Radio Science, Volume 30, Number 1, Pages29-45, January-February 1995

On the synthesisof fractal radiation patterns

D. H. Werner

AppliedResearchLaboratory, Pennsylvania State University, State College

P. L. Werner Collegeof Engineering,Pennsylvania State University, DuBois

Abstract. The fundamentalrelationshipbetween self-similar,that is, fractal, arrays and their ability to generate radiationpatternswhichpossess fractal featuresis examinedin this paper. The theoreticalfoundationand designprocedures are developed for usingfractalarraysto synthesize fractalradiationpatternshavingcertain desiredcharacteristics. A family of functions,known as generalizedWeierstrass functions,are shownto play a pivotal role in the theory of fractal radiationpattern synthesis. Thesefunctions are everywherecontinuous but nowheredifferentiable and
exhibit fractal behavior at all scales. It will be demonstrated that the array factor for a

nonuniformly but symmetrically spaced linear array can be expressed in termsof a Weierstrass partial sum(band-limited Weierstrass function)for an appropriate choiceof array elementspacings and excitations. The resulting fractal radiationpatternsfrom thesearrayspossess structure over a finite rangeof scales.This rangeof scalescan be controlledby the numberof elements in the array. For a fixed array geometry,the fractal dimensionof the radiation pattern may be varied by changingthe array current distribution. A generaland highlyflexiblesynthesis technique is introduced which is basedon the theory of Fourier-Weierstrass expansions. One of the appealing attributes of this synthesis technique is that it providesthe freedomto selectan appropriate generating function,in additionto the dimension, for a desiredfractal radiationpattern. It is shownthat this synthesis procedureresultsin fractal arrays which are composed of a sequence of self-similar uniformlyspaced linear subarrays. Finally, a synthesis technique for application to continuous line sources is presented which also makesuse
of Fourier-Weierstrass expansions.
1. Introduction

Mandelbrot [1983] observed that many natural

behavior. These objects typically possessstructure at several scale lengths. This feature can be attributed to the fact that natural fractals are often the

objects possessan inherent self-similarityin their geometrical structure. In order to quantify this
behavior Mandelbrot coined the term fractal and

introducedthe concept of fractal geometry. Since the pioneering work of Mandelbrot, fractals have been findingincreasingapplicationsin the fields of engineeringand science. Of particular interest in this paper is the research area known as fractal electrodynamics. The term fractal electrodynamics was first suggested by Jaggard [ 1990]to identify the newly emergingbranch of researchwhich combines fractal geometry with Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism.

Many natural objectsare known to exhibit fractal

Copyright 1995by the American GeophysicalUnion.
Paper number 94RS02315.
0048-6604/95/94R S-02315 $08.00
29

result of regular but nonperiodicforces which give rise to complex structures through repetitive actions [Jaggard, 1990]. Some important examplesof natural fractal structures are vegetation canopies, irregular terrain, subterranean geological formations, coastline and seafloor topography, ocean surfaces, cloud boundaries, and atmospheric and ionospheric layers [Mandelbrot, 1983; Barnsley, 1988; Mareschal, 1989; Turcotte, 1992]. It has also been demonstrated that many turbulent processes are fractal in character because of their inherently multiscale structure. This fractal property has been observedin oceanic, atmospheric,ionospheric, and magnetosphericturbulence [Burlaga and Klein, 1986; Kim and Jaggard, 1988b; Collins and Rastogi, 1989; Voros, 1990; Bhattacharyya, 1990; Baker et al., 1990]. Techniques for the remote

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sensingand classificationof fractally rough objects as well as the identification of fractally turbulent processes are just beginning to be developed and applied by the scientific community [Grassberger and Procaccia, 1983a, b; Kim and Jaggard, 1988b; Jaggard and Sun, 1990b; Jaggard, 1990]. The scattering of electromagnetic waves from corrugated random surfaceswith fractal slopeswas considered by Jakeman [1982a, b]. A generalized Rayleigh solution [Jaggard and Sun, 1990a]as well as a Kirchhoff solution [Jaggard and Sun, 1990b] have been obtained for scattering from fractally rough surfaces. Other areas of research include the study of diffraction by band-limited fractal phase screens [Jaggard and Kim, 1987], optical beam propagation in a band-limited fractal medium [Kim and Jaggard, 1988a], wave transmission through a one-dimensional Cantor-like fractal medium [Konotop et al., 1990], and reflection from fractal multilayer media [Jaggard and Sun, 1990c; Sun and Jaggard, 1991]. In addition to the fractal electrodynamics research noted above, there has also been some work done in the area of fractal antennas, arrays, and apertures. The application of fractals to the discipline of antenna array theory was first reported by Kim and Jaggard [1986]. They made use of the underlying order in fractal geometry to develop a procedure for the design of low sidelobe random arrays. This procedure combines the virtues of periodic subarray generators with those of random array initiators to form a quasi-random linear array composed of self-similar subarrays. Allain and Cloitre [1987] discussproperties associatedwith the spatial spectrum of a general family of self-similar deterministic arrays which are constructed recursively by a certain inflation method. The problems of diffraction by fractally serrated apertures and triadic Cantor targets have also been investigated [Kim et al., 1991; Jaggard and Spielman, 1992]. A technique is developed in this paper for the synthesisof fractal radiation patterns from a special class of nonuniformly but symmetrically spaced linear arrays, which we refer to as Weierstrass arrays. The goal of this synthesis technique is to determine the required array element current excitations and spacingsthat would result in the realization of a radiation pattern which exhibits certain
desired fractal features. The fractal dimension of

by the array element excitation currents. In addition to this the scale size of the fractal structure in

the radiation pattern may be controlled by the number of elements contained in the array. The synthesis technique developed for Weierstrass arrays is generalized to include not only the freedom
to choose a desired fractal dimension, but also the ability to select a suitable generating function. This more general class of fractal arrays has been called Fourier-Weierstrass arrays. Also addressed in this

paper is the more fundamental issue of how the underlying self-similar geometrical structure and correspondingcurrent distributions associatedwith these fractal arrays are linked to their ability to successfullyproduce fractal radiation patterns. It is demonstrated, for example, that Fourier-Weierstrass arrays may be decomposed into a sequence of self-similar uniformly spaced linear subarrays. In addition to linear arrays of discrete elements, a fractal radiation pattern synthesistechnique is also developed which is applicable to continuous line
sources. It is shown that in the case of the line

source, the desired fractal radiation pattern and the corresponding current distribution are related through a Fourier transform pair. The properties of infinite fractal arrays and line sources are first investigated, with further consideration given to the effects of truncation on the synthesis procedure. These techniques of radiation pattern synthesis are strictly concerned with the creation of fractal radiation patterns and therefore are not intended to
address traditional concerns such as minimization

of sidelobelevels. In fact, in order to produce a true fractal radiation pattern, the sidelobelevels in many casescan be rather high. For this reason, we choose
to call them fractal lobes so as to differentiate them

the radiation pattern, that is, the degree to which the radiation pattern fills space, may be controlled

from ordinary sidelobes. Another important attribute which sets these synthesis techniques apart from the more traditional approaches is the rich structure of the radiation patterns which result. This is a direct consequence of the unique fractal properties associatedwith these radiation patterns. The synthesis techniques developed in this paper can be used to realize radiation patterns which possess structure at arbitrarily small scales, whereas traditional methods generally strive to synthesize smooth radiation patterns. These properties allow an entirely new regime of fractal electrodynamics problems to be explored, namely those in
which it would be desirable to create radiation

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patterns containing many scale sizes of structure with the ability to vary their fractal dimension. There are several applicationsin which the ability to create fractal radiation patterns might be desirable. This appears to be especially true when dealing with the interaction of electromagnetic waves with natural structures or systems. For example, since it is possibleto vary the fractal dimensionof their radiation patterns, fractal arrays may be beneficial in certain remote sensingapplications. There may also be advantagesto using fractal arrays from the signal-processingpoint of view due to the unique fractal characteristics of their radiation patterns. Another potential application of fractal arrays is in the area of plasma physics. The signature of fractal radiation patterns could be impressedon a plasma in an effort to artificially produce irregularities. This would be advantageous because of the many rangesof scalesit is possibleto achieve in the structure of fractal radiation patterns. Ionospheric modification experiments in which high-power ground-based transmitters are used to induce local changes in the ionosphere represent one possible example of where this technique might be applied
[Ferraro et al., 1982, 1984; Barr and Stubbe, 1984; Rietveld et al., 1987; Wong and Brandt, 1990].

dimension in use [Barnsley, 1988; Falconer, 1990]. However, the box-counting definition or box definition is usually used for the computational or empirical determination of fractal dimensions.For a given fractal F, the box-counting fractal dimension,

denotedby dimB(F), is defined as [Falconer, 1990]

In N (F) dim (F) -- lim
(1)

-, o In (1/)

where No representsthe smallestnumber of sets of diameter at most required to cover the fractal F. The connection between the box-counting definition of fractal dimension and the intuitive Euclidean

concept of dimension is discussed by Voss [1988] and Jaggard [1990]. The class of functions known as generalized Weierstrass functions are represented by

f (x)-- Z (D-2)n]( nx)

n=l

(2)

Section 2 provides a brief introduction to the concept of fractal dimension, which is central to the theme of this paper. The properties of generalized Weierstrass functions and the key role they play in the synthesis of fractal radiation patterns are also
discussed in section 2. Section 3 introduces fractal

where 1 < D < 2, /> 1, and 7is a suitable bounded periodic function [Berry and Lewis, 1980;Falconer, 1990]. These generalized Weierstrass functions have the property that they are everywhere continuous but nowhere differentiable and exhibit fractal

behavior at all scales. Suppose that F = graph(f); then it can be shown that the parameter D represents the box-counting fractal dimension of F, that

is, dimB(F) = D, provided / is sufficiently large

[Falconer, 1990]. The fractal dimension D in this
case is a fractional dimension which lies between

line sourcesand discusseshow they may be used to synthesize fractal radiation patterns from a specified generating function and dimension. An expression is derived for the line source current distribu-

tion required in order to synthesize a desired fractal radiation pattern. The general theory of FourierWeierstrass fractal arrays is developed in section 4. Several examples of synthesized fractal radiation patterns are presented and their properties discussed.

the integer dimensions of one and two. Of course, we expect the fractal dimension of F to be at least one becauseF is the graph of a continuous function
with one-dimensional domain. On the other hand,

2.

Weierstrass Fractal Arrays

Fractals can be quantified and compared by using
which are related to their behavior.

certain numbers

These numbers are commonly called fractal dimensions. Fractal dimensions provide a measure of the degree to which a fractal fills the metric space it is
contained in. There are several definitions of fractal

we expect the fractal dimension of F to be no more than two because F is contained in the plane, a two-dimensional space. Generalized Weierstrass functions are the foundation on which the theory of fractal radiation pattern synthesis is based. In the remainder of this section a relationship between these functions and classical antenna theory will be established and used to investigate the geometrical propertiesas well as radiation characteristicsof the resulting fractal arrays. The subject of nonuniformly spaced antenna arrays has received considerable attention over the years and continuesto be a topic of interest. This is

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To Far Field Point

/v e-% /2 e-"2 //e -;' //oX, //e ;, / e %

d d

J%

d2

d2

Figure 1.
distribution.

A uniformly but symmetrically spaced linear array of 2N elements with a conjugate symmetric current

primarily because the element spacingsprovide a third variable, in addition to the amplitude and phase of the array excitation currents, with which to control the radiation pattern. The array factor for the nonuniformly but symmetrically spaced linear array of 2N elements illustrated in Figure 1 may be expressed in the form [Ma, 1974]
N

COS (alntt + an) f (u) = 2E (D-2)n

n=l

(6)

f(O)= 2E In COS (kdn cos 0 + an)

n=l

(3)

where
271'

also represents a Weierstrass function with a boxcounting fractal dimension of D. This particular Weierstrass function may be interpreted as representing the array factor for a certain nonuniformly but symmetrically spaced linear array consistingof infinitely many elements. This is easily verified by comparing (6) with (3) and recognizing that the required current amplitudes and element spacings
are

k-

(4)

in= /(D-2)n
kdn = a,qn

(7a)
(7b)

is the free-space wavenumber and A is the correspondingfree-space wavelength. The array amplitude and phase excitations are representedby I n and an, respectively,while dn representsthe array
element locations. These current excitations are

conjugate symmetric as indicated in Figure 1. Now, suppose the following Weierstrass function is considered

with u = cos 0, r/> 1, and 1 < D < 2. A fractal radiation pattern resulting from (6) would possess structure over an infinite range of scales. It is instructive to study the properties of infinite arrays of elements from the theoretical point of view. However, physical arrays necessarily consist of a finite number of elements. The infinite series in (6) may be truncated to yield
N

f(u)= E */(D-2)n COS (a*lnU)

n=l

(5)

cos(at/ntt + an) fv(u) = 2 *l(o-2)n

n=l

(8)

where 1 < D < 2, r/> 1, a is a constant, and 9 has been chosento be the cosinefunction. The proper- This Weierstrass partial sum represents the array ties of (5) are preserved when the series is multi- factor for a nonuniform linear array of 2N elements plied by a constantor arbitrary phasesare added to with current amplitudes and spacingsgiven by (7a) each term in the series. Therefore and (7b), respectively. The Weierstrass partial sum

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of (8) may be classified as band-limited since the resulting radiation pattern only exhibits fractal behavior over a finite range of scales. It should be pointed out that the box-counting dimension of
band-limited Weierstrass functions, such as (8), no

longer necessarilyyield the number D. However, it has been demonstrated, through numerical experiment, that it approachesD for certain values of r/ [Jaggard and Sun, 1989]. The lower bound on the scale size for which the radiation pattern remains

represent the normalized excitation current amplitudes. Equations (7a) and (14) indicate that the fractal dimension of the radiation pattern can be controlledby the array element current distribution. Equation (7b) may be used to show that the separation between any two consecutive array elements is given by

fractalis 2rdarl N. Thissuggests thatthe range of

scalesmay be controlled by the number of elements in the array. That is, the addition of two or more elements to the array has the effect of enhancingthe fine structure in the radiation pattern. In fact, the structure of the radiation pattern becomesfiner and more detailed as the number of array elements is
increased.

dn+l dn [ 'a(*/ -1)*/n ]

=
2rr

n=l,

2,...,N-1

(15)

Since r/> 1, it follows that r/n > for n > 1. This

inequality can be used to prove that
dn+l -dn > d2 -dl n = 2, 3, ''' , N1 (16)

Supposethat it is desirable to have (8) attain its maximumvalue at somespecified angle 00. This can be accomplishedby choosingthe excitation current phases according to
an = -anuo
where

Let r be a constraint which is imposed on the minimum separation between any two consecutive elements in the array. There are two possible cases in which this minimum spacing constraint may be
satisfied. These cases are as follows:

Case 1

d2 -dl

= r

and d -> r/2

(17a)

(9)
Case 2 d =2

and d2 - d -> r

(17b)

Uo = cos 0o

(10)

The maximum value of (8) under these conditions is

then
N

Note that if either condition (17a) or condition (17b) is satisfied, then the spacingbetween all other pairs of consecutive array elements will automatically

(D-2)n fN(uO) = 2 q
n=l

(11)

satisfy the minimum separation criterion r. This property is a direct consequenceof inequality (16). An expressionfor a as a function of r and r/can be derived by using (7b) in conjunction with conditions (17a) and (17b). The result is
kT

The series in (11) represents a geometric progression which, since r/ > 1 and 1 < D < 2, can be summed to give

a=

/(/-

1)
kT

1<,/-<3
(18)

1 /(D-2)N] fN(uO) =2 (-2) 1 -'('-; ] (12)

A normalizedform of the Weierstrassarray factor can be obtainedby dividing(8) by its maximumvalue (12). The expressionfor this normalizedarray factor is

a=

gN(U) =1 "-iO---27v] in COS (anu +Oln) (13)

where

in = /(O-2)(n-1)

It should be noted here that the parameter r/governs the convergence of the Weierstrass array factor. The closer r/is to one, the slower the array factor will converge and the more elements will be required in the array. At the same time, however, the spacingbetween consecutive array elements is decreasingas r/approaches unity. Another point of interest is that the array excitation current amplitudes (7a), phases(9), and spacings(7b) may all be (14) obtained by an iterative procedure. That is

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priately adjusted to produce radiation patterns which have any desired fractal dimension between 0.9 ,................................................................................ ', .......................................................................................................................... N=.8 ................................................ the integer dimensions of one and two. For exami ........................................................................................................ r--.5X .............................................. 0.8 ' ................................................................................ ple, radiation patterns having a desired fractal dimension of 1.5 and 1.9 are illustrated in Figures 3 0.7 and 4, respectively. One conclusion which may be drawn from these Figures is that the higher the 0.6 fractal dimension, the more irregular the radiation pattern becomesand the more it tries to fill space. 0.4 This space-fillingproperty of Weierstrass arrays is most likely characteristic of other, perhaps all, fractal arrays. The radiation pattern shown in Fig0.2 ure 5 correspondsto a 16-elementWeierstrassarray

D 1.1 ....................................

0.5

0.3
0.1

in which

the current

excitations

were

selected

to

-1

-03

03

produce a desiredfractal dimensionof D = 1.5 and a radiation maximum at 00 = 60 (u0 = 0.5). Figure 6 indicates the normalized current amplitude distributions which lead to the band-limited

Figure 2. The normalized Weierstrassarray factor for a 16-elementarray with u0 = 0.0, r = 0.5A, r/= 2.34, and
D= 1.1.

fractal radiation patterns shown in Figures 2 through 5. This figure illustrates that a high degree of current amplitude tapering is necessary in order to synthesize radiation patterns which have lower
fractal dimensions associated with them. Table 1

In = rl(O-2)In-1 I1 = ,./(0-2)
Ot n -- Otn_1 Oil = -auo

(19a) contains a listing of the element locations for a

(19b)

dn = rldn_1

d 1 = art/k

(19c)

16-element Weierstrass array whose geometry is prescribedby a value of r/= 2.34 and a - 1.0. The maximum directive gain or directivity associated with a nonuniform linear Weierstrass array of

where n = 2, 3, , N in all three cases. From this we can conclude that Weierstrass arrays are indeed fractal arrays since their element spacingsand cur-

D = 1.1 current

rent distributions, amplitudes as well as phases, 0.9 obey certain power laws. This fact strongly suggests that there may be a connection between the 0.8 underlying self-similarity properties of fractal arrays and their ability to generate fractal radiation patterns. In other words, fractal arrays give rise to fractal radiation patterns. Suppose we consider a Weierstrass array in which the minimum separation between any two adjacent array elements is restricted to a half wave0.3 length. The minimum separationrequirement of r = 0.2 ;t/2 and a choice of r/ = 2.34, taken together with (18) implies that the array designparameter a = 1.0. 0.1 Consequently, these values of r/= 2.34 and a = 1.0 may be used in conjunction with (7b) to determine -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 the element spacingsfor this array. Figure 2 shows the radiation pattern which would result from a Weierstrass array consistingof 16 elements with a Figure 3. The normalizedWeierstrassarray factor for a

0.4
i

distribution.

The current

distribu-

16-element array with Uo = 0.0, r = 0.5A, r/= 2.34, and

D= 1.5.

tion on this same 16-element array may be appro-

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35

0.7
o.s
0.4

ID=

-$o

-1

Element Number, N
Figure 4. The normalizedWeierstrassarray factor for a 16-element array with u0 = 0.0, r = 0.5A, r/= 2.34, and
D= 1.9.

Figure 6. The normalizedcurrentdistributions requlreo to produceradiation patterns with fractal dimensionsof

1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, and 1.9 for a symmetric 16-element Weierstrass array.

isotropic sources may be determined using the band-limited Weierstrass array factor (8) and its maximum value (12). The expressionfor directivity
under these circumstances is

G(uo) =
-i

2f}(uo)
' '

(20)

lfN(u) au

in which

N N

0.9 N=834 ] ........................................................ f2N(U) = 4 Z Z rl (D-2'(m+n' Cos (arlmu + am)

0.8 ....................................

0.7

cos (at/nu + an)

(21)

0.6
05
0.4
03

--

- and
Table1. Element Geometry fora Symmetric
16-Element Weierstrass Array
,

02.

Element, n
3

Element Location, dn/A

,

0.1
o

-1

-05

o u

0.5

4
5

0.372 0.872 2.039 4.772 11.166 26.129

61.141 143.069

Figure 5. The normalizedWeierstrassarray factor for a 16-elementarray with u0 = 0.5, r = 0.5A, r/= 2.34, and
D= 1.5.

? = 0.5A, *t = 2.34, and a = 1.0.

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14

12

I -.---6

=
m=l

fl[1--r/(D-2)] 2

-1

11

E Z r/(D-2)(n+m-2)Amn(a, r/,Uo )
n=l

(26)

10

Note that the particular case when D = 2 corresponds to an array with uniform excitation. The expressionfor directivity in this case becomes
G(uo) = (27)

1
.... i .... i .... i .... i .... i
I 1.1 1.2 1.3 1A 1.5

N
m=l

N
n=l

i .... i .... ] .... i ....

1.6 1.? 1.8 1.9 2

2N 2 /mn( a,r/,Uo)
It can be shown that (27) reduces to the well-known
result

Figure 7. The directivity versus fractal dimension for different sized linear Weierstrassarrays of isotropicradiators.

G(0) = 2N

(28)

for a half wavelength uniformly spaced broadside

lineararray when ,/n is replacedby n,r/a and u0 =

f2(Uo) = 4,/
Integration of (21) yields
N N

1-/ l-r/

(D-2)N'
(D-2)

0.

(22)

The directivity as a function of fractal dimension D is plotted in Figure 7 for several different array
sizes. A uniform current distribution is obtained on

a Weierstrassarray when D = 2. This representsan upper bound on the fractal dimension. Figure 7
demonstrates that as the fractal dimension of the

-1

:fu) du=4 Zr/

m=l n=l
1

(D-2)(m+n) / mn(a ' r/, UO ) (23) radiation pattern is decreased, the main beam
broadens and the corresponding directivity also
decreases.

where

A mn(a, n, Uo) = fl
sinc[a(r/m -- r/n)]
and

COS [ar/m(u -- U0) ]

3.

Fractal

Line

Sources

cos [ar/n(u - u0)] du = cos [a(r/m + r/n)u0]

sinc[a(r/m + r/n)] + COS [a(r/m -- r/n)u0]
(24)

sin (x)

sinc (x)=

(25)

In this section we investigate the use of long, straight current-carrying antennas, known as line sources, for the synthesisof fractal radiation patterns. The geometry for a line source of length L centered symmetrically about the origin of the z axis with a current distribution of I(z) is shown in Figure 8. For a line source of infinite length, the radiation pattern F(u) and the current distribution I(s) are related by the following Fourier transform pair [Stutzman and Thiele, 1981]'

Finally, substituting(22) and (23) into (20) resultsin a directivity given by

F(u) = f-o I(s)eJ2us ds

(29a)

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To Far Field Point

F(u)e-j2su du I(s) = -o
where

(29b)

u = cos 0

(30a)

L
s = z/A (30b)

Figure 8.

Geometry of a continuous line source of

Any fractal function may be constructed by the length L oriented along the z axis. recursive application of an appropriate generating function. In particular, supposethat the radiation a0 / (D-2)N _ 1 pattern of an infinite line sourcemay be represented as a band-limited generalized Weierstrass function

(u) =- (o-2) _

of the form

N-1

F(u) = Z */(D-2)n a(11 nu)

n=0

(31)

+71 COS [m'rln(U +1)] (35) = am Ln= /(D-2)n

where
am

where D is the fractal dimension and O(u) is a generating function. Here we assume that the generating function 9(u) is periodic and even, that is, 9(u + 2) = 9(u) and 9(-u) = 9(u). Hence, 9(u) may be expanded in a Fourier cosine series as

9(u-

1) cos (mru) du

(36)

with the requirements that r/> 1 and 1 < D < 2. Equation (35) represents a Fourier decomposition of the fractal radiation pattern F(u) in which the
basis functions are band-limited Weierstrass cosine

g(u) =--+ y am cos (mru)

m=l

(32)

functions. We call such a representation a FourierWeierstrass expansion. Other examples of FourierWeierstrass expansions may be found in work by
Kim [1987].

where

the Fourier

coefficients

are determined

from

am = 2 fO(u) COS (mru) du (33)

Substituting (32) into (31) leads to an expressionfor the radiation pattern given by
a0 /

The line source current distribution required in order to produce the desired fractal radiation patterns may be obtained by evaluating the Fourier integral (29b)

I(s) = f F(u)e -a2'su du (37)

1

(D-2)N _ 1

F(u) = -2
oc

*t(D-2) -1
N-1

where F(u) is defined in (35). Performing the necessary integration results in an expression for the current distribution given by

+ Y am (D-2)n COS (mrlnu)

m=l n=0

(34)

sinc (2rs) + y y am*l (D-2)n I(s) =ao (D-2)_l

I/ m=l n=0

I/(D-2)N _1

o N-1

Without loss of generality we replace u by u + 1 in (34), effectively mapping the interval [-1, 1] to the
interval [0, 2]. This results in

{e dmrr*t"sinc (2rs - m,rr n)+ e-jm'*t" sinc (2rs

+ m'rln)]
(38)

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Equation (38) representsthe required current distribution for a line source of infinite extent. However, an approximation may be obtained for the current

Cmn (1) = ___{Ci [2IL/A -mwnl] -ci [2r(L/A

+ mrln)] -- In
L/A + m

distribution on a finite length line source by truncating (38) in the following way:
L

mn%L/A

(41d)

Cron( + 1) = -+{7 + In [4r(L/A)] - Ci [4r(L/A)]}

(41e)

ls) =l(s) Isl-< '

L

(39)
in which

m n = L/A

ib)-o

2A

Si(x)=
The correspondingexpression for the synthesized fractal radiation pattern associated with a line source of length L may be found by using (39) in conjunction with (29a). Following this procedure yields

tt :sin
dt

(42a)

Ci(x)=-

tt cos

dt = 'r + In (x) +

cos t-1
t

dt

(42b)

a0

(D-2)N_ 1

if(u) 2r /(9-2) _1{Si[rr(L/A)(1 + u)] + Si[rr(L/A)

(1 --U)]} + E E am rl (D-2)n{cos [mr/n
m=l n=O

are the sine and cosineintegrals, respectively, and the parameter /= 0.57721... is Euler's constant [Andrews, 1985]. It can easily be shown that lim if(u) = F(u)
L-- o

(43)

since

(U + 1)]Smn(U ) + sin [m7rn(u + 1)]Cmn(U)}

where

(40)

Si (oo)=-

(44a)

Ci (oo) =0

(44b) (44c)

Smn(U ) -'- Si [r(L/A - m/n)(1 + u)] + Si [r(L/A + m n)

(1 + u)] + Si [(L/A - m/n)(1 - u)] + Si [r(L/A + m/n)(1 - u)] -1 -< u-< 1 (41a)

Smn (oo) -- 2 q'/'

Cmn(OO )=0

(44d)

In order to illustrate the line source synthesis procedure as well as investigate the properties of the resulting fractal radiation patterns and associated current distributions, we consider the follow-

Cron(U) = Ci [rlL/A- mnl(1 + u)] - Ci [r(L/A + m n) (1 + u)] - Ci x

+ m/n)(1-u)]

- mwnl(1 - u)] + Ci [r(L/A

-1 < u < 1 mn%L/A (4lb)

ing example. Supposethat it is desirable to synthesize fractal radiation patterns which are based on a generatingfunction of the form

#(0) = 1 -icos ol

o-< 0 -< ,n'

(45)

Cmn(U) -'-In _
(1 - u)]

- Ci [2r(L/A)(1 + u)]+ Ci [2r(L/A) triangular generatingfunction given by

m n = L/A (41c)

Transforming (45) into the u domain results in a

-1 < u < 1

#(u) = 1 -lul

lul-< 1

(46)

WERNER AND WERNER: FRACTAL RADIATION

PATTERNS

39

The Fourier coefficients associated with this trian-

gular generating functionmay be found from (36).

That is,

0.9
0.8

u cos (m*ru) du = 1

m =0

'' 0.7
13.6

am: 2

u cos (m*ru) du = -

(47) i 0.5
0.4

m= 1,3,5,---

0.:5
0.2

am = 2 fd u cos (m*ru) du = 0 m=2, 4, 6,.-Substituting the Fourier coefficients (47) into (35) and choosing a value of r/= 2 leadsto the result

0.1
0

-1

-0.5

0.5

F(u) =-

209_2)_ -lul 2 (D-2) N + 2 (D-2) -2}

(48)

Figure9. Synthesized fractalradiation pattern (normalized) for a line source with D - 1.3, r/= 2, N = 14, and
a triangular generatingfunction.

whichmay be usedto normalize(49). The resulting

= = (2m1) 2 cos [(2m 1)2n*ru] normalized

which representsthe desired line source fractal radiation pattern,with fractaldimension D, formed by the recursiveapplication of a triangular generating function.The fact that F(-+1) = 0 and F(0) = 1 may be easily verified using(48). Expression (48) may also be usedto showthat when N = 1, the radiation pattern F(u) reduces to the triangular

current distribution is

i(s) = 2(-2)N1

2(D-2)N _ 2 (D-2)'
sinc (2,rs)

+L -- 3/-_ 'l'J s inc 2 (*rs) - L (---2-57v' -_ 1

o N-1 2(D-2)n

generating function 0(u) - 1 - lul.The line source

currentdistribution requiredin orderto producethe fractal radiationpatternsof (48) is given by

'7n (2m--1) 2[sine [2*rS -(2m --1)2n*r]

+ sinc [2*rs + (2m - 1)2n*r]}
(51)

I(s) =[ 2-ff= - ]sine (2*rs) +sine 2 (*rs)

m=l =

2(D-2)N _2 (D-2)]

It is interesting to noteherethat, exceptfor an "end effect," the sinc function is self-similar with a similarityfactor of two [Schroeder, 1991].
The line source current distributions of (49) or

- () Y n (2m - 1) 2 {sine [2*rs(2m - 1)2n-r] 2 o N1 2 (D-2)n

+ sinc[2*rs+ (2m - 1)2n-r]}
(49)

(51) may be used to synthesizeradiation patterns with any desired fractaldimension, whichare based on the triangular generatingfunction of (46). For example, the synthesized radiation patternfor a line
source with a desired fractal dimension of D - 1.3

The maximum value of the current distribution (49) occurs when s = 0, hence
2 (D-2)N -- 1
(50)

is shownin Figure 9. Figure 10 illustratesthe line

source current distribution required in order to

produce the fractalradiation patternshown in Figure 9. Likewise, Figure 11 showsthe synthesized line sourceradiation pattern which results from a

14 <o

max[I(s)] = I(0)=

- 1

40

WERNER AND WERNER: FRACTAL RADIATION PATTERNS

0.8

D=l.7
0.75

0.6

............................. i ...................................... &'"'"'": ............................. *

........................................ N--26 ............

0.5
O25

.......................... i.................................. i ......... /=2

0.4

0.2

..

-0.2

....

I ....

I ........

I ....

I,,,,i,,,,j,,,,

-20

-15

-1_0

-5

1_0

20

-20

-15

-10

-5

10

15

20

Figure 10.

The normalized line source current distribu-

Figure 12.

The normalized line source current distribu-

pattern shown in Figure 9.

tion required in order to producethe fractal radiation tion required in order to produce the fractal radiation
pattern shown in Figure 11.

specified fractal dimension of D = 1.7. The current If we considera line sourceof finite lengthL, distributioncorresponding to a value of D = 1.7 is then the current distribution (49) is truncated acshownin Figure 12. Once again, we see that the cordingto (39) and the resultingsynthesized fractal irregularityof the radiationpatternincreases with radiationpatternmay be expressed as increasingfractal dimension.

1 [2(D-2)N-2(D-2) 1
1

if(u) =--[ -_ - ]{Si [r(L/A)(1 +u)]

.............................................................................. + Si[,r(L/A)(1 - u)]} + --{(1 + u)Si[,r(L/A)(1 + u)]
i

0.9
0.1t

0.7

... +(1 - u) Si [,r(L/A)(1 - u)] - 2u Si [(L/A)u]

1 2 N-] 2(D-2)n

0.2
0a
0
-1 5 0 05 1

(52) ' S2,n-n(U) + sin [(2m - 1)2nu]C2m_ln(U)}

where
S2m-ln(U ) = Si [(L/A-(2m-1)2n)(1 +u)]+Si [(L/A

+ (2m- 1)2n)(1 + u)] + Si [,r(L/A- (2m- 1)2n)(1 - u)]

Figure 11. Synthesized fractal radiationpattern (normalized) for a line source with D - 1.7, r/= 2, N - 26, and a triangulargenerating function.

+ Si [,r(L/A + (2m - 1)2n)(1 - u)] -1 -<u -< 1

(53a)

C2m-ln(lt ) = Ci [rlL/A- (2m - 1)2hi(1 + u)]

WERNER

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41

- Ci [-(L/A + (2m - 1)2n)(1 + u)] - Ci [-[L/A - (2m - 1)2nl(1 - u)] + Ci [r(L/A + (2m - 1)2 n)
(1 - u)] -1 < u < 1 (2m - 1)2n-L/A
(53b)

C2m-ln(U) = In

- Ci [2-(L/A)(1 + u)]

+ Ci [2-(L/A)(1 - u)]
-1 < u < 1

(53c)
(2m - 1)2n = L/A
0.5

C2m-ln( + 1) = +_{Ci [2-[L/A -(2m -1)2nil

0

- Ci [2'(L/A + (2m - 1)2n)]

- In

-1

-0.5

0
u

0.5

LIA - (2m - 1)2n

L/A + (2m1)2n

(2m-

1)2nL/A

(53d)

Figure 13. The first eight stages (N = 1-8) in the construction of a fractal radiation pattern based on a quadratic generatingfunction with D = 1.1 and /- 2.

C2m_ln( '+' 1) = -+'{3 + In [4r(L/A)]

- Ci [4-(L/A)]} (2m - 1)2n = L/A
(53e)

Note that the term in (52) which contains sin

4.

Fourier-Weierstrass Fractal Arrays

[L/2A)] vanishes if the half-length of the line The technique introduced in this section is a sourceL/2 is an integer multiple of the wavelength generalization of the method of fractal radiation A. pattern synthesis using Weierstrass arrays which As our next example, we consider an initial was presented in section 2. This generalization pattern of the form involves introducing a Fourier-Weierstrass expansion of the type discussed in section 3, which 9(0) = sin20 0 --< 0 <-' (54) provides the additional flexibility of choosing a which is equivalent to the quadratic generating suitable generatingfunction. In other words, while both synthesis techniques allow for the specificafunction
tion of a desired fractal dimension, the method

9(u) = 1 - u2

-1 -<u -< 1

(55) based on Fourier-Weierstrass arrays provides for

additionalcontrol of the overall shapeas well as the underlying geometrical structure of the radiation
pattern.

Making use of (36) and (55), the required coefficients for the Fourier-Weierstrass expansion are
4

am =-

m=0 (56)

We begin our study of band-limited FourierWeierstrassfractal arrays by expressing(35) in the following convenient form:
oo N-1

am = --

m%O

F(u) = Io+ 2 !mn COS (kdmnu "lOlmn )

m=l n=O

(57)

Figure 13 illustrates the first eight stages(N = 1-8) in the construction of a fractal radiation pattern basedon the quadraticgenerating function (55) with
a desired dimension of D = 1.1 and a value of

where

ao 1-/

(D-2)N

,/-2.

Io = 2

(D-2)

(58a)

42

WERNER

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FRACTAL

RADIATION

PATTERNS

Iron ---- 1/

am (D-2)n

be found in a similar way using (58b) and (58d), (58b)respectively. These recurrence relations are
(58C) (58d)

kdmn-- mrrqn Ot mn-- mrr,1n

Iron+ 1 -' 'rl (D-2)Imn ImO =

Otmn+l -- 110tmn

am

(62a)
(62b)

OtmO = mrr

and the Fourier coefficientsa m corresponding to a particular generating function may be obtained through the use of (36). Equation (57) representsthe Fourier-Weierstrass array factor for a discrete array containing infinitely many elements. The array element locations with respect to the origin are dmn, while the element current amplitudes and phases are Imn and Otmn respectively. A useful representation of the array factor for a Fourier-Weierstrass array with a finite number of elements may be obtainedby simply truncatingthe outer summation in (57) and interchanging the order of summation. This leads to an approximate expression for the desired fractal radiation pattern given by
N-1 M

Finally, an expression for the normalized array current excitation amplitudes may be obtained by dividing (58b) by (58a), which yields
i0 = 1 (63a)

lmn --00 1 -'D---'V I1 (D-2)n (63b)

Suppose we wish to use a Fourier-Weierstrass array to synthesizea fractal radiation pattern based on the triangular generating function (46) with rt = 2. The Fourier coefficientsa m associatedwith the triangular generating function were found in (47) and may be used to show that
1 1 - 2 (D-2)N

F"M) = Io+ 2 ' ' Iron COS (kdmnu + Otmn)

n=0 m=l

(59)

I0= 1- 2(0-2)

(64a)

At this point, we recognize that the double summation appearing in (59) may be interpreted as representingthe superpositionof the radiation produced by a sequence of N uniformly spaced M element linear arrays. It follows directly from (58c) that the element spacings for each of the M element uniformly spaced linear subarrays are
An = dm+ln -- dmn-- I1n__
2

Imn-' --

(2m1) 2

(64b)
(64c)

Otmn '- (2m - 1)2nrr

dmn -- (2m- 1)2n-lA

(64d)

n=0,

1,2,...,N-1 (60)

Various stages in the construction of the FourierWeierstrass array corresponding to a triangular generating function are illustrated in Figure 14. In this case, since rt = 2, (61) becomes
An+l = 2An A0 = A (65)

which may be used to derive the recurrence relation

which suggests that the element spacingsfor each consecutive subarray may be obtained by doubling An+l = r/An A0 =(61) 2 the spacing of the previous subarray. This selfsimilarity property of the subarraysis clearly idenHence, an iterative procedure may be used to tifiable in Figure 14. It is evident from Figure 14 that determine the element spacingsfor each consecu- the decompositionof the Fourier-Weierstrass array tive linear subarray. This unique property of Fou- into a sequenceof self-similar linear subarrays also rier-Weierstrass arrays reveals their underlying includes an array element located at the origin. Figure 15 shows a synthesized radiation pattern fractal structure by suggestingthat they are composed of a sequence of self-similar uniformly formed by a triangular generatingfunction with rt spaced linear subarrays. Recurrence relations for 2 and a desired fractal dimension of D = 1.1. A the excitation current amplitudes and phases may Fourier-Weierstrass array with M = 4 and N = 8

WERNER

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PATTERNS

43

ii

llnlllt i I i i i I I I I I I I i I i i I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I i i I
+
II II II II II

StageO i_,_l_,__l
(n=O) ,-I-I-I-,-I

ii

04 o-) 1. u')
Ii ii ii ii

+
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

$tsel I I I ! I I I ! ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
(n-- 1) i i I I I I

II

CXl
II

Cv'J
II

r
II

+1.
II

$tSe9 I I I I I I I I I ! ! I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
(n=9) i i i i i i i I T I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ! ! I I

CXl

Cv'J

II

II

II

II

II

Stage 3 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I J
(n=3) I I I I T I I I I I I I T I , I I I I I T I I I I I ! I T I I I I I I I r

Array T'T"'!'-T-T-T Geometry

I I I 1' I

I I I'

I I

Figure 14. The construction of a Fourier-Weierstrass fractal array from a sequence of four (N = 4) self-similar uniformly spacedfive-element(M = 5) linear subarrays.The subarrayelementspacings are scaledaccordingto those

associated with the triangulargenerating functionwith = 2, that is, An+l = 2An where A0 = A.

was used to synthesizethis radiation pattern. Table 2 contains a listing of Fourier-Weierstrass array element spacingsand excitation currents required in order to produce the fractal radiation pattern shown in Figure 15.
5. Conclusion

0.9

0.8

0.7

of fractal arrays and their ability to generatefractal radiation patterns has been established in this paper. This relationship was used as the foundation for the developmentof severalsynthesis techniques applicable to the subsetof radiation problems in which fractal characteristics are desired. In particular, Weierstrass and Fourier-Weierstrass arrays were introduced as two examples of linear fractal arrays which may be used for the synthesisof fractal radiation patterns. The range of scalesover

A connection between thegeometrical properties

0.6
05
0.4

0.3 0.2

0.1

-1

-0.5

0.5

which a given radiation pattern exhibits fractalmalized) for a Fourier-Weierstrass array with D = 1.1,
number of elements contained in the array. The function.

Figure 15. SYnthesized fractal radiation pattern (nor-

behavior wasfound to be directly related to the n= 2,M = 4,and N = 8,and with atriangular generating

44

WERNER

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FRACTAL

RADIATION

PATTERNS

Table 2.

Fourier-Weierstrass Array Element Spacings

Currents

and Excitation

p
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

dt,/A
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 28.0 32.0 40.0 48.0 56.0 64.0 80.0 96.0 112.0 160.0 192.0 224.0 320.0 448.0

it,
1.000E -7.068E -3.788E -7.853E -2.030E -2.827E -4.209E -7.730E - 1.088E -1.515E -2.255E -4.142E -5.829E -8.119E - 1.209E -2.220E -3.124E -4.351E -6.477E - 1.190E - 1.674E -2.332E -3.471E -6.375E -8.970E - 1.249E - 1.860E -3.416E -6.696E -9.967E -1.831E -3.588E -9.811E + 00 01 01 02 01 02 02 03 01 02 02 03 02 03 02 03 02 03 03 03 02 03 03 04 03 03 03 04 04 04 04 04 05

a, deg
0 180 0 180 0 180 0 180 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

tions of fractal arrays. The computational assistance provided by Jenn-Ren Lien and Joseph Jiacinto is gratefully acknowledged.

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Values shown are those required in order to produce the fractal radiation pattern shown in Figure 15, with D = 1.1, r/= 2, M = 4, and N = 8, and with a triangular generatingfunction.

more elements used in the array, the finer and more detailed the structure will be until ultimately the radiation pattern will possessstructureat arbitrarily small scalesin the limit of infinite array size. It was
also shown that the fractal dimension of a radiation

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D. H. Werner, Applied Research Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, P.O. Box 30, State College, PA 16804. (e-mail: dhw@arlvax.psu.edu) P. L. Werner, College of Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, DuBois, PA 15801.

(Received December 7, 1992; revised September 1, 1994; accepted September 1, 1994.)