27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin

Cyclic Operations of HRSGs

Attn: Re: HRSG Plants Affects of Cyclic Operations on Plants that were designed for Steady State Operations

Enclosed are our responses to the questions that were addressed at this years Western Turbine Users Inc (http://www.wtui.com) conference held in Palm Springs, CA earlier this year including information I hope is helpful in the understanding of cyclic operations and their potential affects. We would like to caution all HRSG End Users who are considering cyclic operations on their Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs). Each HRSG and the corresponding operating philosophy requires special attention. Neither Section I, nor Section VIII, Division I of the ASME code addresses cyclic operations and it is unclear whether this will ever be included. As a result, many HRSGs were designed essentially for steady state operations. If the operating philosophy changes from that for which your units were designed for, then good engineering practice would necessitate that the End User seek guidance with the Original Equipment Manufacture (OEM) or reputable firm that can perform a cyclic assessment on the cause/effects of the proposed changes. Often I have found that units are operating outside the design parameters as set forth by the OEM or not following recommended start up/shut down procedures. Not only can this be detrimental to the equipment and can reduce reliability, it is unsafe and will most assuredly void any OEM warranty. Section VIII, Division II does address cyclic operations but it is for design by analysis and may not have been utilized in the design of a boiler. Vogt Power International (VPI) utilizes this part of the code to address cyclic concerns. If an End User is considering purchasing or altering their HRSG, then they should ensure that the worst case scenarios for your plant are clearly defined. Once defined, then ensure the developer, engineers, OEM(s), and your staff (or consultants) are satisfied that your cyclic concerns are addressed to a level of satisfaction you feel comfortable with and can economically afford. Regards,

Jeff Daiber Director for Aftermarket Products & Services Vogt Power International Inc. Phone: Facsimile: Email: Internet: 502.899.4500 502.891.1960 mailto:jdaiber@vogtpower.com http://www.vogtpower.com 1 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.
4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin

Questions/Answers
1. What are the five areas of the HRSG most affected by cycling and why? Generally the areas affected by cycling are the joints and any other components which have some restrictions on expansion or experience alternating stresses due to thermal expansion/contraction, overheating/exfoliation, excessive cyclic stresses, improper gas or steam distribution. These include but not necessarily limited to: Superheaters & Re-Heaters Feed Water Pre-Heaters Drum to Downcomer joints Tube to Header Welds/Joints Header to inlet/outlet connections

2.

Many users will need to startup very quickly, please explain the limitations/benefits if any? How about shutdown time, can we go too slow/fast?

As mentioned above, this is subjective and dependent on the design limitations of the HRSG and the requested operating conditions. The number of cycles on any boiler is limited, and thus a Life Cycle Analysis should be performed especially when the cycle is re-defined. Emergency Start Up Rates (Ramp Rates) should be defined and limited. A Life Cycle Analysis should take into account these considerations in establishing operating procedures and in the determination of the useful life of the boiler. Accelerated Start Up Rates are most damaging to Superheaters and Reheaters. It is essential that during startups that the appropriate start-up vents are sized and operated properly such that steam flows through these modules thus limiting the ramp rate. Properly designed/sized/operated steam drains may also aid in accelerating startups. Shut Down Rates (Cool Down Rates) are generally more restrictive than Start Up Rates on steam drums where the wall thickness is >4 inches and on other areas where the alternating stresses are considerable.

2 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.

4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin
3. If any panelist is in favor of as quick as possible startups, does that panelist advocate the use of the duct burner during start up? Or limitations to watch for if using the duct burner. Excluding Fresh Air Fired Systems, duct burners should not be utilized during the start up of a HRSG. Only after the gas turbine is started, and stabilized should the duct burner be ramped into service. A thorough understanding of the limitations of the duct burner with regard to HRSG design is required for proper operation and reliability of the HRSG. For example, a 100% burner firing rate at 50% load may/may not be a design condition for the HRSG. Exceeding the design or operational limitations can result in catastrophic tube failures, thus limiting availability. Once these design conditions are determined and one finds that the unit(s) do not have sufficient controls to limit burner operation then, these controls should be added. This may include but are not limited to SHTR thermocouples and reprogramming of the burner logic (PLC). Unfortunately, we have found that in some cases, operators have removed these fail safe devices to limit trips and accelerate the start up.

4.

Describe the mechanism that causes corrosion fatigue. What can be done to prevent it?

Corrosion Fatigue is generally the name given to equipment failure due to fatigue and Corrosion. They can work together or one can enhance the others effect. Alternating stresses can cause cracks which allows a path for the corroding agent to propagate and potentially damage the equipment more than just the surface corrosion. Alternately, the uneven attack of a corroding agent would create notches and pits which can become stress enhancers and increase the potential of fatigue cracks due to cycling. Prevention of corrosion fatigue can be accomplished by first preventing or designing for the effect of Corrosion and Fatigue separately, but often the elements that cause Corrosion Fatigue Cracking can not be eliminated. Experience and properly designed components are often the best solution. For completeness, I have included paraphrased definitions of Corrosion-Fatigue Cracking and Stress Corrosion Cracking as defined by the Nalco Chemical Company. Corrosion-Fatigue Cracking (CFC) is a form of deterioration that can occur without concentration of a corrosive substance (caustic or sulfur). This term refers to cracks propagating through a metal as a result of cyclic tensile stresses operating in a corrosive environment. Even the protective magnetite layer is sufficient to cause this kind of cracking in the presence of sufficient cyclic tensile stresses. Cracks can occur longitudinally or transversely and most always propagate in a direction perpendicular () to direction of the principal stress. These cracks usually generate at a stress concentration point. They are straight and un-branched and transgranular. If the principal cyclic stress is a result of pressure fluctuations, then the cracks will be longitudinal. If the principal cyclic stress is bending (thermal expansion/contraction), then the cracks will be transverse. These cracks normally or seen at or near physical restraints. 3 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.
4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is a form of deterioration that can occur with a concentration of a corrosive substance (CS-NaOH, SS-NaOH or Cl-) and sufficient tensile stress. This typically occurs on the inside of a tube, but can occur on the external surface as well. Tensile stresses can be residual or applied. Cracks can be intergranular and continuous or transgranular. Cracks can branch, and/or propagate resulting in a brittle, thick-walled fracture. Evidence of caustic stress-corrosion cracking in areas where the metal temperatures are below 300F are rare. Vogt Power International, Inc. (VPI) typically see these kind of cracks associated with Stainless Steels (SS) and chlorine, or caustic. If a failure occurs: Take a representative sample in at least three places across the face of the affected module, and have a metallurgical analysis performed by two independent consultants Determine if the stresses are excessive: Is the module bound, i.e. prevented from expanding/contracting as designed? Is your operation philosophy compatible with the design? Are there larger delta temperatures being applied that what was originally designed for? Contact the OEM

5.

Some users will need to operate at part load, what are some of the concerns with this type of operation?

If the unit was not designed for part load operations, then these cases need to be considered if the HRSG will be operated at these loads. The only way to address these concerns is to model the HRSG for these operating conditions and assess whether these conditions will exceed the design limitations or affect the cycle life/reliability of said HRSG. Often economizers may experience steaming or the End User may notice a reduced high pressure steam temperature which can adversely affect operations of the steam turbine.

4 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.

4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin
6. List five recommendations our users could take back with them and implement immediately. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Understand and implement the OEMs Operation and Maintenance Manual for said HRSG. If the unit was not designed for cyclic operations, then employ the OEM or reputable company to assess your HRSG to ensure safe and reliable operation. Monitor and control chemistry and purity of the steam and water at all operating conditions, this can not be over emphasized. Adhere to conservative ramp rates; do not underestimate the effects of heat mitigation. Limit cycling, and stabilize operations prior to changes in steam demand. Ensure one has adequate controls to protect and provide safeguards for your equipment. Ensure that casualty procedures are in place and implemented (for e.g. Loss of Feed Water). Verify spray systems are not in operation during start-up. During start-up spray attemperation systems can be unstable and cause carryover into the steam turbines. Be conscious of attemporation, this water will contain all the impurities associated with the source water. Inspect the HRSG during every opportunity by a qualified Engineer. Equipment Modifications/Additions: a) Stack Damper b) Properly sized Drains c) Properly sized Vents d) Sparging Systems e) Bypass Valves f) Recirculating Systems

7.

Are their specific problems that users with SCRs should look for? What are the most important process variables to track during cycling operations? Yes, during cyclic or part load operations, the inlet temperature may be above/below the designed temperature window. This can affect the effectiveness, plug/damage the catalyst, or accelerate the accumulation of sulfates/sulfites aft of the SCR on heating surfaces and drain piping. This can lead to a violation of your air permit, increase the probability of Cold End Corrosion, and decrease thermal performance. Exhaust gas recirulating piping warm up can be a critical issue for aqueous ammonia systems. Process Variables: Inlet/Outlet exhaust gas temperatures of the SCR, Feed Water, and stack Inlet/Outlet NOx levels Ammonia Slip Fuel samples, Exhaust Gas samples (sulfur, poisons, etc.)

5 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.

4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin
CYCLIC HRSG DESIGN ISSUES HRSG pressure parts are subject to Creep and Low Cycle Fatigue damage by exposure to high temperature/pressure cycles caused by transient operation. The cycles occur during transient operations such as start-up, shutdown, or load shifts. These cycles produce local stresses which may exceed the allowable yield stress of the material. Ultimately these transient operational issues are translated into combustion turbine, HRSG, and steam turbine operating practices/procedures to ensure acceptable pressure part life. The transient operation considerations are the result of a number of factors which include but are not limited to: The combustion turbines fast start-up, shut-down, and load shift characteristics, Associated heating and cooling ramps of critical HRSG components, Fixed or sliding pressure steam turbine operation, Introduction of cold condensate into hot economizer headers upon a system re-start, Variance in operating philosophies between shifts, The required warm-up time of steam cycle equipment.

Typically, a series of joint meetings between the combustion turbine, steam turbine and HRSG manufactures is held after receipt of the contract in order for all parties to discuss and understand the issues and the impact they have on each vendors equipment. CREEP Creep is the deformation that occurs to pressure part materials at high temperatures. Creep is typically modeled in three stages: Stage I is the initial pressure part creep deformation marked by small creep strains by a decreasing deformation rate during the initial service period. Stage II creep deformation is differentiated from Stage I by extremely small variations in the deformation rate providing essentially a constant creep rate. Stage III creep is distinguished by an accelerating deformation rate leading to rupture. The creep-rupture phenomenon is modified by previously identified operating transients and leads to an accelerated failure mechanism referred to as creep-failure.

THERMAL FATIGUE Pressure part thermal fatigue is the repeated cyclic stress produced by uneven heating or cooling when a section of a pressure part is restrained and cannot expand or contract uniformly. Pressure part thermal stresses are generated because the inner surface temperature typically changes faster that the outer surface. Pressure part discontinuities are typified by holes or abrupt cross sectional changes causing local increases in stress values. These stresses are further concentrated at the opening edge, forming a weak area or stress riser. Repeated cyclic stresses can cause pressure part inner or outer surface fractures at this stress riser, initiating fatigue cracks. Continued crack growth leads to pressure part failure.

6 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.

4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin
LOW CYCLE/THERMAL STRESS FATIGUE Low Cycle/Thermal Stress Fatigue may not have an immediate effect on HRSG pressure parts. For example, if the boiler is started one time at 500 OF, a drum shell or header crack will not initially develop. It is the repeated cycling of such high stress that causes cracking. Thermal stress is most intense at the surface, since it is caused by the difference between surface temperature and average metal section temperature. In order to explain the sources of the thermal stress, which can produce pressure part surface cracking, four typical transients can be considered: 1. 2. 3. 4. Cold Start Hot Start Daily Load Change Cycle Shutdown

Before considering these specific transients, it is necessary to recognize that the initial steam temperature is a function of load, and that the final superheater outlet temperature is especially dependent on load. VPI typically graphs initial drum steam temperature and the corresponding outside drum shell temperature as a function of load. Drum shell temperature varies as the load is varied; the pressure part surface experiences this full temperature difference. Now, consider the consequences of this temperature variation during a COLD START. VPI will typically graph how the differential drum shell temperature changes with time, for a given rate of load increase. This will illustrate how the drum shell or header bore temperatures increase with time. For a cold start, both the drum outer surface and drum inner shell temperatures are initially near ambient temperature. As the combustion turbine is started and loaded, heat absorption occurs in the HRSG HP evaporator section. The drum inner surface temperature follows the HP Evaporator steam temperature very closely, then increases rapidly, holding steady or soaking, and finally increasing to the full load value. The drum shell outer temperature lags well behind, thus producing an appreciable temperature difference between the outer surface and the inner shell surface. It is the difference in temperature that produces drum shell thermal stresses. These stresses are quantitatively in the internal drum shell surface, causing it to try to expand as its temperature increases. It is restrained from expanding, however, by the external drum shell material, which is still relatively cold. If the startup is too aggressive, the inner shell surface material yields in compression, so that residual tensile stress results when full load, steady-state conditions are reached. This residual tensile stress will then release or creep out to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the operating temperature and time to the next shut-down or load change. The thermal stress in the high pressure drum or header will be in tension, and then decreases to zero when steady state is reached, if yielding of the shell has not occurred. Repeated yielding will exhaust the material cyclic life.

7 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.

4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin
During a typical HOT START the initial inside drum shell surface temperature and the outside drum shell temperature vary approximately as they would during a cold start. The drum shell outside shell surface temperatures are, however, initially higher than the inside shell temperature, so that the outside shell surface temperature firsts decreases rapidly and then, as the inside shell surface temperature increases, the outside surface temperature increases to approximately the inside shell surface temperature. The outside shell surface temperature lags behind the inside shell surface temperature during its increase, so that during the first portion of the cycle the inside shell surface is hotter than the outside shell surface, and during the latter portion of the cycle the inside is colder than the drum surface. This reversal in temperature change between the external drum shell surface and internal drum shell surface, causes a reversal in thermal stress, thus decreasing the pressure part cyclic life. During a typical DAILY LOAD CHANGE CYCLE the steam temperate in contact with the surface of the drum undergoes a complete cycle of first increasing, then holding at a constant value, and then finally decreasing to the initial level (this temperature cycle corresponds to a load increase, operation at a constant load for a period of time, and then a load decrease to the original level). The drum surface temperature follows the steam temperature closely, since it is in direct contact with the steam, and the surface heat transfer coefficient is high. The drum center temperature lags considerably behind during both heating and cooling. The drum shell average temperature is, of course, intermediate between the external shell surface and internal shell temperature. The magnitudes of thermal stress and strain produced in any location of the pressure part, are proportional to the difference between the temperature at the location and the pressure part average temperature. The maximum thermal stress and strain occur at the surface. If the temperature increase is sufficiently rapid, the surface thermal stress will exceed the yield stress in compression, so that a residual tensile stress is produced. When the steam temperature is decreased, the reverse situation occurs. The pressure part surface stress becomes tensile at this time. The residual tensile stress and strain during the constant temperature portion of the cycle constitute a hold or soak time. If there is sufficient time at temperature, the stress due to this cycle will partially relax, and another cycle will then produce like effects, but keep in mind these are cumulative and contribute to the formation of cracks. Risk of cracking occurs when the thermal stress exceeds the yield strength of material. Furthermore, the risk of cracking greatly increases due to prolonged operation at elevated temperature (higher than rated temperature). This happens because material yields drops substantially with temperature. Severe load changes will consume considerable amount of cyclic life of the material. SHUTDOWNS can be more detrimental. Steep down RAMPS will similarly cause the drum surface to yield in tension and consume cyclic life. Whenever the yield strength is exceeded during start-ups, load changes and shutdowns, material cyclic life is expended, which can initiate a cracks. Once such a crack is initiated, steep downward ramps can propagate the crack. The magnitude of the thermal stress and strains is dependent on: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The extent and rate of temperate change The surface heat transfer coefficient The diameter or thickness of the component Thermal properties of the material Thermal stress concentration factors in highly stressed regions

8 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.

4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin
In general, for large diameter press parts (and thick shells) such as drums or superheater headers, fast rates of temperate change, and large amounts of change, will cause larger thermal stress and large expenditures of cyclic life. It should be emphasized that at any time before a crack is initiated there may not be any external symptoms, operating difficulty, or any visible evidence of a crack. The operators might assume that no damage exists. The strain damage has been done, however, and is accumulating so that it may finally produce a small crack. Small cracks can be driven into deep cracks during severe down RAMPS, because the drum surface is stretched in tension so that the cracks are opened up. IMPORTANT: It is imperative, therefore, that the operators follow the recommended starting and loading instructions to maximize component life and to optimally extend availability and reliability. CUMULATIVE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT Cumulative damage assessment evaluation is an on-going activity at Vogt Power International, Inc. Pressure part life is being evaluated by carefully examining the thermal and mechanical stresses imposed on them. Consideration is being focused on design details such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Tube to header weld details Refinement of HRSG transient behavior model Pressure part HURs/CDRs Pressure part temperature gradients Imposed pressure part stresses from adjacent pressure parts through pressure part nozzles Pressure part support methods Assessment of pressure part cumulative damage

These issues are being incorporated into our designs: 1. 2. 3. 4. Determining pressure part stresses using Finite Element Analysis methods Obtaining actual pressure part thermal gradients by field measurements FEA model comparison with the field temperate measurements HRSG transient behavior model comparison with field data collection.

This on-going activity will aid in determining the proper selection of HRSG pressure part fabrication techniques for present and future projects. The pressure part selection involves incorporation of our expertise, experience and manufacturing strengths.

9 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.

4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207

27 July, 1999

Technical Bulletin
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS Life Cycle Analysis should be performed on all units where cyclic operations are required or dominate the operating philosophy of the HRSG. A typical life cycle analysis should consider or identify the following components: Definition of Cycling and Operation Philosophy for unit in question Effect and behavior of Combined Cycle components (GT, ST, HRSG etc.) during cycling Identification of Critical Components of HRSG affected by Cycling Behavior of Critical Components during Cycling Designing for Cycling Establishment of Lifetime Cycles Establish the Fatigue factor and Creep times Life Expectancy Analysis Pressure Part Life Study Report Operation, Maintenance, and Inspection Requirements for Cycling Units Conclusions & Recommendations

10 of 10 Vogt Power International, Inc.

4000 Dupont Circle, Suite 400 Louisville, Kentucky 40207 502/899-4500 Fax: 502/899-4690 Sapulpa Manufacturing Operations: 2110 N. Industrial Drive Sapulpa, Oklahoma 74066 918/227-4202 Fax: 918/227-4207