationshipwithGodofaparticular community,thepeopleofIsrael.37God,thecreatorofallhumanity,withoutcompromisingdivine truth,entersintorelationshipdifferentlywithdifferentnations.Therefore,apeoplessalvation,or theirmoralstatusinthisworld,isneverdependentontheirbecomingJews,butratherontheir comingtoGodthroughtheirownpaths.38Notallaspectsofthesepathsareappropriateor permittedforJews,forwecannotjettisonthetraditional,biblicallygeneratedconcernsaboutJewish participationinidolatrybutwecanbuildonthemedievalunderstandingthatsomebehaviorsthat arepermittedtoNoahhidesareneverthelessidolatrousforJews.39Withinthis,Jewsunderstand
34
Note,too,thatthereareessentiallynopositivepremodernsystematicstatementsofJewishthoughtonthis issue.Thesourcescitedabovearemostlyisolatedcomments.Inpart,Christiancensorshiplimitedtheability ofJewishwriterstopublishanythingsubstantiveaboutChristianity,particularlyifitcontainedawhiffof criticism.Mosttextsknowntodayhavebeenrecoveredfromlonglostmedievalmanuscripts.Inparttoo, systematictheologicalreflection,comparedtohalachicdiscussionandexegesisoftext,wasnota particularlyprivilegedmodeinmuchoftheJewishworld.Maimonidessprestigearosefromhishalachic writings,notfromhisphilosophical(andcontroversial)GuideofthePerplexed. Thestatementcanbefoundinthebookand,withitssignatories,atwww.icjs.org.Criticaldiscussionofthe statementhasbeguntoo.SeeJonD.Levenson,HowNottoConductJewishChristianDialogue, Commentary112:3(December2001)3137andtheensuinglettersintheMarch2002issue.Seealsothe October2002articlesbyDavidBergerandMichaelSigneronthedocument,postedat www.bc.edu/cjlearning. Consensusdemandsthis,fortraditionalJewsreinterpretbutdonotmakeradicalideologicalbreaksfrom tradition. SecularJewsmayobjecttothisdefinition,butatheologycannotexcludeGod.Becausemostotherreligious communitiesdonotunderstandthemselvesasethniccommunities,itisthereligiousaspectsofJudaismthat mustbeindialoguewiththem.Failuretoacknowledgethis(onbothsides)hasbeenasourceoffrictionin therelationsbetweenthesecularstateofIsraelandtheVatican. Thislanguageisconsistentwithkabbalisticunderstandingattributedtothe16thcenturyRavIsaacLuria [a/k/atheAriHakodesh]thatJewstoo,basedontheirtribalheritage,havetheirownproperpathsto God.Thisjustifies,inthistradition,theexistenceofvaryingliturgicalrites. Forinstance,prayingtoGodthroughanyintermediary,beitasaintorevenJesus,withorwithoutthe presenceofanimage,isunquestionablyforbiddenworship(underthebiblicalcategoryofidolatry)for
35
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39
theirtraditionofchosennessnottoimplysuperiorityoranexclusiverelationshiptoGod,buttobe adefinitionoftheirparticularrelationshiptoGodamongmanyothers.40 ThisallowsustobroadenourconceptoftheNoahhidecommandments,understandingittobe onlytheminimumstandardofmoralityforallhumanity.Judaismcanvalue,positively,thatthe teachingsofindividualworldreligionsexceedthisminimum.This,then,allowsforJudaismto differentiatebetweenthevariousreligions,tograntthemtheirowntheologicaluniqueness,to recognizethemintheirindividualityinawaynotsystematicallypossiblewhenallreligionsare categorizedasgenericallyNoahhide.Atthesametime,therelativismofthistheologydoesnot compromisedivineTruth,forJudaismmakesuniversalistclaimsonlyabouttheexistenceofGod,the Creator,andGodsfundamentaldemandsofhumanityasexpressedintheNoahhidelaws.God apparentlyvalueshumandiversity! Thus,JudaismsstartingpointasthespecificrelationshipofGodwithaspecificgroupofpeople allowsforsignificantlydifferentteachingsaboutthetheologicalstatusofotherpeoplesthandoes Christianitysteachingthatitswayistheuniversallytruepathtosalvation.FromaJewish perspective,suchanassertionisactuallyalimitationonGodsomnipotence,asuggestionthatGod canonlyoperateinasinglewayintheworld.Judaismcanunderstandotherreligions,andespecially ChristianityandIslam,alsotobeGodscommunicationsofdivinewilltotheworld.Aslongastheir adherentsbehavemorallytootherhumanbeings,toGod,andtothemselves,theyhaveasharein theworldtocome. COPYRIGHT2003TheologicalStudies,Inc.

JewsbutmedievalJewsdeterminedthatNoahhideswereforbiddenonlytoworshipothergods,without limitationsonhowtheycouldworshipGod.
40
Onthis,seeRaphaelJospe,ChosennessinJudaism:Exclusivityvs.InclusivityinCovenantandChosennessin JudaismandMormonism,ed.RaphaelJospe,TrumanG.Madsen,andSethWard(Madison,N.J.:Fairleigh DickinsonUniversity;2001)17394.

Abrahamscovenant,chosenness,andthebindingofIsaac
LippmanBodoff
LippmanBodoffhasmadeunderstandingtheAkedah(orunderstandingitanew)hismission inlifeandwewillreturntohimatthattime.Thisarticle,despiteitstitle,isnotaboutthe Akedahitself,butaboutthemeaningofchosennessand,toagreaterdegree,covenant,and howbothplayedaroleintheAkedah.HisbiographyisattachedtohisarticleonChapter11 (Genesis,Chapter11,thatis;forallIknow,beingthatheisalawyerbyprofession,hemay havewrittenoneabouttheotherChapter11,aswell.)Thisarticleoriginallyappearedin Midstream,whichyouprobablywouldhaveguessedfromitsopeningwords.Ihavesparedyou mostofhisfootnotes. ReadersofMidstreamare,bynow,awareofmypositionabout,thecorrectunderstandingofThe BindingofIsaac(Akedah)inGenesis22.IreasonthatforAbraham,itwasclearthattheallpowerful CreatorandeternalGod,inwhomAbrahambelieved,wasbytheveryDivineessenceand attributesincapableofsuspendingHisownuniversalandeternalmoralandethicalprinciples. Therefore,IconcludedthatAbrahamhadneithertheintentionnortheexpectationthathewould sacrificeIsaac.
II
Forthepurposeofthisarticle,I[further]proposethatafundamentalreasonforAbrahamsfaith thatGodwouldnot,andcouldnot,reallyintendthatAbrahamsacrificeIsaacwasthecovenantal relationshipthatalreadyhadbeenestablishedandrituallyandformallyconcretizedbetweenGod andAbraham.Letusreviewtherelevantbackground. GodtentativelychoosesAbrahamtofatheragreatnation,afterAbrahamindicatesthathehasno faithorbeliefinpagangods,theirpowersortheirvalues.Beforethat,Godhadnoreasontochoose Abraham,andtherewasnootherhumanwhothoughtofanallpowerfulGodofCreation.Gods choicewasmadepermanentafterAbrahamdemonstratedbyhisconductthathewasnotonlya monotheist,butanethicalmonotheist. Atthispoint,wecanputtogetherthebasicelementsofacovenantalrelationship,whichIwould liketodescribe.Thiscomprises:arelationship 1) 2) 3) 4) betweentwoormorepartiesinthiscase,oneDivine(butnotalwaysnecessarilyso)1and theother,bydefinition,notDivine; inwhichthepartiesinevitablycometorealizethateachneedsanddependsontheotherin veryimportantwaysandforveryimportantobjectives; foraprolonged,indefinite,undefined,andinherentlyindefinableperiod(anontransient relationship); arelationshipwhichwillnecessarilybetestedinthefutureindifferentways,placesandtimes thatcannotbespecified,definedandspelledoutandagreedtoinadvance;
ThebestdiscussiononGodasanecessarypartytoacovenantalrelationship,maybefoundinDavidNovak, TheJewishSocialContract(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2005),esp.Ch.2.
5)
requiringacommitmentbyeachtotheothertomaintainthatrelationshipintotheindefinite futureandtofindwaystocontinueitandresolvefuturequestionsorissuesbetween(or among)theminwaysconsistentwiththecovenantsoriginal,broad,importantobjectives.
Thebasisforthisanalysisoftheelementsofacovenantalrelationshipcanalsobefoundinthe PreambletotheU.S.Constitution,whichcallsoutitsobjectivetoformamoreperfectunion.Itcan alsobefoundinaneconomicanalysisofwhatdrivesorganizationstomergewitheachother organizationallyandfunctionallyratherthanremain,continuouslyandrepeatedly,inanadversarial relationshipoveranindefinitefuture.Intheseandsimilarsituations,thefutureconditionsofthat relationship,itsvaryingcontextsandthecorrelativevaryingresponsesbythepartiesnecessitatedby thosechangingcontextscannotbespecifiedandagreedtoinadvanceatleastnotwithout spendingsomuchtimetryingtopredictthefutureinallitsuncertaintythatreachingsuchan agreementwouldtakeforeverand,moreover,wouldbeimpossible. CanyouimagineMosesspendingallthetimenecessarytounderstandfromGod,andthenexplain totheIsraelitesandobtaintheirconsent,asto1)themyriadwayshumanhistorywoulddevelop; and2)allthereligiouslegalquestionstowhichthesewouldgiverise,andtheirDivineanswers?They wouldstillbeatMountSinaitheyortheirchildrenlisteningtosomeone(who?Joshuaoroneof hisprogeny?)explainingallthequestions,andtheiranswers,thatwouldorcouldariseinthefuture. Onewayofunderstandingthenatureofacovenantalrelationshipandhowitarises,istoexamine itsworkingsinthesphereofindustrialorganization. Forexample,wecanfinditrecognized,onasmallerscale,byoneoftheBIG3automobile companiesmanyyearsago,whenitfounditselfeveryyearatthemercyofthecompanyithiredto produceitsnewcardesignsforthecomingproductyear.Asthatyearapproached,thedesignfirm cameintosolepossessionoftheknowledgeofwhathadbeenachievedandwhatremainedtobe donefordesigncompletion.Asaresult,thecarmanufacturerincreasinglywasatthemercyofthe designfirmregardingthepriceandcompletiondateofthecardesignsastheyevolved.Inthis relationship,onepartycontrolledtoomuchinformationandpossessedtoomuchbargainingpower. Inevitably,theautomobilemanufacturerdecidedtobringthedesignfunctioninhouse.Ofcourse, holdingupthemanufactureralsoallowedthelattertoholdupthedesigner,tothedetrimentof both. Insuchacase,whereeachpartyneededtheotherthedesignerneededacartobeproducedto bepaid,andthemanufacturerhadthesameneedinordertomakeanysaleswhatwasrequired wasamergeroftheircorporateandfunctionalidentities.Thedesignandmanufacturingfunctions hadtobeintegratedintoonecompany,perhapsoneasasubsidiaryordivisionoftheotherfor industrial,culturalororganizationalpurposes.Eachsideorfunctionhadtosharerecognitionof theirmutualneed.Ineedyourdesigns,andyouneedmyproduction.Theresultwasaneedto operateinacovenantalrelationshipofmutualtrustandsubordinationofintereststotheoverall goalsofthetotalenterprise.Thisrequiredacovenantalstructurewhereallfuturedecisionsand answerstoproblemswouldberesolvedquicklyandamicablyaswellasforthegreatergoodofboth functions,productdesignandmanufacture. Theexistenceofasimilarsituation,whereacovenantalrelationshiprequiredauniqueformof organization,causedalargeautomanufactureranditsprincipaluniontoagreethatallfutureunion managementdisputeswouldberesolvedinabindingmannerbyasingle,permanentarbitrator,who wouldbedesignatedtodealequitablejusticeineachandalldisputesforthemutual,immediateand
longtermneedsandgoalsofbothparties.2
III
IfweexamineGodsdevelopmentofacovenantalrelationshipwithAbrahamand,throughhim, withhisprogeny,wewillseetheelementsIhavedescribedemerge. First:Astomutualneed.Itisclear,evenaxiomatic,thatmanneedsGod.AndthetalmudicSages, intheirmidrashicfillinginoftheoriginsofAbrahamsrelationshipwithGod,notethatitdidnotstart withGodchoosingAbrahamtobringthemessageofeternalmonotheismtotheworldthroughout history.Abrahaminsofarasthebiblicaltextdisclosesnevershowedanyparticularworthinessto bechosenforthismission.TheSages,however,tellusthatAbrahamcametorealize,onhisown, thattheorderofnatureanditscomplexityandharmonyrequiredaDivineCreator,andGodneeded anewpeopletorepresentHismessageofaworldbasedonasimilarorderofpeaceandharmony, formankind.3Thisinvolvedjusticeintheworld,andnotthemoralvoidandthearbitrariness characteristicofpagandeitiesandtheirsocieties.Justice,inturn,requiredkindnessamonghumans, toinspiretrustandengenderpeaceandorder. ItwasforthisreasonthatGodappearednotsosuddenlyorarbitrarilyafteralltoAbrahamand chosehimamongallofhumanitytoleavehisfatherspagancommunity,andtotraveltoanew, unspecifiedlandtowhichGodwouldguidehim,ifAbrahamtrustedHimtodoso,aplaceforanew religiouscommunityforAbrahamsprogeny,tospreadtohumanitythisnewmessageofethical monotheism. Sowehavemutualneed;AbrahamneedsGodandGodneedsAbraham.Forhowlong?Forever, clearly:God,definitelyandforever;andAbraham,also,asthefounderofanewreligion,throughhis progenyandthosewhowoulddecidetojoinAbrahamandhisprogenyinthisnewnationandfaith. Gotoanewplace,Godinstructshim,tothelandthatIwillshowyou.Alreadyweseethe elementofuncertaintyandarequirementofAbrahamsmastinGodsinstructionbecauseofthe elementofafuture,atimedelay.AbrahammusttrustGodbecauseGodcannotreallyshowhimthe landasitwillbe,butonlyasitsoonwillappeartohim,andnotasitwillappearcenturieslatertohis progenywhilestillinhabitedbytheCanaanites(Genesis12:1).Iwillblessyou,andmakeyourname great,andyoushallbeablessing(Genesis12:2).Again,inthefuture.Iwillblessthosewhobless you,andcursethosewhocurseyou(12:3),becameIneedyoutocarrymymessage,Mygoalsfor humanity,topresenttheminbeliefanddeedasalivablereality.Andyou[Abraham]needMetobe blessed.SoAbrahamtookhiswifeandfamilytothelandoftheCanaanites,thelandwhichGod showedtohim(Genesis12:6).AndGodpromisedthislandtoAbrahamsprogeny,longafter Abrahamsdeath(Genesis12:7). AndthelandthatAbrahamandhisnephew,Lot,occupiedcouldnotsupportbothofthemand theirfamilies.SoAbrahamsaid,inkindness,toLot:Youdecidewhereyouwanttosettle,andIwill settle(for)elsewhere,sowecanavoidconflictbetweenusandbetweenourherdsmen(13:711).
2
ThissystemwasusedformanyyearsbyFordMotorCompanyandtheUnitedAutoWorkers;myteacher, ProfessorHarryShulmanofYaleLawSchool,wastheirimpartialarbitrator. TheliturgyonYomKippurspecificallyasksforGodsforgivenessforHissake,becauseGodneedsapeopleto representHismessageintheworld.

Lot,itshouldbenoted,chosethericherlanddespiteitsoccupancybyamoredegeneratesociety (13:1213).Abraham,inhisrelationswithLot,isethicalinthehighestdegree. Atthispoint,awarbreaksoutbetweentwogroupsofCanaanitekings.Onegroupcapturesthe other,includingLotandhisfamily.Abraham,withhisretinue,giveschase,andfreestheconquered kingsaswellasLotandhisfamily(Genesis14:117).Atthispoint,thekingofJerusalem,apriestof God,presumablyamonotheisticfollowerofAbraham(Genesis14:1820),greetsAbrahamand praisesGodforhisvictory.ThevictoriousCanaanitekingsofferAbrahamthewarbootyinexchange forthecaptives,butAbrahamrefusestheofferofanybooty;onlyGodcanbeallowedtolayclaimto bringingAbrahamriches(Genesis14:23).Ofcourse,Abrahamwantedtoprotectthecaptivesfrom thevictorious(andevil)kingofSodom,andespeciallyLotandhisfamily.Abrahamonceagainis ethicalinthehighestdegree.HehasearnedGodsconfidence,nolongerprovisionalandconfinedto Abrahamsbeliefsonly,butnowfullybasedonhisdeedsaconfidencethathecanfatheragreat nation,thatwillbeacarrierofthemessageofethicalmonotheism,forwhichmissionGodand Abraham,andhisseed,willforeverbeboundtogether. WearenowreadyfortheformalestablishmentoftheeternalcovenantbetweenGodontheone hand,andAbrahamandhisprogenyontheother. Eventshavealreadyestablishedtheirmutualneedforeachother.Theformalcovenantwill establishthatthiswillbeacontinuingneedfarintothefuture,becamesuchisthenatureofhistory, whichispartofGodsplan.Followingistheformalsequenceofthebrit,TheCovenantBetweenthe Parts,thecovenantthatbindsIsraelandGodtogethereternally,nomatterwhatmaycome (Genesis15). 1) GodpromisesAbrahamthatthereisnoneedtofearthepast,includingleavinghisfamily; goingtowarandnecessarilykillinginnocents;foolingPharaohintothinkingthatSarahwashis sister(therebyexposinghertoPharaohssexualdesiretoprotectAbrahamfrombeing killedGenesis12:1120);andpromisesAbrahamagreatrewardasthefatherofanew religion. Abrahamproteststhatheisalreadywealthy:Whatelsecanyougiveme?Iamalreadytoo oldforachild(15:13),butGodassuresAbrahamthathewillbeinheritedbyachildfromhis ownloins,andhisprogenywillbelikethestarsofheaven(15:45).AndAbrahamtrusts God,despitetheevidentimpossibilityofthispromise,and[God]countedthisfaithas righteousness(15:6). Inavision,AbrahamasksGod:[Givenmyageof75,withoutchildren,]HowwillIknowthatI willinherittheland[ofCanaan,asyouhavepromisedme?](15:7).GodnowasksAbraham totakethreeheifers,threegoats,threerams,aturtledove,andayoungdove,tocutthemin thecenter,andtoplaceeachoppositeitscounterpart,butnotthebirds.Birdsofpreycome downuponthecarcasses,butAbrahamdrivesthemaway.Abrahamthenfallsintoadeep sleep.GodthenpromisesAbrahamthathisoffspring[whichhewill,indeed,have]willbe aliensamongstrangers,inalandthatisnottheirs,whowillenslavethemandoppressthem for400years.ButthenationthatenslavesthemIwilljudge,andafterwardsthey[your
2)
3)
offspring]willleave[thatcountry]withgreatwealth(Genesis15:1516).4Butyouwillgo untoyourancestorsinpeace;youshallbeburiedinagoodoldage.Butthefourthgeneration afterthebeginningoftheexilewillreturntothisland. Anditnowcametopassthatthesunset,itbecameverydark,andatorchoffirepassedbetween thepieces.Onthatday,GodmadeacovenantwithAbraham,saying:ToyourdescendantshaveI giventhisland...(15:18). Ihavepositedthatcovenantpresupposesarelationship,anexchangeofpromises,thatwillplay outoveralongperiodoftimebetweentwoparties,whodependoneachothertosurviveandthrive fortheirmutualbenefitdespitetheupsanddownsofhistory.Here,GodpredictsforAbraham,in advance,acrucial,disturbing,threateningeventinhisprogenysfuture,intowhichGodwill providentiallyintervenetoperpetuateAbrahamsprogeny,andbyclearimplication,later confirmedintherestatementofthecovenantinDeuteronomy2930dosocontinuallythroughout historyasanessentialelementofGodscovenantalrole.Inallotherrespects,thecovenantwith AbrahamissilentastothehistoryoftherelationshipofAbrahamsoffspringwithGodthereafter. Mutualdependencerequiresmutualtrust,byeachpartyoftheother,thateachwillplaytheirrole fortheirmutualbenefit,throughouttheuncertainnatureofthefuture. AllweknowfornowisthattherewillbeanationofIsrael,andthatitwillbeinstructedinethical monotheismbyAbraham,throughhisprogeny(Genesis18:19),havingbeeninstructedbyGod (Genesis17:114)thatHiscovenantwithAbrahamrequiredAbrahamtowalkbefore[God]andbe perfect(tamim).AndAbrahamsatisfiedGodthathewould,indeed,besurethathisprogenywould betaughttokeepthewayofGod,doingcharityandjustice,inorderthatGodmightthenbring uponAbrahamthatwhichHehadspokenof[i.e.,promised]tohim(Genesis18:19). Ibelievewehavehereestablishedtheingredientsofthecovenantalrelationship,parexcellence, thathasprovidedthebasisoftherelationshipoftheJewishpeople,asAbrahamsprogeny,with God,overthecourseofhistory.Ibelieve,too,thatthesearetheingredientsofallcovenantal relationshipswheretheyaretobefound,whetherornotGodisapartytothem. Theconsequencesofoneorbothpartiesbreachingtheircovenantalresponsibilities,ignoringthe covenantalrules,orabrogatingorseekingtoabrogatethecovenant,andtheextenttowhichthatis possiblewhereGodisapartytothecovenant,aremattersdiscussedlaterintheBible,especiallyin LeviticusandDeuteronomy.5Inbrief,Godwillalwaysremainapartytothecovenantandaguarantor ofIsraelscontinuityinhistory,despitethesufferingIsraelmaycalldownuponitselfbyignoringits responsibilities,asGodscovenantalpartner,describedabove.Israelismetaphoricallycomparedto Godswifeinaneternalmarriagerelationship,withbothpartiesalwaysneedingeachotherwithin thecovenant. Butweshouldnotbemisledbyhumancovenantalrelationships,e.g.,thecovenantofmarriage
4
GodcanfavorablyorunfavorablymodifyHiscovenantalpromises,butneverutterlyabrogatethem,became theyareinherentlypartofaneternalscheme,orplan. InresponsetoanyaccusationthatJosephcausedthepermanentimpoverishmentoftheEgyptianmasses,itis worthnotingthat,asDivinelyforetoldtoAbraham,thosemasseswereabletogivetheIsraelites[from]their immensewealthasthelatterleftEgypt(seeEx.12:3336)presumably,aspaymentfor400yearsofJewish slavery.

betweenmanandwomaninmarriage,orthecovenantoftheunionamongthestatesofAmerica evenwhensomeseektosecedeevenwhensuchrelationships,especiallythatofmarriage,are usedbytheprophetsasametaphororsymbolofGodsrelationshipwithIsrael.For,justto anticipatethissubjectagaininthebriefestway,howeverwemaylookattheterminabilityofhuman relationshipswherethemutualneedceases,GodsneedforIsrael,tostatetheobvious,iseternal insomeformoranother.Forexample,evenifGodhasproposedonoccasiontostartthatnation overagainwithanewlineagefromabranchofAbrahamsprogeny,asGodproposedtostartanew nationfromMosesprogenyafterthesinoftheGoldenCalf(Exodus32:10),thecovenantwith Abrahamthroughhisprogenywillalwaysremaininforce.
IV
Animportantaspectofallcovenantsisthemethoditemploystoresolvefuturequestionsand disputes.OneofthebestexamplesofacovenantalrelationshipinthesecularsphereistheU.S. Constitution,asnotedabove,aunionofthestatesthatarepartiestoit. Insuchasituationthereneedstobeamechanismtoresolvefuturedifferences,including differencesamongorbetweenanyofthepartiestothecovenantalrelationshipandtheinstitutions, organizations,orgroupsthatrepresentthem.Thedifferencesare:1)unknown;2)unanticipated;3) sonumerousthateventoattempttoanticipatethemandresolvetheminadvanceofgoingforward withtherelationshipwouldtake,literally,forever,becausehopefullyandideallytherelationship willendureforever,subjecttoperiodicrenewalsaftercriseswhererenewalisrequiredorbeneficial.6 Notonlycanfuturedifferencesnotbeknown,andspecifiedandresolvedinadvance,buttheir futureresolutionmustnecessarilybebasedonconditionsexistingatsuchfuturetimewhensuch differencesamongorbetweenthepartiesarise.Thisissobecause,bydefinition,thecomfortable continuationoftherelationshipwillalwaysbebasedonthestrengthofthemutualneedforit, balancedagainstthestrengthofthedifferencesthatarisebetweenoramongtheparties.Itmust alwaysremainavolitionalrelationshipastoeachandeveryparty. Therefore,themechanismtoresolvequestionsordisputesbetweenoramongthepartiesmustbe basedonstrivingtokeepthecontinuingrelationshipalivetotheextentpossibleandfeasiblegiven thepartiesrespectiveneeds. InthecontextoftheU.S.Constitution,thismeansaSupremeCourtwiththepowertoresolve disputesbetweenandamongtheparties,i.e.,membersofthepublic,primarilyitscitizensandtheir institutions,e.g.,corporationsorpartnerships,families,etc.,andtheinstitutionsofnationalor internationalgovernmentestablishedbypublicauthorityandconsent. Inthecontextofanormativereligion,governedbylawor,intheJewishcontext,halachah,we againmusthaveinstitutionsofdisputeorquestionresolutiontowhichallpartiestothecovenantal relationshiparecommittedspecifically,God,theultimateauthorityforthelaws,andtheJewish people,initscommunalandindividualcapacities.Further,justastheSupremeCourtactsas impartialarbitratorbetweenandamongcontendingpartiestotheconstitutionalcovenant,oran arbitratoractswhoisdesignatedbyanemployeranduniontopreserve,byarbitration,acomplex, prolongedrelationship,so,too,doesareligiouscovenantrequiresuchanimpartialarbitrator.
6
See,e.g.,Hosea13.
Atthispoint,theuninitiatedwillask:Andwhocanthatbe?Clearly,Godalonepresumablyknows therightanswertoallquestions.ButthoseboundtoobeyGodfortheindefinitefuturemaynotlike allHisanswerstotheirdisputesorquestions.Thismaysoundsacrilegioustothereader,butwe knowthatthisisnotsobecauseGodHimselfdecidedthequestionofwhoshouldbethearbitrator bydisqualifyingHimselffromthisrole,presumablytohelpmaintainthepermanentloyaltyofthe JewishpeopletotheCovenant.First,GodinHiswisdomproclaimedthatHiscovenantalpartners mustbelievethattheycanindeedmustliveby[Hislaws](Leviticus18:5;Ezekiel20:11,13,21; BTSanhedrin74a),whichimpliessomeparticipationbytheminresolvingdisputeswheretheyare involved. Further,andtoimplementthisnecessity,notonlydoestheBibleprescribethatthejudgesof questionsanddisputesshallcomefromtheJewishpeopletoresolvethem,buttheyaretobe appointedbythepeopleortheirrepresentatives,andnotbyGod,norbythosespeakinginGods nameandpurportingtoknowHisrevealedinstructions,e.g.,prophets.Thepeopleappoint,directly orindirectly,theirjudges,evenwhenquestionsordisputesinvolvingGodslawareinissue (Deuteronomy16:18,17:813).Andtheirdecisionsarebindingevenifthedecisionsofthesejudges areknowntobecontrarytoGodsview,asthetalmudicsagesthemselvesproclaimedwhenoneof theirownmembersbroughtHeavenlysupportforhislegalposition!(BTBavaMetzia59b).7Whena sagelaterencounteredElijah,sothestoryintheTalmudgoes,andasked,HowdidGodrespond whentheSagessaidthattheanswer[even]toreligiouslegalquestionsisnotinHeaven,Elijah responded:GodlaughedandHesaid:MysonshavedefeatedMe,MysonshavedefeatedMe. Whenyouthinkaboutthenatureofthecovenantalrelationship,itisclearthatthearrangement, inwhichhumans,notGod,decidewhattheanswersaretocovenantalquestions,evenaboutGods law,yourealizethatitcouldnothavebeenotherwise. Therefore,humansweregiventhatauthoritybyGodbytheactofrevelationitself,inwhich humanjudgesweregiventheauthoritytodecidealllegalissueswithoutregardtoGodscontrary opinionevenifcontacted.AndGodspecificallystatedindiscussingthecovenantalrelationshipthat
7
FROMSHAMMAI,therelevantGemara:Ithasbeentaught:OnthatdayRabbiEliezerbroughtforwardevery argumentintheworld,butthey[hiscolleagues]didnotacceptthem.Saidhetothem:Ifthehalachah agreeswithme,letthiscarobtreeproveit!Thereuponthecarobtreewastorn100cubitsoutofitsplace otherssayitwas400cubits.Noproofcanbebroughtfromacarobtree,theyretorted.Againhesaidto them:Ifthehalachahagreeswithme,letthestreamofwaterproveit!Whereuponthestreamofwater flowedbackwards.Noproofcanbebroughtfromastreamofwater,theyrejoined.Againheurged:Ifthe halachahagreeswithme,letthewallsoftheschoolhouseproveit,whereuponthewallsinclinedtofall.But RabbiJoshuarebukedthem,saying:Whenscholarsareengagedinahalachicdispute,whatbusinessisitof yourstointerfere?Hencethey[thewalls]didnotfall,inhonorofRabbiJoshua,buttheyalsodidnot straightenup,inhonorofRabbiEliezer;andtheyarestillstandingthusinclined.Againhesaidtothem:If thehalachahagreeswithme,letitbeprovedfromHeaven!WhereuponaHeavenlyVoicecriedout:Why doyoudisputewithRabbiEliezer,seeingthatinallmattersthehalachahagreeswithhim!ButRabbiJoshua stooduponhisfeetandsaid[quotingDeuteronomy30:12]:It[theTorah]isnotinheaven.Whatdidhe meanbythis?RabbiJeremiahsaid:ThattheTorahhadalreadybeengivenatMountSinai[andso]wepay noattentiontoaHeavenlyVoice,becausetheTorahthatwasgivenatMountSinaialreadysaid,Afterthe majoritymustoneincline.Inotherwords,therabbistoldGodthatHehadhissayatSinai,nowitwastheir turn.
thelaw(asitneedstobeinterpreted)isnotinHeaven(Deuteronomy.30:1114). Moreover,toforcehumanstolivetotallyandeternallybyGodsunderstandingabouthowthey shalllive,withnoinputoftheirown,makesthecovenanttooonesided.Remember,thecovenantal relationshipisbasedonmutualneed.Godneedshumanstoo;itisnotjustwewhoneedGod.Thatis thefundamentalexplanationforhumanityandhumanhistoryastheepitome,thecrown,the unfinishedsymphony,ofGodscreation.Humanitycannothandleabsolutetruthbecauseitisbeyond itsexperience,justlikeitcannothandleabsolutebeauty,andabsolutejustice.Intheend,these conceptsaredependentonhistorytobeunderstood,andmansmortalitypreventssuchknowledge, justasGodsimmortalityaloneallowsHimtounderstandabsolutes;andthispreventsHimfrom imposingthemonhumanitystimeboundcontexts.Godsjudgmentsarejustandperfectwhenthey canbeknownoverthefullnessoftime,fromthestandpointoftheirtotality.But,inisolation,such perfectionisimpossible.Forthesamereason,Jewishjudgesregularlypointouttolitigantsthatthe highestformofhumanjusticeiscompromise,andnottheinsistencebypartiesorjudgeson absolutetruthorjusticeineachdecision,which,onanultimatescale,theyareincapableof demandingorrendering. [T]hefinallessonthatAbrahamwastolearnisthatjustasthenewcovenantcalledforAbrahamto havefaiththatIsraelwouldprevailevenafterfacingextinctionduringitsslaveryinEgypt,sowould allofAbrahamsprogenyprevail,fromIsaacon,eventhoughthey(orhe)mightbethreatenedwith extinctionandperhaps,Iventure,AbrahammighthaveconcludedevenifthreatenedbyGods owncommand.
V
Becausethepartiesinacovenantalrelationshiphavesuchamutualneedforeachother,itis understandablewhy,whereGodisnotaparty,thepartiesgotosuchlengthseithertointegrate functionally,e.g.,bymerger,orbyestablishingamechanismtoresolvefuturedisputes,especiallyby compromisesbroughtaboutbyoutsideparties,whetherbyarbitrationormediation,orformsof legalcompulsion.Thesemechanisms,andotherformsofpressure,becomeevenmorenecessary whentherearethirdparties,likethepublic,thataresubjecttograveinjurywhenthecovenantal partieshaveafallingout,e.g.,strikesbypublicutilityemployees. TheelementofmutualneedalsoexplainswhytheconsequencesaresoseverewhereGodisa covenantalparty.PunishmentisnecessarywhenthereisaDivineperceptionthatIsrael,astheother covenantalparty,isfailingtoliveuptoitsresponsibilitiesofethicalmonotheism.Moreoftenthan not,theresultingdireconsequencestoIsraelareeffectedbyDivinedisinterestinIsraelsfateshort ofitstotaldestructionbyhidingHisfaceinbiblicalterminology,leavingIsraeltosurvivehistorical forces,specifically,thehatredofthosewhoseethemessageofethicalmonotheismasathreatto theirownpowerandhegemony.Insuchsituations,whereGodsprovidenceiswithheld,the consequencesforIsrael,spelledoutintheBible,are,indeed,dire. However,becausewecanneverknowwhatisinGodsmind,asitwere,wecanneverknowthe reasonorpurposeofhumansuffering,eitherpersonal,national,orinternational.Allwehavetohold ontoisGodsresponsetoJobinthewhirlwind,describingtheimpossibilityofanyhumanattempts tomeasureDivinejusticeinhumanterms.Isuggestthatthisiswhytheveryfirstuniversalcommand oftheNoahhideLawsisforhumanitytoestablishitsowncourtsofjusticebasedontheuniversal, DivinestandardsofrighteousnessestablishedformankindaftertheFlood.Inthisrespect, humanitysfatesincethattimeisinhumanityshands,andIsraelsmissionistocontinuetoholdhigh
thestandardsandmessageofethicalmonotheism,toabidebythem,and,unfortunately,tobethe firstonehurtwhenhumanitybeginstofailinitsownethicalresponsibilities. Intheend,IthinkthatDavidNovakisontosomethinginspendingsomucheffortinbringingto ourattentiontheimportanceofunderstandingthenatureofcovenantalrelationshipsand responsibilitieswhich,Ibelievearesoimportantinhumanlife. COPYRIGHT2006TheodorHerzlFoundation
EncyclopaediaJudaica:ChosenPeople
LouH.Silberman
CHOSENPEOPLE,acommondesignationforthepeopleofIsrael,expressingtheideathatthe peopleofIsraelstandsinaspecialanduniquerelationshiptotheuniversaldeity.Thisideahasbeen acentralonethroughoutthehistoryofJewishthought:itisdeeplyrootedinbiblicalconcepts,and hasbeendevelopedintalmudic,philosophic,mystical,andcontemporaryJudaism.
Bible
Narrowlyviewed,oneHebrewroot,bchr(,tochoose),expresseswithunmistakableintent thenatureandmannerinwhichthepeopleofIsraelisunderstoodtobethepeopleofGod.This term,inadditiontoitssecularmeaning(e.g.,Gen.13:11),isusedtoindicatethechoiceofpersonsby Godforaparticularroleoroffice,suchasapriest:FortheLordyourGodhaschosenhimandhis descendantstocomeoutofallyourtribes,tobeinattendanceforserviceinthenameoftheLord, forever(Deut.18:5,ISam.2:28);oraking,asDavidsaystoMichal,Saulsdaughter,Beforethe Lord,whochosemeabovethyfather,andaboveallhishouse,toappointmeprinceoverthepeople oftheLord,overIsrael(IISam.6:21;Kings8:16). Thisrootisalsousedtoindicatethesettingasideofaparticularplaceforthesiteofthesanctuary, ButlookonlytothesitethattheLordyourGodwillchooseamidstallyourtribesasHishabitation...; thereyouaretogo(Deut.12:5;cf.ibid.,14,18,21,26).Justasintheseusagestheverb indicatesaroleforthepersonsorplacethathavebeenchosenbyGod,sointheDeuteronomic writingsithasaparticulartheologicalmeaningrelatingtothepeopleofIsrael:Foryouareapeople consecratedtotheLordyourGod:ofallthepeoplesonearththeLordyourGodchoseyoutobeHis treasuredpeople(Deut.7:6,cf.14:2). TheideaofelectionwasalreadywidespreadwhentheDeuteronomistintroducedthetechnical theologicaltermchosentoexpressit.Itistheessenceofthecovenant,whichsignifiesthe fundamentalrelationshipbetweenGodandIsraelandisreferredtothroughouttheentireHebrew Bible.Howevercontemporarycriticalscholarshipmaydefinethatcovenant,andthereareanumber ofcompetingtheories,thereisgeneralagreementthatthebiblicalauthorsviewedsucha relationshipasessential.YettherelationshipbetweenGodandIsraelisbroaderthanindicatedby thetermtochoose.InAmos3:2,forexample,theverbyada(toknowintimately)inIhave knownonlyyouofallthepeoplesoftheearth;thereforeIwillvisituponyouallyouriniquities pointstothisspecialrelationship.Thesecondhalfofthisverseisoneoftheclassicpassageswhich emphasizesthatthedoctrineofelectiondoesnotimplytheconfermentofspecialprivileges,but imposesextraobligationsandresponsibility. TheDeuteronomicwritersofferedafurthertheologicalinterpretationofthecovenant,i.e.,the statusofIsraelasthepeopleofGod.Itwasfoundeduponanactofdivinechoicemotivatedbylove: ItisnotbecauseyouarethemostnumerousofpeoplesthattheLordsetHisheartonyouand choseyouindeed,youarethesmallestofpeoples;butitwasbecausetheLordlovedyou.(Deut. 7:78)ThusGod,whochoseIsrael,couldhavechosenanyothernationaswell,forthewholeearth belongstoHim(cf.Ex.9:5).TheDeuteronomicwritersandsecondIsaiahemphasizedtheuniversal ruleoftheGodofIsrael,andatthesametimeunderscoredthechoiceofIsrael. Thecovenantrelationshipdefinedinthismannercarrieswithitresponsibilities,inthesameway
thatchosenindividualsareresponsibleforcertaintasksandarerequiredtoassumeparticularroles. Thus,Genesis18:19,ForIhavesingledhimout,thathemayinstructhischildrenandhisposterity, tokeepthewayoftheLord,bydoingwhatisjustandright...isreportedinNehemiah9:7asThou arttheLordtheGod,whodidstchoose(bacharta)Abram...withtheobligationsspelledoutinthe earlierversenowpresentbyimplicationintheverbchoose. Thedivinechoice,therefore,callsforreciprocalhumanresponse:Yearewitnessesagainst yourselvesthatyehavechosenyoutheLord,toserveHim...(Josh.24:22).Israelisobligatedbythis choicetokeepHisstatutes,andobserveHisLaws(Ps.105:45).Unlikethenonentitiesthatthe nationsoftheworldworship,GodhaspredictedboththemarvelousvictoriesofCyrusthathave alreadytakenplaceandthemiraculousrestorationofIsrael(ledbackfromBabyloniatotheir homelandbyaverdant,shady,wellwateredpathacrossthedesert;etc.)thatissoontofollow.Israel willconvincethenationsoftheworldthatthereisonlyoneeffectiveGodwhocandothemany good,andsowillbetheagentsoftheplantingofthetruereligion(Isa.42:3a4)andhencesuccess andlight(i.e.,happiness)totheendsoftheworld(Isa.49:6). ThewholediscussioninIsaiah49ofIsrael,Godsservant,pivotsontheideaofthetasktowhich Godhasappointedher:thatofspreadingGodssalvation(cf.Isa.49:6).ThepassageinIsaiah49:1ff. hasbeencomparedto(even,itissuggested,modeledon)Jeremiah1:4ff.ButwhereasJeremiahisto beaprophetuntothenationsonlyinthesensethathewillannouncefutureeventstothem(Jer. 1:10),Israelistobeaprophettothenationsinthesensethatitwillbringthemthelightofsalvation (Isa.49:6).ThisideaofelectionasataskevenleadstothedoctrineofIsraelsvicarioussufferingfor thenations(Isa.52:1353:12). Further,althoughthepeopleofIsraelmaynotpresumethatGodwillalwaysconsiderthem favorably,regardlessoftheiracts(e.g.,Hos.1:9),thethoughtofabsoluterejectionappears unimaginable:Yeteventhen,whentheyareinthelandoftheirenemies,Iwillnotrejectthemor spurnthemsoastodestroythem,annullingmycovenantwiththem:forItheLordamtheirGod. (Lev.26:44).Indeed,animportantelementofpropheticwritingsistheconcerntoexplainwhythe formallydeservedrejectionwasnotaffected.Thefundamentalmotiveofthechoice,love,isseenas ultimatelyoverridingthelegalrequirementofrejection,althoughnotthatofpunishment.
RabbinicLiterature
TherelationshipbetweenGodandIsraeldescribedinScriptureremainedafocalpointofreligious contemplationandtheologicalspeculationnotonlyforthePharisaicrabbinictradition,butinother movementswithinthecommunitybothinPalestineandtheDiaspora(Jub.2:19;15:3031;16:8; Philo,Abr.,98). Therabbisthemselves,whilestronglyupholdingthedoctrineoftheChosenPeople,insistthatthe electionofIsraelisbasedupontheirvoluntaryacceptanceoftheTorahatSinai.Thisidea,already expressedinExodus19:5,IfyewillhearkenuntoMyvoice,indeed,andkeepMycovenant,thenye shallbeMineowntreasurefromamongallthepeoples,isdevelopedbytherabbiswhostatethat theTorahwasfreelyofferedfirsttotheothernationsoftheworld,butallofthemrejectedit becauseofitsrestrictiveordinanceswhichconflictedwiththeirviciouswayoflife,andonlyIsrael acceptedit(BTAv.Zar.2b3a;Num.R.14:10;Sif.Deut.343).Theygoontosaythateventhe childrenofIsraelaccepteditonlywhenGodsuspendedthemountainoverthemlikeavault,and said,IfyouaccepttheTorahitwillbewellwithyou,butifnot,hereyouwillfindyourgrave(BTAv. Zar.,loc.cit.).Muchmoreprominent,however,wastheviewoftheenthusiasticacceptanceofthe
TorahbyIsrael,evenbeforetheyacquaintedthemselveswithitscontents(naasehvenishmah;Ex. 24:7;Shab.88a),afactforwhichtheheathensaremadetosneeratthemasanunstablepeople (BTKet.112a).MoreoverthepeopleofIsrael,thespirituallystrongestamongthenations,alone couldobservethefierylaw(Deut.33:3;BTBeitzah25b). Ontheotherhand,aspecialrelationshipofloveexistsbetweenthechildrenofIsraelandGod, whichismadethebasisofrabbinicallegoricalinterpretationsoftheSongofSongs,andisexpressed insuchsayingsas,HowbelovedisIsraelbeforetheHolyOne,blessedbeHe;forwhereverthey wereexiledtheShekhinah(DivinePresence)waswiththem(BTMeg.29a). Rabbinicliteratureevincesaconcerntoexplainthiselection,andspecialrelationship,as somethingotherthanarbitraryandtofindinthecharacterorbehaviorofIsrael(orofthePatriarchs) somemotiveforthedivinechoice,suchasexceptionalholiness,humility,loyalty,orobedience.The TalmudhasitthatthequalitiesofmercyandforgivenessarecharacteristicofAbrahamandhisseed, andareadistinguishingmarkofthetrueJew(BTBeitzah32b;BTYev.79a;cf.Maim.MTTeshuvah 2:10).YeteventhoserabbiswhotriedtoestablishIsraelsspecialclaimontheirexceptionalmerits werenotaltogetherunconsciousoftheinsufficiencyofthereasonofworksinthisrespect,and thereforehadalsorecoursetotheloveofGod,whichisnotgivenasareward,butisofferedfreely (SolomonSchechter,SomeAspectsofRabbinicTheology(1909),61). TheRabbinicconceptionoftheelectionofIsraelfindsdogmaticexpressionintheOrthodoxliturgy. Thouhastchosenusfromallpeoples;thouhastlovedusandtakenpleasureinus,andhastexalted usabovealltongues;thouhasthallowedusbythycommandments,andbroughtusnearuntothy service(FestivalsAmidah,inHertz,Siddur,819;cf.KiddushforFestivals,ibid.,809;Aleinuprayer, ibid.,209).TheconnectionbetweentheelectionofIsraelandherroleasguardianofGodsTorahis expressedintheblessingrecitedonbeingcalleduptothereadingoftheTorah,Blessedartthou,O LordourGod,KingoftheUniverse,whohastchosenusfromallpeoples,andhastgivenusThy Torah(ibid.,191).
MedievalThought
WiththeriseofChristianity,thedoctrineofIsraelastheChosenPeopleacquiredanadded polemicaledgeagainstthebackgroundoftheclaimoftheChurchtobethetrueIsraelandGods chosenpeople.Intimesofpersecutionanddespairthedoctrine,whichwasaxiomaticinJewish consciousness,wasasourceofgreatstrengthandforbearance.Similarlythetalmudicexplanation, thatthewillingnessofIsraeltoacceptandobeytheTorahwasthereasonfortheirelection,helped maintainloyaltytotraditionandtohalachah,inperiodsofstressandforcedconversiontoother religions(cf.J.Katz,ExclusivenessandTolerance(1961),1314). InmedievalJewishphilosophythenotionofthespecialstatusoftheJewishpeoplefound articulateandradicalexpressioninJudahHalevisKuzari.TheentireJewishpeople,accordingto Halevi,wasendowedwithaspecialreligiousfaculty,firstgiventoAdam,andthenbequeathed, throughalineofchosenrepresentatives,toallofIsrael(1:95).Asaresultofthedivineinfluencethus inherited,theJewishpeoplewasuniquelyabletoenterintocommunionwithGod(1:47).Becauseof thisdivineinfluence,Israelselectionimpliesdependenceonaspecialsupernaturalprovidence, whiletherestofhumanityissubjecttotheworkingsofthelawsofnature(1:109). WhilethenotionofIsraelasaChosenPeopleoccupiesacentralpositioninHalevisthought,it playsonlyanincidentalroleinthewritingsofotherJewishphilosophers.SaadiahmentionsGods promisethattheJewishnationwillexistaslongastheheavensandtheearth(BookofBeliefsand
Opinions,3:7),andholdsthatonlyIsraelisassuredofredemption,andwillbeincludedinthe resurrectionofthedead(ibid.,7:3).AbrahamibnDaudechoesHalevisnotionthatIsraelaloneis privilegedtoreceiveprophecy,whileHalevistheoryofaspecial,supernaturalprovidencewhichis exercisedonbehalfofIsraelaloneisrepeatedbyHasdaiCrescasandIsaacAbrabanel.Thoughinthe viewofMaimonides,Judaismistheonetruerevealedreligionwhichwillneverbesupersededby anotherrevelation(Guide,2:39),thedoctrineofJewishelectiondoesnotplayaverycentralrole. Itwouldseemthatthemoreextreme,andexclusive,interpretationsofthedoctrineofelection, amongJewishthinkers,werepartlytheresultofreactiontooppressionbythenonJewishworld.The moretheJewwasforcedtocloseinonhimself,towithdrawintotheimposedconfinesoftheghetto, themorehetendedtoemphasizeIsraelsdifferencefromthecruelgentilewithout.Onlythusdidhis sufferingbecomeintelligibleandbearable.Thistypeofinterpretationreachesitsheightinthe KabbalisticideathatwhilethesoulsofIsraelstemultimatelyfromGod,thesoulsofthegentilesare merelyofbasematerial(kelippot,shells).WhentheJewwaseventuallyallowedtofindhisplacein agentileworld,thelessexclusivistaspectofthedoctrinereasserteditself.
ModernViews
TheEnlightenmentofthe18thcentury,andthegradualpoliticalemancipationoftheJewsof WesternEurope,challengedandunderminedthenotionofJewishuniquenessbothdirectlyand indirectly.TheearliestofthemodernJews,MosesMendelssohn,consideredtheintellectual contentofJudaismtobeidenticalwiththereligionofreason,whoseteachingscoincidewith philosophy.Inreplytothequestion,WhyshouldoneremainaJew?hestatedthattheJewshad beensingledoutinhistorybytherevelationatSinai,andthushadtheobligationtoremainthe bearersofthatrevelation(cf.LeoBaeck,VonMosesMendelssohnzuFranzRosenzweig,p.23).Toa largeextentthisposition,variouslyinterpreted,hasremainedtheimplicitorexplicitstanceofa majorportionoftheJewishcommunity.Moreover,theconceptwasdevelopedoftheJewishmission (especiallybyReformcircles).ThisstressedtheroleoftheJewsashavingreceivedthespecial messageofGodwhichtheywouldinturnpassontothenationsoftheworldandinthismission wastheirchosenness. Suchapositionhas,however,beentheobjectofcriticism,misinterpretation,andattackfrom withinandwithout.TheantiSemitehasseizeduponitasanunveiledclaimtoJewishsuperiority, andcaricatureditbymaintainingthatitisthebasisofaprogramofJewishworlddomination.Itis thiscalumnywhichhelpedtogivesuchvirulentlyantiJewishdocumentsasthenotoriousforgery TheProtocolsoftheEldersofZionasemblanceofcredibility.Themisunderstanding,and nonplussedreaction,ofcertainsectionsofthenonJewishworldwithregardtotheJewsconception ofthemselvesastheChosenPeopleissummedupinHilaireBellocsjingleHowoddofGodto choosetheJews(towhichtheretortwaspennedItwasnotoddtheJewschoseGod). EvencertainintellectualshavebeenunabletoviewtheJewishdoctrineofelection sympathetically.ArnoldToynbeewrote,Themostnotorioushistoricalexampleofidolizationofan ephemeralselfistheerroroftheJews....TheypersuadedthemselvesthatIsraelsdiscoveryofthe OneTrueGodhadrevealedIsraelitselftobeGodsChosenPeople(AStudyofHistory,4(1961), 262).TheHebrewwriterJ.H.Brennerdeclared,...IwouldblotoutfromtheprayerbookoftheJew ofourdaytheThouhastchosenusineveryshapeandform(quotedinS.Speigel,HebrewReborn (1930),37589),andthishasbeeneffectedintheprayerbookoftheReconstructionistmovement whichstates:ModernmindedJewscannolongerbelieve...thattheJewsconstituteadivinely
chosenpeople(SabbathPrayerBook,TheJewishReconstructionistFoundation(1945),xxiv). TheChurchearlymaintainedthatbytheirrejectionofJesustheJewshadforfeitedtheirfavored positionwhichhadbeeninheritedbytheChurch.CertainmodernliberalChristiantheologianshave howeverdeniedtheannulmentoftheelectionofIsrael.Aneloquentcontemporaryattempttocome totermswiththecriticismwhilemaintainingtheconceptofelectionisfoundinLeoBaecksbook ThisPeopleIsrael(1964),whichsays,initsconcludingparagraphs:Everypeoplecanbechosenfora history,forashareinthehistoryofhumanity....Butmorehistoryhasbeenassignedtothispeople thanotherpeople(p.402).Moreover,Judaismhasalwaysbeenopentotheproselytewhoby acceptingitbecomespartoftheChosenPeople.Thisfactisoftencitedtorefutechargesofa racialexclusiveness. Thecriticismoftheconceptofelectionderivesinthemainfromuniversalityandhumanist tendencies:Jewsaremenamongmen,andIsraelisanationamongtheothers.Thedefenseofthe traditionalconceptisultimatelyatheologicaltask,definingthemeaningofchosennessasdistinct fromuniqueordifferent,letalonesuperior.ModernJewishthoughtisstillgrapplingwiththe problemofredefiningthetraditionalconcept,inawaythatdoesjusticebothtotheuniversalist valuesofJudaismontheonehand,andtothespecificcharacterofJewishhistoricalandspiritual experienceontheother.

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COVENANT/CHOSENNESS

Itmeansdeterminationisanegation. Yes,itisaword.Itmeansthequalityorconditionofbeingfact.Sorry,buthehastoomanydegreestosimply usethewordfact.

No,notagape,butahGAHpei,anoriginallyGreekwordturnedintoatheologicalone,andmeaning Christian loveasdistinctfromeithertheerotickindorthesimpleaffectionvariety.

Cf.MartinBubersinterestingdiscussionofthisinTheElectionofIsrael:ABiblicalInquiry,inOntheBible: EighteenStudies,ed.NahumN.Glatzer(NewYork,1982),pp.8092. Cf.Genesis4:1.

participateinanyway.However,therabbiscometounderstandmanyGentilereligiouspracticesas permitted,i.e.,notidolatrous,fortheGentilesthemselves,thuseasingtherestrictionsonatleast economicrelationshipsbetweenJewandGentile.

TheDeathofDeath:ResurrectionandImmortalityinJewishThought(Woodstock,Vt.:JewishLights Publishing,1997)2122. GenesisRabbah9:7(andparallels),inacommentaryontheapplicationofverygoodtothecreationof humanity.

worldhave.Totheextentthatredemptionisdependentonhumanbehavior,then,ourresponsibility istodeterminepreciselyhowtoliveaccordingtoGodswillinthisworld.Therefore,themost privilegedmodeofdiscourseintraditionalJudaismishalachic.

Onthis,seeRaphaelJospe,ChosennessinJudaism:Exclusivityvs.InclusivityinCovenantandChosennessin JudaismandMormonism,ed.RaphaelJospe,TrumanG.Madsen,andSethWard(Madison,N.J.:Fairleigh DickinsonUniversity;2001)17394.

requiringacommitmentbyeachtotheothertomaintainthatrelationshipintotheindefinite futureandtofindwaystocontinueitandresolvefuturequestionsorissuesbetween(or among)theminwaysconsistentwiththecovenantsoriginal,broad,importantobjectives.

ThissystemwasusedformanyyearsbyFordMotorCompanyandtheUnitedAutoWorkers;myteacher, ProfessorHarryShulmanofYaleLawSchool,wastheirimpartialarbitrator. TheliturgyonYomKippurspecificallyasksforGodsforgivenessforHissake,becauseGodneedsapeopleto representHismessageintheworld.

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