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Principles of Cryptography
Section 8.2 Ali Erkan & John Barr Ithaca College

Chapter Outline
8.1: What is network security? 8.2: Principles of cyrptography 8.3: Message Integrity and End-Point Authentication 8.4: Securing e-mail 8.5: Securing TCP connections: SSL 8.6: Network layer security: IPsec and VPNs 8.7: Securing wireless LANs 8.8: Operational Security: Firewalls and Intrusion Detection Systems

What Is Network Security?

Conventional use: Sender encrypts message, receiver decrypts message Condentiality: A Authentication: A Message Integrity: A Access and Availability: Services must be accessible and available to users

An Issue That Cuts Across The Protocol Stack

Application Layer: A Transport Layer: A Network Layer: A Data-link Layer: A

Who Might Alice And Bob Be?

Data Control, data messages Secure sender Channel Secure receiver Data

Alice

Bob

Trudy

Web browser/server for electronic transactions On-line banking client/server Surveillance systems DNS servers Routers exchanging routing 02-068 table updates

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What Can Trudy Do? Just Look At That Face...

Data Control, data messages Secure sender Channel Secure receiver Data

Alice

Bob

Trudy

Eavesdrop: Inject: Impersonate: Hijack:

Intercept messages Actively insert messages into connection Spoof source address (or any eld in packet) in packet Take over ongoing connection by removing sender or receiver, inserting himself in place Overload: Prevent service from being02-068 used by others (DoS)
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Notation And Variables

Plaintext Encryption algorithm Ciphertext Channel Decryption algorithm Plaintext

KA Alice Bob

KB

Key:

Trudy
Key

m: KA : KA(m): KB : KB (KA(m)):

A A A A A
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Notation And Variables

Plaintext Encryption algorithm Ciphertext Channel Decryption algorithm Plaintext

KA Alice Bob

KB

Key:

Trudy
Key

Symmetric key systems: KA = KB ; both are private

Public key systems: KA,priv used to A KA,public used to A

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Sym. Key Systems: The Old Ones

Ceaser cipher, k=3:
plaintext ciphertext a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c

With brute force, it takes 26 tries to gure out mapping Monoalphabetic cipher:
plaintext ciphertext a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z m n b v c x z a s d f g h j k l p o i u y t r e w q

With brute force, it takes 26! tries to gure out mapping With statistical observations, much easier to crack Polyalphabetic cipher:
plaintext C1(k = 5) C2(k = 19) pattern a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d e t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s C1 , C2 , C2 , C1 , C2

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Sym. Key Systems: Data Encryption Standard

DES: US encryption standard [NIST 1993] OK for commercial and non-classied use 56-bit symmetric key, 64-bit plaintext input N IST S TATEMENT The goal is completely scramble the data and key so that every bit of the ciphertext depends on every bit of the data and every bit of the key... With a good algorithm, there should be no correlation between the ciphertext and either the original data or key.

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Sym. Key Systems: Data Encryption Standard

64-bit input permute L1 R1 48-bit K1 56-bit key

f(L1,R1,K1)

L2

R2 48-bit K2

f(L2,R2,K2)

L3

R3

What happens in f ()? The 64-bit input and the 48-bit key for the ith round are taken as input to f () that involves expansion of 4-bit input chunks into 6-bit chunks, XOR-ing with the expanded 6-bit chunks of the 48-bit key Ki, a substitution, XOR-ing with the leftmost 32 bits of the input. How does decryption work? By reversing the steps of the operation.

48-bit K16

L17

R17 permute

64-bit output

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Sym. Key Systems: Data Encryption Standard

How secure is DES? DES Challenge: 56-bit-key-encrypted phrase1 brute forcely decrypted 4 months (Google des challange) No known backdoor decryption approach. Making DES more secure: Use three keys sequentially (3-DES) on each datum Advanced Encryption Standard: New (Nov. 2001) symmetric-key NIST standard, replacing DES Processes data in 128 bit blocks 128, 192, or 256 bit keys Brute force decryption (try each key) taking 1 sec on DES, takes 149 trillion years for AES
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Strong cryptography makes the world a safer place

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Symmetric Key Cryptography

Matt and Grifn need to exchange a number of secret messages: Matt and Grifn buy a padlock, each keeping one of the two identical keys to open it Matt puts the exam questions in a box, locks its with the padlock, and sends it to Grifn Grifn receives the box and opens it with his copy of the key Grifn puts the money in the box and locks it with the padlock Matt receives the box, opens it with his copy of the key

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Public Key Cryptography

Matt and Grifn need to exchange a number of secret messages: Grifn and Matt buy separate padlocks Matt asks Grifn to send his open padlock through regular mail Matt uses the received padlock to lock the box that will deliver the message to Grifn Grifn receives the box and opens it with the key which only he has Grifn asks Matt to send Matts open padlock through the regular mail Grifn uses the received padlock to lock the box that will deliver the message to Matt Matt receives the box and opens it with the key which only he has

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Public Key Encryption

KB+ Public encryption key KB Private decryption key

Plaintext message, m Ciphertext KB+ (m)

Plaintext message, m

Encryption algorithm

Decryption algorithm

m = KB (KB+ (m))

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Public Key Encryption Requirements

+ Need KB and KB such that + KB (KB (m)) = m. Why? A + KB (KB (m)) = m. Why? A + Given public key KB , it should be impossible to compute KB .

How is this possible? A The RSA algorithm (Rivest, Shamir, Adelson) does exactly that.

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RSA Choice of Keys

Choose two large prime numbers p and q . Each might be 1024 bits. Compute n = pq , z = (p 1)(q 1). Choose e (e < n) that has no common factors with z . This means e and z are relatively prime. Compute d such that ed 1 is exactly divisible by z . That is, ed mod z = 1.
+ Public key KB is (n, e) Private key KB is (n, d)

What?

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RSA Encryption, Decryption

To encrypt bit pattern m, compute c = me mod n This is the remainder when me is divided by n. To decrypt received bit pattern c, compute m = cd mod n This is the remainder when cd is divided by n. This means that, somehow, m = (me mod n) mod n
d

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RSA Example
Bob chooses p = 5, q = 7. Therefore, n = 5 7 = 35 Therefore z = (5 1) (7 1) = 24 Let e be 5; therefore e and z are relatively prime. Choose d so that ed 1 is exactly divisible by z : ed 1 = kz ed = kz + 1 kz + 1 d= e Let k = 6 6 24 + 1 d= = 29 5

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RSA Example
Transmit letter l (i.e. lower case L): m = 12 me = 125 = 248832 me mod n = 125 mod 35 = 17 Receive 17: c = 17 cd = 1729 = 481968572106750915091411825223071697 cd mod n = 1729 mod 35 = 12