What is the Skeletal System?

Your Skeletal system is all of the bones in the body and the tissues such as tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connect them. Your teeth are also considered part of your skeletal system but they are not counted as bones. Your teeth are made of enamel and dentin. Enamel is the strongest substance in your body. How does the Skeletal System help us? Support The main job of the skeleton is to provide support for our body. Without your skeleton your body would collapse into a heap. Your skeleton is strong but light. Without bones you'd be just a puddle of skin and guts on the floor. Protection Your skeleton also helps protect your internal organs and fragile body tissues. The brain, eyes, heart, lungs and spinal cord are all protected by your skeleton. Your cranium (skull) protects your brain and eyes, the ribs protect your heart and lungs and your vertebrae (spine, backbones) protect your spinal cord. Movement Bones provide the structure for muscles to attach so that our bodies are able to move. Tendons are tough inelastic bands that hold attach muscle to bone. Who has more bones a baby or an adult? Babies have more than adults! At birth, you have about 300 bones. As you grow older, small bones join together to make big ones. Adults end up with about 206 bones. Are bones alive? Absolutely. Old bones are dead, dry and brittle. But in the body, bones are very much alive. They have their own nerves and blood vessels, and they do various jobs, such as storing body minerals like calcium. Bones are made of a mix of hard stuff that gives them strength and tons of living cells which help them grow and repair themselves.

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What is a bone made of? A typical bone has an outer layer of hard or compact bone, which is very strong, dense and tough. Inside this is a layer of spongy bone, which is like honeycomb, lighter and slightly flexible. In the middle of some bones is jelly-like bone marrow, where new cells are constantly being produced for the blood. Calcium is an important mineral that bone cells need to stay strong so keep drinking that low-fat milk! How do bones break and heal? Bones are tough and usually don't break even when we have some pretty bad falls. I'm sure you have broken a big stick at one time. When you first try to break the stick it bends a bit but with enough force the stick finally snaps. It is the same with your bones. Bones will bend a little, but if you fall the wrong way from some playground equipment or maybe your bike or skateboard you can break a bone. Doctors call a broken bone a fracture. There are many different types of fractures. Luckily, bones are made of living cells. When a bone is broken your bone will produce lots of new cells to rebuild the bone. These cells cover both ends of the broken part of the bone and close up the break. How do I keep my bones healthy? Bones need regular exercise to stay as strong as possible. Walking, jogging, running and other physical activities are important in keeping your bones strong and healthy. Riding your bike, basketball, soccer, gymnastics, baseball, dancing, skateboarding and other activities are all good for your bones. Make sure you wear or use the proper equipment like a helmet, kneepads, shin guards, mats, knee pads, etc... to keep those bones safe. Strengthen your skeleton by drinking milk and eating other dairy products (like low-fat cheese, frozen yogurt, and ice cream). They all contain calcium, which helps bones harden and become strong.

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Muscular System The muscular system is responsible for the movement of the human body. Attached to the bones of the skeletal system are about 700 named muscles that make up roughly half of a persons body weight. Each of these muscles is a discrete organ constructed of skeletal muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, digestive organs, and blood vessels. In these organs, muscles serve to move substances throughout the body.... Muscular System Anatomy Muscle Types There are three types of muscle tissue: Visceral, cardiac, and skeletal. 1. Visceral Muscle. Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move substances through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it is known as involuntary muscleit cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind. The term smooth muscle is often used to describe visceral muscle because it has a very smooth, uniform appearance when viewed under a microscope. This smooth appearance starkly contrasts with the banded appearance of cardiac and skeletal muscles.

2. Cardiac Muscle. Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an involuntary muscle. While hormones and signals from the brain adjust the rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates itself to contract. The natural pacemaker of the heart is made of cardiac muscle tissue that stimulates other cardiac muscle cells to contract. Because of its selfstimulation, cardiac muscle is considered to be autorhythmic or intrinsically controlled. The cells of cardiac muscle tissue are striatedthat is, they appear to have light and dark stripes when viewed under a light microscope. The arrangement of protein fibers inside of the cells causes these light and dark bands. Striations indicate that a muscle cell is very strong, unlike visceral muscles. The cells of cardiac muscle are branched X or Y shaped cells tightly connected together by special junctions called intercalated disks. Intercalated disks are made up of fingerlike projections from two neighboring cells that interlock and provide a strong bond between the cells. The branched structure and intercalated disks allow the muscle cells to resist high blood pressures and the strain of pumping blood throughout a lifetime. These features also help to spread electrochemical signals quickly from cell to cell so that the heart can beat as a unit. 3. Skeletal Muscle. Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human bodyit is controlled consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g. speaking, walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function of skeletal muscle is to contract to move parts of the body closer to the bone that the muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other. Skeletal muscle cells form when many smaller progenitor cells lump themselves together to form long, straight, multinucleated fibers. Striated just like cardiac muscle, these skeletal muscle fibers are very strong. Skeletal muscle derives its name from the fact that these muscles always connect to the skeleton in at least one place. Gross Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Most skeletal muscles are attached to two bones through tendons. Tendons are tough bands of dense regular connective tissue whose strong collagen fibers firmly attach muscles to bones. Tendons are under extreme stress when muscles pull on them, so they are very strong and are woven into the coverings of both muscles and bones. Muscles move by shortening their length, pulling on tendons, and moving bones closer to each other. One of the bones is pulled towards the other bone, which remains stationary. The place on the stationary bone that is connected via tendons to the muscle is called the origin. The place on the moving bone that is connected to the muscle via tendons is called the insertion. The belly of the muscle is the fleshy part of the muscle in between the tendons that does the actual contraction.

Names of Skeletal Muscles Skeletal muscles are named based on many different factors, including their location, origin and insertion, number of origins, shape, size, direction, and function.

Location. Many muscles derive their names from their anatomical region. The rectus abdominis and transverse abdominis, for example, are found in the abdominal region. Some muscles, like the tibialis anterior, are named after the part of the bone (the anterior portion of the tibia) that they are attached to. Other muscles use a hybrid of these two, like the brachioradialis, which is named after a region (brachial) and a bone (radius). Origin and Insertion. Some muscles are named based upon their connection to a stationary bone (origin) and a moving bone (insertion). These muscles become very easy to identify once you know the names of the bones that they are attached to. Examples of this type of muscle include the sternocleidomastoid (connecting the sternum and clavicle to the mastoid process of the skull) and the occipitofrontalis (connecting the occipital bone to the frontal bone). Number of Origins. Some muscles connect to more than one bone or to more than one place on a bone, and therefore have more than one origin. A muscle with two origins is called a biceps. A muscle with three origins is a triceps muscle. Finally, a muscle with four origins is a quadriceps muscle. Shape, Size, and Direction. We also classify muscles by their shapes. For example, the deltoids have a delta or triangular shape. The serratus muscles feature a serrated or saw-like shape. The rhomboid major is a rhombus or diamond shape. The size of the muscle can be used to distinguish between two muscles found in the same region. The gluteal region contains three muscles differentiated by sizethe gluteus maximus (large), gluteus medius (medium), and gluteus minimus (smallest). Finally, the direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. In the abdominal region, there are several sets of wide, flat muscles. The muscles whose fibers run straight up and down are the rectus abdominis, the ones running transversely (left to right) are the transverse abdominis, and the ones running at an angle are the obliques. Function. Muscles are sometimes classified by the type of function that they perform. Most of the muscles of the forearms are named based on their function because they are located in the same region and have similar shapes and sizes. For example, the flexor group of the forearm flexes the wrist and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that supinates the wrist by rolling it over to face palm up. In the leg, there are muscles called adductors whose role is to adduct (pull together) the legs. Groups Action in Skeletal Muscle Skeletal muscles rarely work by themselves to achieve movements in the body. More often they work in groups to produce precise movements. The muscle that produces any particular movement of the body is known as an agonist or prime mover. The agonist always pairs with an antagonist muscle that produces the opposite effect on the same bones. For example, the biceps brachii muscle flexes the arm at the elbow. As the antagonist for this motion, the triceps brachii

muscle extends the arm at the elbow. When the triceps is extending the arm, the biceps would be considered the antagonist. In addition to the agonist/antagonist pairing, other muscles work to support the movements of the agonist. Synergists are muscles that help to stabilize a movement and reduce extraneous movements. They are usually found in regions near the agonist and often connect to the same bones. Because skeletal muscles move the insertion closer to the immobile origin, fixator muscles assist in movement by holding the origin stable. If you lift something heavy with your arms, fixators in the trunk region hold your body upright and immobile so that you maintain your balance while lifting. Skeletal Muscle Histology Skeletal muscle fibers differ dramatically from other tissues of the body due to their highly specialized functions. Many of the organelles that make up muscle fibers are unique to this type of cell. The sarcolemma is the cell membrane of muscle fibers. The sarcolemma acts as a conductor for electrochemical signals that stimulate muscle cells. Connected to the sarcolemma are transverse tubules (T-tubules) that help carry these electrochemical signals into the middle of the muscle fiber. The sarcoplasmic reticulum serves as a storage facility for calcium ions (Ca2+) that are vital to muscle contraction. Mitochondria, the power houses of the cell, are abundant in muscle cells to break down sugars and provide energy in the form of ATP to active muscles. Most of the muscle fibers structure is made up of myofibrils, which are the contractile structures of the cell. Myofibrils are made up of many proteins fibers arranged into repeating subunits called sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle fibers. Sarcomere Structure Sarcomeres are made of two types of protein fibers: thick filaments and thin filaments.

Thick filaments. Thick filaments are made of many bonded units of the protein myosin. Myosin is the protein that causes muscles to contract. Thin filaments. Thin filaments are made of three proteins:

1. Actin. Actin forms a helical structure that makes up the bulk of the thin filament mass. Actin contains myosin-binding sites that allow myosin to connect to and move actin during muscle contraction. 2. Tropomyosin. Tropomyosin is a long protein fiber that wraps around actin and covers the myosin binding sites on actin. 3. Troponin. Bound very tightly to tropomyosin, troponin moves tropomyosin away from myosin binding sites during muscle contraction.

Muscular System Physiology Function of Muscle Tissue The main function of the muscular system is movement. Muscles are the only tissue in the body that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts of the body. Related to the function of movement is the muscular systems second function: the maintenance of posture and body position. Muscles often contract to hold the body still or in a particular position rather than to cause movement. The muscles responsible for the bodys posture have the greatest endurance of all muscles in the bodythey hold up the body throughout the day without becoming tired. Another function related to movement is the movement of substances inside the body. The cardiac and visceral muscles are primarily responsible for transporting substances like blood or food from one part of the body to another. The final function of muscle tissue is the generation of body heat. As a result of the high metabolic rate of contracting muscle, our muscular system produces a great deal of waste heat. Many small muscle contractions within the body produce our natural body heat. When we exert ourselves more than normal, the extra muscle contractions lead to a rise in body temperature and eventually to sweating. Skeletal Muscles as Levers Skeletal muscles work together with bones and joints to form lever systems. The muscle acts as the effort force; the joint acts as the fulcrum; the bone that the muscle moves acts as the lever; and the object being moved acts as the load. There are three classes of levers, but the vast majority of the levers in the body are third class levers. A third class lever is a system in which the fulcrum is at the end of the lever and the effort is between the fulcrum and the load at the other end of the lever. The third class levers in the body serve to increase the distance moved by the load compared to the distance that the muscle contracts. The tradeoff for this increase in distance is that the force required to move the load must be greater than the mass of the load. For example, the biceps brachia of the arm pulls on the radius of the forearm, causing flexion at the elbow joint in a third class lever system. A very slight change in the length of the biceps causes a much larger movement of the forearm and hand, but the force applied by the biceps must be higher than the load moved by the muscle. Motor Units Nerve cells called motor neurons control the skeletal muscles. Each motor neuron controls

several muscle cells in a group known as a motor unit. When a motor neuron receives a signal from the brain, it stimulates all of the muscles cells in its motor unit at the same time. The size of motor units varies throughout the body, depending on the function of a muscle. Muscles that perform fine movementslike those of the eyes or fingershave very few muscle fibers in each motor unit to improve the precision of the brains control over these structures. Muscles that need a lot of strength to perform their functionlike leg or arm muscleshave many muscle cells in each motor unit. One of the ways that the body can control the strength of each muscle is by determining how many motor units to activate for a given function. This explains why the same muscles that are used to pick up a pencil are also used to pick up a bowling ball. Contraction Cycle Muscles contract when stimulated by signals from their motor neurons. Motor neurons contact muscle cells at a point called the Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ). Motor neurons release neurotransmitter chemicals at the NMJ that bond to a special part of the sarcolemma known as the motor end plate. The motor end plate contains many ion channels that open in response to neurotransmitters and allow positive ions to enter the muscle fiber. The positive ions form an electrochemical gradient to form inside of the cell, which spreads throughout the sarcolemma and the T-tubules by opening even more ion channels. When the positive ions reach the sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca2+ ions are released and allowed to flow into the myofibrils. Ca2+ ions bind to troponin, which causes the troponin molecule to change shape and move nearby molecules of tropomyosin. Tropomyosin is moved away from myosin binding sites on actin molecules, allowing actin and myosin to bind together. ATP molecules power myosin proteins in the thick filaments to bend and pull on actin molecules in the thin filaments. Myosin proteins act like oars on a boat, pulling the thin filaments closer to the center of a sarcomere. As the thin filaments are pulled together, the sarcomere shortens and contracts. Myofibrils of muscle fibers are made of many sarcomeres in a row, so that when all of the sarcomeres contract, the muscle cells shortens with a great force relative to its size. Muscles continue contraction as long as they are stimulated by a neurotransmitter. When a motor neuron stops the release of the neurotransmitter, the process of contraction reverses itself. Calcium returns to the sarcoplasmic reticulum; troponin and tropomyosin return to their resting positions; and actin and myosin are prevented from binding. Sarcomeres return to their elongated resting state once the force of myosin pulling on actin has stopped. Types of Muscle Contraction The strength of a muscles contraction can be controlled by two factors: the number of motor units involved in contraction and the amount of stimulus from the nervous system. A single nerve impulse of a motor neuron will cause a motor unit to contract briefly before relaxing. This

small contraction is known as a twitch contraction. If the motor neuron provides several signals within a short period of time, the strength and duration of the muscle contraction increases. This phenomenon is known as temporal summation. If the motor neuron provides many nerve impulses in rapid succession, the muscle may enter the state of tetanus, or complete and lasting contraction. A muscle will remain in tetanus until the nerve signal rate slows or until the muscle becomes too fatigued to maintain the tetanus. Not all muscle contractions produce movement. Isometric contractions are light contractions that increase the tension in the muscle without exerting enough force to move a body part. When people tense their bodies due to stress, they are performing an isometric contraction. Holding an object still and maintaining posture are also the result of isometric contractions. A contraction that does produce movement is an isotonic contraction. Isotonic contractions are required to develop muscle mass through weight lifting. Muscle tone is a natural condition in which a skeletal muscle stays partially contracted at all times. Muscle tone provides a slight tension on the muscle to prevent damage to the muscle and joints from sudden movements, and also helps to maintain the bodys posture. All muscles maintain some amount of muscle tone at all times, unless the muscle has been disconnected from the central nervous system due to nerve damage. Functional Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers Skeletal muscle fibers can be divided into two types based on how they produce and use energy: Type I and Type II. 1. Type I fibers are very slow and deliberate in their contractions. They are very resistant to fatigue because they use aerobic respiration to produce energy from sugar. We find Type I fibers in muscles throughout the body for stamina and posture. Near the spine and neck regions, very high concentrations of Type I fibers hold the body up throughout the day. 2. Type II fibers are broken down into two subgroups: Type II A and Type II B.

Type II A fibers are faster and stronger than Type I fibers, but do not have as much endurance. Type II A fibers are found throughout the body, but especially in the legs where they work to support your body throughout a long day of walking and standing. Type II B fibers are even faster and stronger than Type II A, but have even less endurance. Type II B fibers are also much lighter in color than Type I and Type II A due to their lack of myoglobin, an oxygen-storing pigment. We find Type II B fibers throughout the body, but particularly in the upper body where they give speed and strength to the arms and chest at the expense of stamina. Muscle Metabolism and Fatigue Muscles get their energy from different sources depending on the situation that the muscle is working in. Muscles use aerobic respiration when we call on them to produce a low to moderate

level of force. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen to produce about 36-38 ATP molecules from a molecule of glucose. Aerobic respiration is very efficient, and can continue as long as a muscle receives adequate amounts of oxygen and glucose to keep contracting. When we use muscles to produce a high level of force, they become so tightly contracted that oxygen carrying blood cannot enter the muscle. This condition causes the muscle to create energy using lactic acid fermentation, a form of anaerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration is much less efficient than aerobic respirationonly 2 ATP are produced for each molecule of glucose. Muscles quickly tire as they burn through their energy reserves under anaerobic respiration. To keep muscles working for a longer period of time, muscle fibers contain several important energy molecules. Myoglobin, a red pigment found in muscles, contains iron and stores oxygen in a manner similar to hemoglobin in the blood. The oxygen from myoglobin allows muscles to continue aerobic respiration in the absence of oxygen. Another chemical that helps to keep muscles working is creatine phosphate. Muscles use energy in the form of ATP, converting ATP to ADP to release its energy. Creatine phosphate donates its phosphate group to ADP to turn it back into ATP in order to provide extra energy to the muscle. Finally, muscle fibers contain energy-storing glycogen, a large macromolecule made of many linked glucoses. Active muscles break glucoses off of glycogen molecules to provide an internal fuel supply. When muscles run out of energy during either aerobic or anaerobic respiration, the muscle quickly tires and loses its ability to contract. This condition is known as muscle fatigue. A fatigued muscle contains very little or no oxygen, glucose or ATP, but instead has many waste products from respiration, like lactic acid and ADP. The body must take in extra oxygen after exertion to replace the oxygen that was stored in myoglobin in the muscle fiber as well as to power the aerobic respiration that will rebuild the energy supplies inside of the cell. Oxygen debt (or recovery oxygen uptake) is the name for the extra oxygen that the body must take in to restore the muscle cells to their resting state. This explains why you feel out of breath for a few minutes after a strenuous activityyour body is trying to restore itself to its normal state. Human Digestive System Digestive System Label Me! Printout (Simple version) Digestive System Label Me! Printout

The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. In order to use the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to excrete waste. Most of the digestive organs (like the stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain the food as it makes its way through the body. The digestive system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the mouth to the anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or store digestive chemicals. The Digestive Process: The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules). On the way to the stomach: the esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upsidedown. In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme. In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food. In the large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus,

Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon. The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus. Digestive System Glossary: abdomen - the part of the body that contains the digestive organs. In human beings, this is between the diaphragm and the pelvis alimentary canal - the passage through which food passes, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and anus. anus - the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits the body. appendix - a small sac located on the cecum. ascending colon - the part of the large intestine that run upwards; it is located after the cecum. bile - a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the small intestine. cecum - the first part of the large intestine; the appendix is connected to the cecum. chyme - food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids. Chyme goes on to the small intestine for further digestion. descending colon - the part of the large intestine that run downwards after the transverse colon and before the sigmoid colon. digestive system - (also called the gastrointestinal tract or GI tract) the system of the body that processes food and gets rid of waste. duodenum - the first part of the small intestine; it is C-shaped and runs from the stomach to the jejunum. epiglottis - the flap at the back of the tongue that keeps chewed food from going down the windpipe to the lungs. When you swallow, the epiglottis automatically closes. When you breathe, the epiglottis opens so that air can go in and out of the windpipe. esophagus - the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. gall bladder - a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases bile (a digestive chemical which is produced in the liver) into the small intestine. gastrointestinal tract - (also called the GI tract or digestive system) the system of the body that processes food and gets rid of waste. ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins. intestines - the part of the alimentary canal located between the stomach and the anus. jejunum - the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine; it is between the duodenum and the ileum. liver - a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood, and makes bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins. mouth - the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing and salivary enzymes in the mouth are the beginning of the digestive process (breaking down the food). pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the small

intestine. peristalsis - rhythmic muscle movements that force food in the esophagus from the throat into the stomach. Peristalsis is involuntary - you cannot control it. It is also what allows you to eat and drink while upside-down. rectum - the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted. salivary glands - glands located in the mouth that produce saliva. Saliva contains enzymes that break down carbohydrates (starch) into smaller molecules. sigmoid colon - the part of the large intestine between the descending colon and the rectum. stomach - a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both chemical and mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. When food enters the stomach, it is churned in a bath of acids and enzymes. transverse colon - the part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the abdomen. Human Circulatory System The human circulatory system functions to transport blood and oxygen from the lungs to the various tissues of the body. The heart pumps the blood throughout the body. The lymphatic system is an extension of the human circulatory system that includes cell-mediated and antibodymediated immune systems. The components of the human circulatory system include the heart, blood, red and white blood cells, platelets, and the lymphatic system. Heart The human heart is about the size of a clenched fist. It contains four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. Oxygen-poor blood enters the right atrium through a major vein called the vena cava. The blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. Next, the blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for gas exchange. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein. The oxygen-rich blood flows through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle, from which it is pumped through a major artery, the aorta. Two valves called semilunar valves are found in the pulmonary artery and aorta. The ventricles contract about 70 times per minute, which represents a person's pulse rate. Blood pressure, in contrast, is the pressure exerted against the walls of the arteries. Blood pressure is measured by noting the height to which a column of mercury can be pushed by the blood pressing against the arterial walls. A normal blood pressure is a height of 120 millimeters of mercury during heart contraction ( systole), and a height of 80 millimeters of mercury during heart relaxation ( diastole). Normal blood pressure is usually expressed as 120 over 80. Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with blood. The heart is controlled by nerves that originate on the right side in the upper region of the atrium at the sinoatrial node. This node is called the pacemaker. It generates nerve impulses that spread to the atrioventricular node where the impulses are amplified and spread to other regions of the heart by nerves called Purkinje fibers.

Blood Blood is the medium of transport in the body. The fluid portion of the blood, the plasma, is a straw-colored liquid composed primarily of water. All the important nutrients, the hormones, and the clotting proteins as well as the waste products are transported in the plasma. Red blood cells and white blood cells are also suspended in the plasma. Plasma from which the clotting proteins have been removed is serum. Red blood cells Red blood cells are erythrocytes. These are disk-shaped cells produced in the bone marrow. Red blood cells have no nucleus, and their cytoplasm is filled with hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a red-pigmented protein that binds loosely to oxygen atoms and carbon dioxide molecules. It is the mechanism of transport of these substances. (Much carbon dioxide is also transported as bicarbonate ions.) Hemoglobin also binds to carbon monoxide. Unfortunately, this binding is irreversible, so it often leads to carbon-monoxide poisoning. A red blood cell circulates for about 120 days and is then destroyed in the spleen, an organ located near the stomach and composed primarily of lymph node tissue. When the red blood cell is destroyed, its iron component is preserved for reuse in the liver. The remainder of the hemoglobin converts to bilirubin. This amber substance is the chief pigment in human bile, which is produced in the liver. Red blood cells commonly have immune-stimulating polysaccharides called antigens on the surface of their cells. Individuals having the A antigen have blood type A (as well as anti-B antibodies); individuals having the B antigen have blood type B (as well as anti-A antibodies); individuals having the A and B antigens have blood type AB (but no anti-A or anti-B antibodies); and individuals having no antigens have blood type O (as well as anti-A and anti-B antibodies). White blood cells White blood cells are referred to as leukocytes. They are generally larger than red blood cells and have clearly defined nuclei. They are also produced in the bone marrow and have various functions in the body. Certain white blood cells called lymphocytes are essential components of the immune system. Other cells called neutrophils and monocytes function primarily as phagocytes; that is, they attack and engulf invading microorganisms. About 30 percent of the white blood cells are lymphocytes, about 60 percent are neutrophils, and about 8 percent are monocytes. The remaining white blood cells are eosinophils and basophils. Their functions are uncertain; however, basophils are believed to function in allergic responses.

Platelets Platelets are small disk-shaped blood fragments produced in the bone marrow. They lack nuclei and are much smaller than erythrocytes. Also known technically as thrombocytes, they serve as the starting material for blood clotting. The platelets adhere to damaged blood vessel walls, and thromboplastin is liberated from the injured tissue. Thromboplastin, in turn, activates other clotting factors in the blood. Along with calcium ions and other factors, thromboplastin converts the blood protein prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin then catalyzes the conversion of its blood protein fibrinogen into a protein called fibrin, which forms a patchwork mesh at the injury site. As blood cells are trapped in the mesh, a blood clot forms. Lymphatic system The lymphatic system is an extension of the circulatory system consisting of a fluid known as lymph, capillaries called lymphatic vessels, and structures called lymph nodes. Lymph is a watery fluid derived from plasma that has seeped out of the blood system capillaries and mingled with the cells. Rather than returning to the heart through the blood veins, this lymph enters a series of one-way lymphatic vessels that return the fluid to the circulatory system. Along the way, the ducts pass through hundreds of tiny, capsulelike bodies called lymph nodes. Located in the neck, armpits, and groin, the lymph nodes contain cells that filter the lymph and phagocytize foreign particles. The spleen is composed primarily of lymph node tissue. Lying close to the stomach, the spleen is also the site where red blood cells are destroyed. The spleen serves as a reserve blood supply for the body. The lymph nodes are also the primary sites of the white blood cells called lymphocytes. The body has two kinds of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. Both of these cells can be stimulated by microorganisms or other foreign materials called antigens in the blood. Antigens are picked up by phagocytes and lymph and delivered to the lymph nodes. Here, the lymphocytes are stimulated through a process called the immune response.

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system. The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord and The Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems.

The Central nervous system The central nervous system is divided into two major parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain The brain lies within the skull and is shaped like a mushroom. The brain consists of four principal parts: the brain stem the cerebrum the cerebellum the diencephalon The brain weighs approximately 1.3 to 1.4 kg. It has nerve cells called the neurons and supporting cells called the glia. There are two types of matter in the brain: grey matter and white matter. Grey matter receives and stores impulses. Cell bodies of neurons and neuroglia are in the grey matter. White matter in the brain carries impulses to and from grey matter. It consists of the nerve fibers (axons). The brain stem The brain stem is also known as the Medulla oblongata. It is located between the pons and the spinal cord and is only about one inch long.

The cerebrum The cerebrum forms the bulk of the brain and is supported on the brain stem. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres. Each hemisphere controls the activities of the side of the body opposite that hemisphere. The hemispheres are further divided into four lobes: Frontal lobe Temporal lobes Parietal lobe Occipital lobe The cerebellum This is located behind and below the cerebrum. The diencephalon The diencephalon is also known as the fore brain stem. It includes the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is where sensory and other impulses go and coalesce. The hypothalamus is a smaller part of the diencephalon Other parts of the brain Other parts of the brain include the midbrain and the pons: the midbrain provides conduction pathways to and from higher and lower centers the pons acts as a pathway to higher structures; it contains conduction pathways between the medulla and higher brain centers The spinal cord The spinal cord is along tube like structure which extends from the brain. The spinal cord is composed of a series of 31 segments. A pair of spinal nerves comes out of each segment. The region of the spinal cord from which a pair of spinal nerves originates is called the spinal segment. Both motor and sensory nerves are located in the spinal cord. The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-40 grams. It lies within the vertebral column, the collection of bones (back bone). Other parts of the central nervous system

The meninges are three layers or membranes that cover the brain and the spinal cord. The outermost layer is the dura mater. The middle layer is the arachnoid, and the innermost layer is the pia mater. The meninges offer protection to the brain and the spinal cord by acting as a barrier against bacteria and other microorganisms. The Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) circulates around the brain and spinal cord. It protects and nourishes the brain and spinal cord.

Neurons The neuron is the basic unit in the nervous system. It is a specialized conductor cell that receives and transmits electrochemical nerve impulses. A typical neuron has a cell body and long arms that conduct impulses from one body part to another body part.

There are three different parts of the neuron: the cell body dendrites axon Cell body of a neuron

The cell body is like any other cell with a nucleus or control center. Dendrites The cell body has several highly branched, thick extensions that appear like cables and are called dendrites. The exception is a sensory neuron that has a single, long dendrite instead of many dendrites. Motor neurons have multiple thick dendrites. The dendrite's function is to carry a nerve impulse into the cell body. Axon An axon is a long, thin process that carries impulses away from the cell body to another neuron or tissue. There is usually only one axon per neuron. Myelin Sheath The neuron is covered with the Myelin Sheath or Schwann Cells. These are white segmented covering around axons and dendrites of many peripheral neurons. The covering is continuous along the axons or dendrites except at the point of termination and at the nodes of Ranvier. The neurilemma is the layer of Schwann cells with a nucleus. Its function is to allow damaged nerves to regenerate. Nerves in the brain and spinal cord do not have a neurilemma and, therefore cannot recover when damaged. Types of neuron Neurons in the body can be classified according to structure and function. According to structure neurons may be multipolar neurons, bipolar neurons, and unipolar neurons: Multipolar neurons have one axon and several dendrites. These are common in the brain and spinal cord Bipolar neurons have one axon and one dendrite. These are seen in the retina of the eye, the inner ear, and the olfactory (smell) area. Unipolar neurons have one process extending from the cell body. The one process divides with one part acting as an axon and the other part functioning as dendrite. These are seen in the spinal cord. The Peripheral nervous system The Peripheral nervous system is made up of two parts: Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that pick up sensory information or sensations from the peripheral or distant organs (those away from the brain like limbs) and carry them to the central nervous system. These also consist of motor nerve fibers that come out of the brain and take the messages for movement and necessary action to the skeletal muscles. For example, on touching a hot object the sensory nerves carry information about the heat to the brain, which in turn, via the motor nerves, tells the muscles of the hand to withdraw it immediately. The whole process takes less than a second to happen. The cell body of the neuron that carries the information often lies within the brain or spinal cord and projects directly to a skeletal muscle. Autonomic Nervous System Another part of the nervous system is the Autonomic Nervous System. It has three parts: the sympathetic nervous system the parasympathetic nervous system the enteric nervous system This nervous system controls the nerves of the inner organs of the body on which humans have no conscious control. This includes the heartbeat, digestion, breathing (except conscious breathing) etc. The nerves of the autonomic nervous system enervate the smooth involuntary muscles of the (internal organs) and glands and cause them to function and secrete their enzymes etc. The Enteric nervous system is the third part of the autonomic nervous system. The enteric nervous system is a complex network of nerve fibers that innervate the organs within the abdomen like the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, gall bladder etc. It contains nearly 100 million nerves. Neurons in the peripheral nervous system The smallest worker in the nervous system is the neuron. For each of the chain of impulses there is one preganglionic neuron, or one before the cell body or ganglion, that is like a central controlling body for numerous neurons going out peripherally. The preganglionic neuron is located in either the brain or the spinal cord. In the autonomic nervous system this preganglionic neuron projects to an autonomic ganglion. The postganglionic neuron then projects to the target organ.

In the somatic nervous system there is only one neuron between the central nervous system and the target organ while the autonomic nervous system uses two neurons. The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes. The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization.Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The next step for the fertilized egg is to implant into the walls of the uterus, beginning the initial stages of pregnancy. If fertilization and/or implantation does not take place, the system is designed to menstruate (the monthly shedding of the uterine lining). In addition, the female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle. What Parts Make up the Female Anatomy? The female reproductive anatomy includes parts inside and outside the body.

The function of the external female reproductive structures (the genitals) is twofold: To enable sperm to enter the body and to protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms. The main external structures of the female reproductive system include:

Labia majora: The labia majora enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora are relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia majora contain sweat and oil-secreting glands. After puberty, the labia majora are covered with hair. Labia minora: Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can be very small or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body). Bartholin's glands: These glands are located beside the vaginal opening and produce a fluid (mucus) secretion.

Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that is comparable to the penis in males. The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and can become erect. The internal reproductive organs in the female include:

Vagina: The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as the birth canal. Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a developing fetus. The uterus is divided into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part that opens into the vagina, and the main body of the uterus, called the corpus. The corpus can easily expand to hold a developing baby. A channel through the cervix allows sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit. Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones. Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall. Reproductive System Animals reproductive systems can be divided into the internal reproductive organs and the external genitalia. The gonads are the actual organs that produce the gametes. In the male, testes (singular = testis) produce sperm, and in the female, ovaries make eggs. In most animals, individuals are either definite males or definite females. However, in some species, individual organisms are both male and female. Hermaphroditism is when one organism has both sexes. Earthworms and garden snails always have both male and female organs, and when, for example, two earthworms mate, they fertilize each other. A special variation on the theme is sequential hermaphroditism, in which an organism changes sex during its life. If an organism is female first and later changes to male, that organism is protogynous, and if the organism is male first and changes to female, it is said to be protandrous. In different species, sequential hermaphroditism can be influenced by the organisms age or size or by various environmental/climatic factors. While most higher animals reproduce sexually, there are some species in which the females can, under certain conditions, produce offspring without mating. Parthenogenesis is the ability of an unfertilized egg to develop and hatch. This seems to be especially prevalent among insects. Some of the giant walkingsticks at the Zoo are females who, without mating, lay eggs that hatch into more females generation after generation. Other insects, like some aphids, have complicated life cycles that involve sexually-reproducing generations alternating with parthenogenically produced generations. In honeybees, fertilized eggs turn into females (workers and queens), while unfertilized eggs, which are only produced in the spring, turn into males.

In sexual reproduction, there must be some way of getting the sperm to the egg. Since sperm and eggs are designed to be in a watery environment, aquatic animals can make use of the water in which they live, but terrestrial animals must, in some way, provide the wet environment neeeded for the sperm to swim to the egg. There are, thus, two major mechanisms of fertilization. In external fertilization, used by many aquatic invertebrates, eggs and sperm are simultaneously shed into the water, and the sperm swim through the water to fertilze the egg. In internal fertilization, the eggs are fertilized within the reproductive tract of the female, and then are covered with eggshells and/or remain within the body of the female during their development. In species with external fertilization, at an appropriate developmental stage, the eggs hatch, and the new young simply swim away. However, females of species with internal fertilization must, at some point, expel the growing young. There are three general ways of doing this:

Oviparous organisms, like chickens and turtles, lay eggs that continue to develop after being laid, and hatch later. Viviparous organisms, like humans and kangaroos, are live-bearing. The developing young spend proportionately more time within the females reproductive tract, portions of which are specially-modified for this purpose. Young are later released to survive on their own. Ovoviviparous organisms, like guppies, garter snakes, and Madagascar hissing roaches, have eggs (with shells) that hatch as they are laid, making it look like live birth.

A discussion of the human male and female reproductive systems follows. (clipart edited from Corel Presentations 8) Male Reproductive System The male reproductive system is illustrated to the right. Sperm are produced in the testes located in the scrotum. Normal body temperature is too hot thus is lethal to sperm so the testes are outside of the abdominal cavity where the temperature is about 2 C (3.6 F) lower. Note also that a womans body temperature is lowest around the time of ovulation to help insure sperm live longer to reach the egg. If a man takes too many long, very hot baths, this can reduce his sperm count. Undescended testes

(testes are supposed to descend before birth) will cause sterility because their environment is too warm for sperm viability unless the problem can be surgically corrected. From there, sperm are transferred to the epididymis, coiled tubules also found within the scrotum, that store sperm and are the site of their final maturation. In ejaculation, sperm are forced up into the vas deferens (plural = vasa deferentia). From the epididymis, the vas deferens goes up, around the front of, over the top of, and behind the bladder. A vasectomy is a fairly simple, outpatient operation that involves making a small slit in each scrotum, cutting the vasa deferentia near where they begin, and tying off the cut ends to prevent sperm from leaving the scrotum. Because this is a relatively non-invasive procedure (as compared to doing the same to a womans oviducts), this is a popular method of permanent birth control once a couple has had all the children they desire. Couples should carefully weigh their options, because this (and the corresponding female procedure) is not designed to be a reversible operation. The ends of the vasa deferentia, behind and slightly under the bladder, are called the ejaculatory ducts. The seminal vesicles are also located behind the bladder. Their secretions are about 60% of the total volume of the semen (= sperm and associated fluid) and contain mucus, amino acids, fructose as the main energy source for the sperm, and prostaglandins to stimulate female uterine contractions to move the semen up into the uterus. The seminal vesicles empty into the ejaculatory ducts. The ejaculatory ducts then empty into the urethra (which, in males, also empties the urinary bladder). The initial segment of the urethra is surrounded by the prostate gland (note spelling!). The prostate is the largest of the accessory glands and puts its secretions directly into the urethra. These secretions are alkaline to buffer any residual urine, which tends to be acidic, and the acidity of the womans vagina. The prostate needs a lot of zinc to function properly, and insufficient dietary zinc (as well as other causes) can lead to enlargement which potentially can constrict the urethra to the point of interferring with urination. Mild cases of prostate hypertrophy can often be treated by adding supplemental zinc to the mans diet, but severe cases require surgical removal of portions of the prostate. This surgery, if not done very carefully can lead to problems with urination or sexual performance. The bulbourethral glands or Cowpers glands are the third of the accessory structures. These are a small pair of glands along the urethra below the prostate. Their fluid is secreted just before emission of the semen, thus it is thought that this fluid may serve as a lubricant for inserting the penis into the vagina, but because the volume of these secretions is very small, people are not totally sure of this function. The urethra goes through the penis. In humans, the penis contains three cylinders of spongy, erectile tissue. During arousal, these become filled with blood from the arteries that supply them and the pressure seals off the veins that drain these areas causing an erection, which is necessary for insertion of the penis into the womans vagina. In a number of other animals, the penis also has a bone, the baculum, which helps to stiffen it. The head of the penis, the glans penis, is very sensitive to stimulation. In humans, as in other mammals, the glans is covered by

the foreskin or prepuce, which may have been removed bycircumcision. Medically, circumcision is not a necessity, but rather a cultural tradition. Males who have not been circumcised need to keep the area between the glans and the prepuce clean so bacteria and/or yeasts dont start to grow on accumulated secretions, etc. there. There is some evidence that uncircumcised males who do not keep the glans/prepuce area clean are slightly more prone to penile cancer. Female Reproductive System The female reproductive system is illustrated to the right. Eggs are produced in the ovaries, but remember from our discussion ofmeiosis, that these are not true eggs, yet, and will never complete meiosis and become such unless/until first fertilized by a sperm. Within the ovary, a follicle consists of one precursor egg cell surrounded by special cells to nourish and protect it. A human female typically has about 400,000 follicles/potential eggs, all formed before birth. Only several hundred of these eggs will actually ever be released during her reproductive years. Normally, in humans, after the onset of puberty, due to the stimulation of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)one egg per cycle matures and is released from its ovary. Ovulation is the release of a mature egg due to the stimulation ofleutenizing hormone (LH), which then stimulates the remaining follicle cells to turn into a corpus luteum which then secretesprogesterone to prepare the uterus for possible implantation. If an egg is not fertilized and does not implant, the corpus luteum disintegrates and when it stops producing progesterone, the lining of the uterus breaks down and is shed. Each egg is released into the abdominal cavity near the opening of one of the oviducts or Fallopian tubes. Cilia in the oviduct set up currents that draw the egg in. If sperm are present in the oviduct (if the couple has recently had intercourse), the egg will be fertilized near the far end of the Fallopian tube, will quickly finish meiosis, and the embryo will start to divide and grow as it travels to the uterus. The trip down the Fallopian tube takes about a week as the cilia in the tube propel the unfertilized egg or the embryo down to the uterus. At this point, if she had intercourse near the time of ovulation, the woman has no idea whether an unfertilized egg or a new baby is travelling down that tube. During this time, progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum has been stimulating the endometrium, the lining of the uterus, to thicken in preparation for possible implantation, and when a growing embryo finally reaches the uterus, it will implant in this nutritious environment and begin to secrete its own hormones to maintain the endometrium. If the egg was not fertilized, it dies and disintegrates, and as the

corpus luteum also disintegrates, its progesterone production falls, and the unneeded, built-up endometrium is shed. The uterus has thick, muscular walls and is very small. In a nulliparous woman, the uterus is only about 7 cm long by 4 to 5 cm wide, but it can expand to hold a 4 kg baby. The lining of the uterus is called the endometrium, and has a rich capillary supply to bring food to any embryo that might implant there. The bottom end of the uterus is called the cervix. The cervix secretes mucus, the consistency of which varies with the stages in her menstrual cycle. At ovulation, this cervical mucus is clear, runny, and conducive to sperm. Post-ovulation, the mucus gets thick and pasty to block sperm. Enough of this mucus is produced that it is possible for a woman to touch a finger to the opening of her vagina and obtain some of it. If she does this on a daily basis, she can use the information thus gained, along with daily temperature records, to tell where in her cycle she is. If a woman becomes pregnant, the cervical mucus forms a plug to seal off the uterus and protect the developing baby, and any medical procedure which involves removal of that plug carries the risk of introducing pathogens into the nearly-sterile uterine environment. The vagina is a relatively-thin-walled chamber. It servs as a repository for sperm (it is where the penis is inserted), and also serves as the birth canal. Note that, unlike the male, the female has separate opening for the urinary tract and reproductive system. These openings are covered externally by two sets of skin folds. The thinner, inner folds are the labia minora and the thicker, outer ones are the labia majora. The labia minora contain erectile tissue like that in the penis, thus change shape when the woman is sexually aroused. The opening around the genital area is called the vestibule. There is a membrane called the hymen that partially covers the opening of the vagina. This is torn by the womans first sexual intercourse (or sometimes other causes like injury or some kinds of vigorous physical activity). In women, the openings of the vagina and urethra are susceptible to bacterial infections if fecal bacteria are wiped towards them. Thus, while parents who are toilet-training a toddler usually wipe her from back to front, thus imprinting that sensation as feeling right to her, it is important, rather, that that little girls be taught to wipe themselves from the front to the back to help prevent vaginal and bladder infections. Older girls and women who were taught the wrong way need to make a conscious effort to change their habits. At the anterior end of the labia, under the pubic bone, is the clitoris, the female equivalent of the penis. This small structure contains erectile tissue and many nerve endings in a sensitive glans within aprepuce which totally encloses the glans. This is the most sensitive point for female sexual stimulation, so senstiive that vigorous, direct stimulation does not feel good. It is better for the man to gently stimulate near the clitoris rather than right on it. Some cultures do a procedure, similar to circumcision, as a puberty rite in teenage girls in which the prepuce is cut, exposing the extremely-sensitive clitoris. There are some interesting speculations on the cultural significance of this because the sensitivity of the exposed clitoris would probably make having sexual intercourse a much less pleasant experience for these women. Function of the Excretory System

The excretory system functions in ridding the body of nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing, discussed below) and other wastes. It also regulates the amount of water and ions present in the body fluids. Review of Excretory Systems in Animals Water Balance Isotonic Animals The concentration of solutes in isotonic animals is approximately equal to that of their environment. As a result, they do not gain or lose water. Only marine invertebrates and cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes) are isotonic. The concentration of solutes in the tissues of isotonic animals is approximately equal to that of the ocean. This is 100 times higher than that found in the mammalian bodies. The high concentration of solutes in chondrichthyes is due mostly to the presence of urea. Marine Bony Fish The rate of water loss is high in marine bony fish. They drink water seawater at a rate of approx. 1% of their body weight/hour. Specialized cells in the gills excrete excess salt. Freshwater Bony Fish Freshwater bony fish tend to gain water from their environment due to osmosis. They produce large quantities of dilute urine (approx. 1/3 of their body weight/day) and do not drink water. Salt-absorbing cells in he gills use active transport (energy is required) to pump salts into their body. Birds and reptiles near the sea Birds and reptiles living near the sea consume a large amount of salt in their diet. Nasal salt glands remove this excess salt from their body by secreting a concentrated salt solution. Sea Mammals The kidneys of sea mammals (ex: seals, whales, porpoises) are able to maintain a constant salt concentration in their bodies by producing urine that has a high concentration of salt.

They are able to drink seawater because the salt concentration of their urine is higher than that of sea water. Terrestrial Animals Most terrestrial animals drink water, some do not. Metabolic water produced from cellular respiration may be sufficient to meet the needs of some animals. The equation below shows that six molecules of water are produced for every molecule of glucose oxidized. C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP Example: Kangaroo Rat Kangaroo rats of southwestern US deserts never have to drink. Their water comes from metabolic water released during cellular respiration and water present in their food. They emerge from their burrows only at night, when the air is cooler and more humid than during the day. This helps prevent water loss from their bodies and reduces the amount needed to keep cool (sweating). They avoid movement while in their burrow. This minimizes heat production and thus, the need for sweating. Dry food stored in their burrows absorbs moisture lost in breathing. This moisture is taken back in when the food is eaten. Their noses become cooled during inhalation as a result of evaporating water but the cooled membranes cause the moisture to condense during exhalation. Their large intestine absorbs almost all water present in the digestive tract. Their feces are dry, hard pellets. Their kidneys conserve water by excreting concentrated urine. Organs of Excretion Contractile Vacuoles paramecium

Flame Cells, Protonephridia Planarians have two protonephridia composed of branched tubules that empty wastes through excretory pores on their surface. The protonephridia contain numerous bulblike flame cells with clustered, beating cilia that propel fluid into the tubules. These structures function in waste excretion and osmotic regulation. Metanephridia Earthworms have two metanephridia in almost all of the body segments. Each metanephridium consists of a tubule with ciliated opening (nephrostome) on one end and an excretory pore (nephridiopore) that opens to the outside of the body at the other end. Fluid is moved in by cilia. Some substances and water are reabsorbed in a network of capillaries that surround the tubule. This system produces large amount of urine (60% of body wt./day). Malpighian Tubules The excretory organs of insects are malpighian tubules. They collect water and uric acid from surrounding hemolymph (blood) and empty it into the gut. Water and useful materials are reabsorbed by the intestine but wastes remain in the intestine. Kidneys The kidneys of vertebrates (discussed below) function in the removal of nitrogenous and other wastes and in osmotic regulation of the body fluids. Nitrogenous wastes Cells use amino acids to construct proteins and other nitrogen-containing molecules. Amino acids can also be oxidized for energy or converted to fats or carbohydrates. When amino acids are oxidized or converted to other kinds of molecules, the amino (NH2) group must be removed. The nitrogen-containing compounds produced as a result of protein breakdown are toxic and must be removed by the excretory system. Nitrogenous wastes of animals are excreted in form of ammonia, urea, or uric acid.

Ammonia Ammonia is formed immediately after the amino group is removed from an amino acid. This process requires very little energy. Ammonia is highly soluble in water but very toxic. Aquatic animals such as bony fishes, aquatic invertebrates, and amphibians excrete ammonia because it is easily eliminated in the water. Urea Terrestrial amphibians and mammals excrete nitrogenous wastes in the form of urea because it is less toxic than ammonia and can be moderately concentrated to conserve water. Urea is produced in the liver by a process that requires more energy to produce than ammonia does. Uric Acid Insects, reptiles, birds, and some dogs (Dalmatians) excrete uric acid. Reptiles and birds eliminate uric acid with their feces. The white material seen in bird droppings is uric acid. It is not very toxic and is not very soluble in water. Excretion of wastes in the form of uric acid conserves water because it can be produced in a concentrated form due to its low toxicity.

Because it is relatively insoluble and nontoxic, it can accumulate in eggs without damaging the embryos. The synthesis of uric acid requires more energy than urea synthesis. Mammals Structures of the excretory system kidneys ureters urinary bladder urethra Regions of the Kidney cortex (outer) medulla (inner) renal pelvis (innermost chamber)- collects the urine Nephrons microscopic; about 1 million/kidney some are primarily in the cortex, others dip down into the medulla Parts glomerulus- a capillary tuft from which fluid leaves the circulatory system (filtration) Bowman's capsule- a funnel-like structure that collects filtrate from the glomerulus proximal convoluted tubule loop of the nephron distal convoluted tubule collecting duct- delivers urine to renal pelvis

Blood Supply The path of blood flow through a kidney is listed below. Blood enters the kidney through a branch of the aorta called the renal artery. Branches of the renal artery within the kidney produce afferent arterioles. Each afferent arteriole leads to a network of capillaries called a glomerulus. Fluid leaks out of the capillaries of the glomerulus but large molecules and cells do not fit through the pores. This process is called filtration. Blood leaves the capillaries of the glomerulus via an efferent arteriole and enters capillaries in the medulla called peritubular capillaries, which collect much of the water that was lost through the glomerulus. Venules from the peritubular capillaries lead to the renal vein, which exits the kidney and returns blood to the inferior vena cava. Urine Formation

Glomerulus Pressure filtration occurs in the glomerulus.

Blood enters the glomerulus via an afferent arteriole where blood pressure forces water and small molecules out through pores in the glomerular capillaries. The filtrate has approximately the same composition as tissue fluid. Blood leaves the glomerulus via the efferent arteriole. Approximately 45 gallons of liquid per day are filtered from the blood in the glomerulus. Proximal Convoluted Tubule A large amount of nutrients and water is filtered from the blood in the glomerulus. It is necessary to reabsorb most of the nutrients and water but leave wastes in the tubule. Selective reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule. Glucose, vitamins, important ions and most amino acids are reabsorbed from the tubule back into the capillaries near the proximal convoluted tubule. These molecules are moved into the peritubular capillaries by active transport, a process that requires energy. Cells of the proximal convoluted tubule have numerous microvilli and mitochondria which provide surface area and energy. When the concentration of certain substances in the blood reaches a certain level, the substance is not reabsorbed; it remains in the urine. This prevents the composition of the blood from fluctuating. This process regulates the levels of glucose and inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, bicarbonate phosphate, and chloride. Urea remains in the tubules. Without reabsorption, death would result from dehydration and starvation. Loop of Henle In mammals, the loop of Henle conserves water resulting in concentrated urine. This is done by the gut in birds and reptiles. Descending Loop Water moves out of the descending loop as it passes through the area of high salt concentration produced by the ascending loop. The descending loop is not permeable to ions.

Ascending Loop Salt is actively pumped out in the ascending loop. This part of the loop is impermeable to water reentry. This creates a concentration gradient with a higher concentration in the medulla (interior region). Countercurrent Mechanism, Collecting Duct The movement of sodium out of the ascending loop and into the medulla results in water loss and concentrated urine in the descending loop. The water loss and increased salt concentration that occurs in the descending loop further enhances the ability of the ascending loop to pump more salt out into the medulla. High salt in the medulla acts to help remove water in the descending loop. This phenomena is called the countercurrent multiplier. Urea is concentrated in the fluid; some is able to move out of the lower portion of the collecting duct. It does not enter the blood stream, however, so little urea is lost once a concentration gradient is established. The combination of urea and salt produces a high osmotic concentration in the medulla. Length of the Loop of Henle A longer loop of Henle will function to produce a greater concentration of urea and salt in the medulla. The higher concentration gradient enables the removal of more water as fluid moves through the collecting duct. The length of the loop of Henle varies among mammals. The beaver, which does not need to conserve water, has a relatively short loop. Desert-dwelling mammals have very long loops and are capable of producing extremely concentrated urine resulting in very little water loss. Distal Convoluted Tubule Some wastes are actively secreted into the fluid in the distal convoluted tubule by a process called tubular secretion. Some of these are H+, K+, NH4+ toxic substances and foreign substances (drugs, penicillin, uric acid, creatine). Secretion of H+ adjusts the pH of the blood. Collecting Duct Several renal tubules drain into a common collecting duct.

The collecting ducts pass through the concentration gradient that was established by the loops of Henle. As fluid passes through the collecting ducts, much of the water moves out due to osmosis. The permeability of the collecting duct to water is regulated by hormones (discussed below). Hormones that Regulate Water Loss Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) ADH increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. If the osmotic pressure of blood increases (becomes more salty, not enough water); the posterior pituitary will release ADH and the permeability of the collecting ducts will increase, allowing water to leave by osmosis. The water returns to the blood. If osmotic pressure of blood decreases, pituitary does not release ADH and more water is lost in urine due to decreased permeability of the collecting duct. Alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH, thus increases water loss. Diuretic drugs cause increased water loss in urine, lowering blood pressure. Aldosterone Aldosterone secretion is not under the control of the anterior pituitary. When pressure is low, the afferent arteriole cells secrete renin. Renin initiates a series of chemical reactions that ultimately result in the adrenal cortex releasing aldosterone, which acts primarily on the distal convoluted tubule to promote absorption of sodium and excretion of potassium. (renin => adrenal cortex => aldosterone => distal convoluted tubule => reabsorption of sodium from the tubule and excretion of potassium) The increased osmotic pressure associated with increased sodium levels contributes to the retention of water and thus increased blood volume. In the absence of aldosterone, more sodium is excreted and the lower sodium levels result in decreased blood volume and lower blood pressure. Atrial Natriuretic Hormone The presence of too much blood in the circulatory system stimulates the heart to produce atrial natriuretic hormone. This hormone inhibits the release of aldosterone by the adrenal cortex and ADH by the posterior pituitary causing the kidneys to excrete excess water. The loss of water and sodium contribute to lowering the blood volume.

pH of the Blood Breathing Adjustment of the breathing rate can make slight alterations in the pH of the blood by reducing the amount of carbonic acid. Rapid breathing moves the equation below to the left, thus increasing the pH (less acidic). Slow breathing results in less CO2 being given off and the equation moves to the right. CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3 --> HCO3- + H+ Kidneys The kidneys provide a slower but more powerful means to regulate pH. They excrete or absorb hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) as necessary for adjusting pH. When the pH is low (acidic), hydrogen ions are excreted and bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed. The loss of hydrogen ions from the blood make it less acidic. Bicarbonate ions in the blood also reduce pH by taking up hydrogen ions (see the equation above). When the pH is too high (too basic), fewer hydrogen ions are excreted and fewer sodium and bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed. The Human Respiratory System The Pathway

Air enters the nostri ls passes through the nasop harynx, the oral pharynx through the glotti s

into the trachea into the right and left bronchi, which branches and rebranches into bronchioles, each of which terminates in a cluster of alveoli

Only in the alveoli does actual gas exchange takes place. There are some 300 million alveoli in two adult lungs. These provide a surface area of some 160 m2 (almost equal to the singles area of a tennis court and 80 times the area of our skin!). Breathing In mammals, the diaphragm divides the body cavity into the

abdominal cavity, which contains the viscera (e.g., stomach and intestines) and the thoracic cavity, which contains the heart and lungs.

The inner surface of the thoracic cavity and the outer surface of the lungs are lined with pleural membranes which adhere to each other. If air is introduced between them, the adhesion is broken and the natural elasticity of the lung causes it to collapse. This can occur from trauma. And it is sometimes induced deliberately to allow the lung to rest. In either case, reinflation occurs as the air is gradually absorbed by the tissues. Because of this adhesion, any action that increases the volume of the thoracic cavity causes the lungs to expand, drawing air into them.

During inspiration (inhaling), o The external intercostal muscles contract, lifting the ribs up and out. o The diaphragm contracts, drawing it down . During expiration (exhaling), these processes are reversed and the natural elasticity of the lungs returns them to their normal volume. At rest, we breath 1518 times a minute exchanging about 500 ml of air. In more vigorous expiration, o The internal intercostal muscles draw the ribs down and inward o The wall of the abdomen contracts pushing the stomach and liver upward. Under these conditions, an average adult male can flush his lungs with about 4 liters of air at each breath. This is called the vital capacity. Even with maximum expiration, about 1200 ml of residual airremain.

The table shows what happens to the composition of air when it reaches the alveoli. Some of the oxygen dissolves in the film of moisture covering the epithelium of the alveoli. From here it diffuses into the blood in a nearby capillary. It enters a red blood cell and combines with the hemoglobin therein. At the same time, some of the carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into the alveoli from which it can be exhaled.

Link to discussion of gas transport in the blood. Composition of atmospheric air and expired air in a typical subject. Note that only a fraction of the oxygen inhaled is taken up by the lungs. Component N2 (plus inert gases) O2 CO2 H2O Atmospheric Air (%) Expired Air (%) 78.62 20.85 0.03 0.5 100.0% 74.9 15.3 3.6 6.2 100.0%

The ease with which oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass between air and blood is clear from this electron micrograph of two alveoli (Air) and an adjacent capillary from the lung of a laboratory mouse. Note the thinness of the epithelial cells (EP) that line the alveoli and capillary (except where the nucleus is located). At the closest point, the surface of the red blood cell is only 0.7 m away from the air in the alveolus. (Reproduced with permission from Keith R. Porter and Mary A. Bonneville, An Introduction to the Fine Structure of Cells and Tissues, 4th. ed., Lea & Febiger, 1973.)

Central Control of Breathing The rate of cellular respiration (and hence oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production) varies with level of activity. Vigorous exercise can increase by 2025 times the demand of the tissues for oxygen. This is met by increasing the rate and depth of breathing.

It is a rising concentration of carbon dioxide not a declining concentration of oxygen that plays the major role in regulating the ventilation of the lungs. Certain cells in the medulla oblongata are very sensitive to a drop in pH. As the CO2 content of the blood rises above normal levels, the pH drops [CO2 + H2O HCO3 + H+], and the medulla oblongata responds by increasing the number and rate of nerve impulses that control the action of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm. This produces an increase in the rate of lung ventilation, which quickly brings the CO2 concentration of the alveolar air, and then of the blood, back to normal levels. Link to a description of experiments that demonstrate this.

However, the carotid body in the carotid arteries does have receptors that respond to a drop in oxygen. Their activation is important in situations (e.g., at high altitude in the unpressurized cabin of an aircraft) where oxygen supply is inadequate but there has been no increase in the production of CO2. Local Control of Breathing The smooth muscle in the walls of the bronchioles is very sensitive to the concentration of carbon dioxide. A rising level of CO2 causes the bronchioles to dilate. This lowers the resistance in the airways and thus increases the flow of air in and out. Diseases of the Lungs Pneumonia Pneumonia is an infection of the alveoli. It can be caused by many kinds of both bacteria (e.g., Streptococcus pneumoniae) and viruses. Tissue fluids accumulate in the alveoli reducing the surface area exposed to air. If enough alveoli are affected, the patient may need supplemental oxygen. Asthma In asthma, periodic constriction of the bronchi and bronchioles makes it more difficult to breathe in and, especially, out. Attacks of asthma can be

triggered by airborne irritants such as chemical fumes and cigarette smoke airborne particles to which the patient is allergic. Link to discussion of allergic asthma.

Emphysema In this disorder, the delicate walls of the alveoli break down, reducing the gas-exchange area of the lungs. The condition develops slowly and is seldom a direct cause of death. However, the gradual loss of gas-exchange area forces the heart to pump ever-larger volumes of blood to the lungs in order to satisfy the body's needs. The added strain can lead to heart failure. The immediate cause of emphysema seems to be the release of proteolytic enzymes as part of the inflammatory process that follows irritation of the lungs. Most people avoid this kind of damage during infections, etc. by producing an enzyme inhibitor (a serpin) called alpha-1 antitrypsin. Those rare people who inherit two defective genes for alpha-1 antitrypsin are particularly susceptible to developing emphysema. Chronic Bronchitis Any irritant reaching the bronchi and bronchioles will stimulate an increased secretion of mucus. In chronic bronchitis the air passages become clogged with mucus, and this leads to a persistent cough. Chronic bronchitis is usually associated with cigarette smoking. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Irritation of the lungs can lead to asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis. And, in fact, many people develop two or three of these together. This constellation is known as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Among the causes of COPD are

cigarette smoke (often) cystic fibrosis (rare)

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder caused by inheriting two defective genes for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a transmembrane protein needed for the transport of Cland HCO3 ions through the plasma membrane of epithelial cells. Defective secretion of HCO3 lowers the pH of the fluid in the lungs making it more hospitable to colonization by inhaled bacteria. The resulting inflammation leads to the accumulation of mucus which plugs the airways and hampers the ability of ciliated cells to move it up out of the lungs. All of this damages the airways interfering with breathing and causing a persistent cough. Cystic fibrosis is the most common inherited disease in the U.S. white population. Some mutations that cause cystic fibrosis.

Lung Cancer Lung cancer is the most common cancer and the most common cause of cancer deaths in U.S. males. Although more women develop breast cancer than lung cancer, since 1987 U.S. women have been dying in larger numbers from lung cancer than from breast cancer. Link to lung cancer data.

Lung cancer, like all cancer, is an uncontrolled proliferation of cells. There are several forms of lung cancer, but the most common (and most rapidly increasing) types are those involving the epithelial cells lining the bronchi and bronchioles. Ordinarily, the lining of these airways consists of two layers of cells. Chronic exposure to irritants

causes the number of layers to increase. This is especially apt to happen at forks where the bronchioles branch. The ciliated and mucus-secreting cells disappear and are replaced by a disorganized mass of cells with abnormal nuclei. If the process continues, the growing mass penetrates the underlying basement membrane. Link to illustrations of the cellular changes in developing lung cancer.

At this point, malignant cells can break away and be carried in lymph and blood to other parts of the body where they may lodge and continue to proliferate. It is this metastasis of the primary tumor that eventually kills the patient. Dictionary of botanic terminology - index of names

Root system [ Botany ] (or Root apparatus)

A root system is the network off all the roots of a plant; the system of roots and related organs that a plant develops.

The two basic types of root systems are the primary root systems and the adventitious root system. The primary root systems is formed of roots and their branches that arise from the primary root. The primary root is the first-formed, main root, That originates from the radicle of a seed embryo (the portion of the embryo below the cotyledons). Two primary root system types:

Taproot system

Taproot system - Single primary root dominates over branch roots ( usually found inGymnosperms and most Dicotyledons) Fibrous root system A network of fine roots with no central dominant root. Fibrous root systems don't go as deep as taproots, but they spread laterally

Fibrous root system

The adventitious root system is typical of most Monocotyledons in which the primary root is ephemeral and sort living and adventitious root soon arise from stem or leaf tissue. (At the bottom of a grass plant, for example, are a number of these adventitious roots growing out from the nodes above the seed near the ground level. ) These roots and their lateral branches make up a fibrous root system. Shoot system [ Botany ] Dictionary of botanic terminology - index of names

Collective term for the generally aboveground portion of a plant comprised of thestem/trunk, branches, flowers, and leaves.

The plant body consists of two basic parts: the shoot system and the root system.

The shoot system includes organs such asleaves, buds, stems, flowers, and fruits and usually it develops above ground. The functions of the shoot system include

Photosynthesis, Reproduction, Storage, Transport, Hormone production.

The root system includes roots as well as modified stem structures such as tubers andrhizomes and usually it developsunderground. The functions of the root system include

Anchorage, Absorption, Storage, Transport, Production of certain hormones

Functions of Blood System Transport: to and from tissue cells Nutrients to cells: amino acids, glucose, vitamins, minerals, lipids (as lipoproteins). Oxygen: by red blood corpuscles (oxyhaemoglobin - 4 x O2 molecules/haemoglobin). Wastes from cells: urea, CO2 (mainly as HCO3

in solution in the plasma). Temperature Regulation: by altering the blood flow through the skin. Immunity: protection against pathogens blood clotting; phagocytes, lymphocytes and antibodies distributed in blood. Communication: hormones distributed to all parts of the body in the blood. Defence: clotting following a wound Composition of Blood Plasma: pale yellow sticky liquid; 55% of blood volume. Components: water 92%, dissolved protein 8%, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals (mainly NaCl), urea, CO2, hormones, antibodies. Blood Cells Red Blood Cells Tiny (8) biconcave disc-shaped cells (thus large SA). Do not have nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes. Cell full of haemoglobin binds O2 (and CO). Made in the bone marrow live about 120 days. Destroyed and recycled by the liver. White Blood Cells (leucocytes) These are colourless cells and possess a nucleus. They function in defending the body against pathogens. Phagocytes - granulocytes feed on pathogens by

phagocytosis. Monocytes are one form of phagocytes. Lymphocytes agranulocytes - produce antibodies, the specific defence proteins. Made in bone marrow and lymphatic tissue. Platelets Responsible for clotting of the blood Responsible for repair of damaged tissue releasing the hormone platelet growth factor. Short life under 7 days. Made in bone marrow Blood Vessels Artery v. vein The wall of the artery is thicker: thicker connective tissue layer, thicker mixed layer of muscle and elastic tissue. The lumen of the artery is much narrower. Arteries do not have valves along their length, veins do. Valves in the veins prevent the backflow of blood so the flow is in one correct direction towards the heart. Blood flows away from the heart in arteries; blood flows towards the heart in veins. Blood pressure in arteries is higher and so also the speed of blood flow Pulsed flow in an artery, steady flow in a vein.

 Many tissues, thus both are organs Arterioles have muscular walls which control how much blood flows to a particular organ e.g. guts after meal, skin for temperature regulation muscle when working hard Note: Blood supply to brain is constant! Capillaries Capillaries are the link between arteries and veins where exchange with tissues occurs. The capillary wall is one cell thick and somewhat porous ideal to allow materials to pass in and out. All tissue cells very close to a capillary so exchange is very efficient. Exchange at the capillaries is by diffusion, mass flow and active transport. Blood flow in capillaries is slow giving enough time for effective exchange. One type of cell, thus a tissue. Closed System of Blood Vessels The blood does not make direct contact with the tissue cells. The blood is retained in the blood vessels. A closed system is very responsive to the change needs of the organs and is highly efficient. Double Circulation The double circuit prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Therefore oxygen supply is highly efficient. Pulmonary Circulation: deoxygenated blood flows from the heart to the lungs oxygen is taken on and carbon dioxide is excreted, oxygenated blood flows from the lungs back to the heart.

Systemic Circulation: oxygenated blood flows from the heart to the organ systems of the body. oxygen is delivered and carbon dioxide is taken on, deoxygenated blood flow from the organs systems back to the heart. Portal System A portal blood vessel has a set of capillaries at each end. The hepatic portal vein carries blood rich in absorbed nutrients from the capillaries in the gut to capillaries in the liver. Hepatic artery supplies liver with O2 Hepatic vein takes all the blood away from the liver, back to heart. The Heart The heart is a double pump. The right atrium collects deoxygenated blood from all parts (vena cava). The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (for gas exchange = O2, CO2) (pulmonary artery) The left atrium collects oxygenated blood from the lungs (pulmonary vein) The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to all parts (aorta). The right and left side fill and empty in unison. Each chamber pumps the same volume of blood. The wall of the left ventricle is about three times thicker than that of the right ventricle. The left ventricle needs more cardiac muscle to give the blood a much stronger push. Blood pressure therefore highest in left ventricle Cardiac output = stroke volume x pulse rate

Heart action Blood enters the atria, filling them. (= atrial diastole) The sino-atrial node (= SAN) in the right atrium generates a nerve impulse causing the atria to contract (atrial systole) The sympathetic nerve impulses increase heart rate The vagus nerve impulses decrease heart rate Blood pressure in atria rises above that in ventricles Blood forced into the ventricles (AV valves open). The impulse arrives at the atrio-ventricular node (= AVN) Impulse delayed (0.2 s) giving time for ventricles to fill (ventricular diastole). The impulse enters the ventricles and travels through the Bundle of His (in septum). The ventricles contract and force the blood out of the pulmonary artery and aorta (ventricular systole). The AV valves close preventing blood returning to the atria. The semi-lunar valves are pushed open by the higher blood pressure in the ventricles. The elastic artery walls expand (=a pulse). When the blood pressure falls the arteries recoil squeezing the blood away from the heart. Ventricular blood pressure falls, closing the semilunar valves. This prevents blood flowing back into the ventricles from the arteries. Cardiac cycle Diastole: relaxed cardiac muscle the heart fills with blood under low pressure from the veins. Systole: cardiac muscle contracting the chambers of the heart are emptying of blood. Atrial Systole: contraction and emptying of the atria supplying extra blood to the ventricles. Ventricular Systole: contraction and emptying of the ventricles ejecting blood from the heart

into the arteries. Cardiac Muscle The muscle making up the heart is called cardiac muscle. It is myogenic, i.e., stimulates itself to contract does not need external stimulation. It is an involuntary, strong muscle that does not fatigue (no anaerobic respiration). The SAN (pacemaker) A small area of cardiac muscle in the wall of the right atrium, near entry of vena cava. Its automatic rhythmic contraction starts each cardiac cycle. Two nerves from the medulla oblongata connect to it influencing its rate of contraction. One nerve accelerates the heart rate and the other reduces it back to resting rate. Factors affecting heart rate: Since the heart can only pump out the blood that is returned to it, the primary cause of increased cardiac output when exercising, is blood to the heart caused by the muscles squeezing the veins. Increase: exercise, increased body temperature, stress, mental excitement, infection. Decrease: increased physical fitness, sleep, and mental relaxation. Coronary circulation The blood flowing through the heart does not supply the heart with blood Coronary artery supplies heart muscle with blood No coronary vein directly drains back in diastole. Major blood vessels: Arteries: Aorta; Pulmonary (CO2, O2); Carotid (neck); Renal; Hepatic Veins: Vena Cava; Pulmonary (CO2, O2); Renal; Jugular;

Hepatic; Hepatic Portal;

Blood Pressure The pressure varies along the circuit measured with sphygmomanometer Pressure decreases in the following order: o ventricle > artery > arteriole > capillary > venule > vein > atrium. Standard healthy readings: 80 mm Hg diastolic, 120 mm Hg systolic. Formation of Tissue Fluid As the blood enters the capillaries the high hydrostatic pressure forces some of the plasma out through the wall. The escaped fluid (tissue fluid) is similar in composition to plasma, but lower in protein. Therefore the remaining blood has a lower water potential And a lower hydrostatic pressure At the venule end the hydrostatic pressure is lower Thus water returns to blood down water potential gradient. The 10% excess tissue fluid must be drained away by the lymphatic system. The Lymphatic System A collection of special drainage vessels receiving excess tissue fluid. Once the tissue fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries it is called lymph. Lymph nodes (e.g. tonsils) filter the lymph and produce lymphocytes. The lymph vessels have many valves, but low pressure. The lymph is moved along by the squeezing action of:

o the skeletal muscles, o pressure changes in the thorax during breathing and o by the rhythmic contraction of the lymph vessel walls. Lymph re-enters the blood just before the right atrium. Functions of the Lymphatic System: Circulatory role Return the excess tissue fluid to the blood: this maintains blood volume, pressure and concentration. Collect and deliver the absorbed lipids from the small intestine to the blood Defence role The lymph nodes filter out pathogens in the lymph. Production and export of lymphocytes to the blood system for general distribution. Detection of antigens and production of specific antibodies. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM a.k.a - Hormonal System

The word "endocrine" means to "secrete." And endocrine glands are internal secretions within your body. Endocrine glands pertain to glands that secrete directly into your bloodstream. The endocrine glands include: Hypophysis (pituitary gland) Parathyroid glands Thyroid gland Adrenal (supra-renal) glands Gonads (ovaries and testes) Islets (Islands) of Langerhans of the Pancreas

An endocrine gland is a ductless gland that produces an internal secretion discharged into the blood or lymph system, which is then circulated to all the other parts of the body. It's like the secretions from the endocrine glands hitch a ride on a boat in the bloodstream so they can get to the place that they need to be. And timing is everything. They don't want to "miss the boat." (smiles) Hormones are the active principles of the endocrine glands and they produce effects on tissues sometimes near and sometimes far away from where they originated. The word hormone means "urging on" and that is exactly what hormones do. They urge on and actually cause things to start happening. They are the keys that unlock certain doors in the body. Hormones that are secreted by the ductless glands may have a specific effect on an organ or tissue or a general effect on the entire body, as in the case of thyroid hormone, which affects the rate of metabolism. In addition, the hypothalamus produces "releasing hormones" that exert an effect on the production of some hormones. Those hormones are produced just to effect other hormones. Other structures such as the gastro-intestinal mucosa and the placenta also have an endocrine function. The physiological processes that are affected by hormones are rate of metabolism and the metabolism of specific substances, growth and developmental processes, the secretory activity of other endocrine glands, the development and functioning of the reproductive organs, sexual characteristics and libido, the development of personality and higher nervous functions, the ability of the body to meet conditions of stress and resistance to disease. Endocrine dysfunction may result from hyposecretion. This is where an inadequate amount of the hormone(s) is secreted, or hypersecretion, where excessive amounts of hormones are produced. Secretion of endocrine glands may be under nervous control, under control of chemical substances in the blood, or, in some cases, under control of other hormones. Many pathological conditions are the result of or associated with the malfunctioning of the endocrine glands. Your body has over 30 incredible hormones busy regulating:

Your body temperature When you are hungry or satiated When you sleep Your body weight How you break down and utilize food When you start puberty How you handle stress When you adrenaline kicks in during an emergency How much and when you will grow

JUST THE FACTS:

Girls begin puberty between ages 9 - 13 Boys begin puberty between ages 10 - 15