Canadas Geology Chapter 11

Seismologists have discovered that earthquakes occur more frequently in specific areas Specifically, earthquakes occur more frequently where the edges of the earths plates are colliding or moving away from each other

Internal Structure of the Earth The planet is made up of three main layers: The Core, The Mantle, The Crust Crust: (0 to 35 km thick) About 6,378 km to the inner core

Theory of Continental Drift Alfred Wegener was the first to introduce the theory of Continental Drift Evidence of theory: Jigsaw puzzle fit (continents fit together), Fossil evidence (same fossils on different continents), Rock Type (same rock composition on different continents), Paleoclimatic (Ancient climate) But his ideas were rejected. He was not a specialist in the areas in which he attempted to collect his evidence and he was unable to suggest a mechanism for drift

Geologic History It is theorized that 300 million years ago all of the earths landmasses formed one supercontinent called Pangea (all land) About 200 million years ago,

Theory of Plate Tectonics Heat from the core can heat the water causing the plate tectonics to crack The mantle plume is a bubble like effect that punches up on the plates causing a Divergent Plate Boundary where the plates are being pushed away from each other Convergent Plate boundaries are when plates overlap a convergent plate boundary can only happen with 2 divergent plate boundaries Convection currents is the movement of the heated water up

Rift Valleys - Divergent Rift valleys are caused by the magma plume splits the crust and water floods in when it is deep enough; Mid-Oceanic Ridge

Convergent Fold; 2 divergent PB makes 1 Convergent PB, creates pressure at high temperature that causes the rocks and bend into fold mountains Fault; 2 divergent PB makes 1 Convergent PB, creates pressure at low temperature that causes the rock to crack making ridge like faults

ROCK CYCLE

Canadas Physiographic regions

Geo 15 Notes Eco Zones Physical Regions + Climatic Regions Eco zone parameters are distinguished by PRECIPITATION & Temperature The growth of vegetation is dependent upon the average levels f precipitation

Precipitation - Desert; less than 25 cm/year - Grasslands; 50 90 cm/year - Savannah; 50 127 cm/year - Forest; 75 150 cm/year - Rain forest; more than 200 cm/year Temperature Arctic Tundra Boreal Deciduous Tropical

Food Chains A FOOD CHAIN represents the steps of organisms transferring energy by eating & being eaten Ex. Sun Grass Grasshopper Mouse Bear Wolf

Food Webs A FOOD WEB consists of interlocking food chains. The only way to untangle the chains is to trace back along a given food chain

Eco zones Eco zones: a very large-scale ecosystem defined on the basis of broad common characteristics Plants are defined by major plant formations rather than detailed classifications Landforms are defined by large physiographic divisions rather than local landforms

Chapter 13 Canadas Climatic Regions

Where does weather and climate takes?
The Atmosphere: In fact the weather takes place in a thin layer of atmosphere found just above the surface of the planet (0 -12 km) known as: The TROPOSPHERE a.k.a. The Weather Layer

Are Weather and Climate the same thing?

Weather: all of the many and varied phenomena that occur in the atmosphere at a particular location over a short period of time Weather: Varied phenomena, Local, Short term Climate: weather averaged out over a long period of time and is a function of temperature and precipitation Weather: Temperature and Precipitation, Regional, Long Term Polar Climate: Year-round cold temperature warmest is less than 10 Temperate Climate: Warm to cool summers and cold winters Tropical Climate: Year-round warm temperatures usually above 15 all the time

What Powers Weather and Climate?

- Solar Energy turns into Thermal Energy then into kinetic Energy

Factors that control Canadian Climate

Temperature - Factors that influence latitude, ocean currents and elevation - Influence of latitude - Latitude has the largest influence on climate in the planet - As one goes away from the equator the temp decreases - Solar intensity Influence of Ocean Currents - Due to the ability of water to hold heats ocean currents can transport warm water from the equator to polar regions - Canadas currents: Labrador cold, gulf stream warm, north pacific mild Influence of Elevation - As one moves higher elevations it becomes colder - First reason - The troposphere is heated from below- it is warmer at low elevations which are closer to the heat-radiating surface - Second reason - The greater density of air molecules near the surface of the earth holds more dust particles and higher humidity levels - The conditions allow the air to hold in the heat radiating from the earth better at higher elevations Precipitation Factors the influence Prec. Wind The Storms that form in the Atlantic come up to Eastern Canada Prevailing wind systems over Canada blow W E called the Westerlies Westerlies carry precipitation Wind is referred to from the direction the wind comes from not going Wind East Relief West

Relief

- Relief (mountains) and prevailing winds force air to rise and cool. As the air cools, water vapor condenses into clouds and then rain on the windward slope (AKA Orographic precipitation) Falling, and warming, air on the Leeward creates dry air and a rainshadow

Market Segmentation
- Things made towards a certain age group with a massive market (ex. Baby Boom)

Dependency Ratio
(Total) Dependency ratio = (number of people aged 0-19 and those aged 65 and over (divided by) number of people aged 19-64) multiplied by 100 - As the ratio increases there may be an increased burden on the productive part of the population to maintaining the upbringing and pensions of the economically dependent. This results in direct impacts on financial expenditures on things like social security, as well as many indirect consequence - Stability of the total demographic dependency ratio throughout the 1980s was attribute to a decreasing youth demographic dependency ratio that was offset by an increasing senior demographic dependency ratio - Canadas total demographic dependency ratio is projected to rise to 84 dependents for every 100 people of working age by 2056, as the proportion of seniors increases - In 1971, the youth demographic dependency ratio was 74 youth for every 100 workingage people. This dropped to 39 youth in 2006 and is projected to drop further to 34 youth for every 100 working ge people by 2056 Terms: Demographics - Age groups, targeting

Demographic Dividend
- The dividend occurs only when fewer investments are needed to meet the needs of the youngest age groups and resources can be released for job training and investment in economic development - A population realizes there population dividend when they lower their Total Fertility Rate or reduce their birth rate TFR=2 kids for every couple

- Suburbs/Mortgages - Female Maternity Leaves (takes out of workforce) $ Food/Clothing/Necessities $ Recreational facilities $ Education $ Health care (vaccination) - Youthful Population - High Dependency Load

Demographic Time Bomb

- Population aging is a shift in the distribution of a countrys population towards older ages as life expectancies continue to rise with improvement health care systems Age (Demographic Winter) - Economic depression - Political Shift - Population decline (depopulation) - Labour productivity in developed Countries decline (immigrants) Attempting to realize the Demographic Dividend is the fire that lights the fuse...

Migration
Push or Pull?
- Migrants move for a variety of reasons - Push Factors: some migrants are involuntary and people are forced to migrate due to war

Canada; An Immigrant Receiving Nation

- Canada is classified as an immigrant receiving country for international migrants - Canada accepts the 7th highest number of international immigrants in the world today - Immigration is viewed as a solution to pending social and economic problems - Low fertility, low population growth - Ageing population

Replacement Migration
- Commonly reffered to as replacement migration, the theory in Canada is that the immigration of young people able to work at relatively high-skill jobs for a number of years can help the economy grow and lessen the impact of a declining natural increase rate and growing senior population

Immigration Categories
- Economic: Canada requires large numbers of immigrants to keep its economy growing. Without immigration, the size of the Canadian workforce would decline and the dependency load would increase. 61% of immigrants who come to Canada each year are economic immigrants. Economic immigrants are chosen because of what they can contribute to the Canadian economy - Family: Canadas immigration program maintanes a strong commitment to family unification and supports individuals who want to bring their spouses, dependent children and extended families to Canada if they are accepted as an immigrant. About 26% of all immigrants who come to Canada each year are family class immigrants. About 6% of Canadian family immigrants, however, represent parents and grandparents of existing immigrant. This adds to the senior dependency load and presents a problem for Canada - Why?

- Regions with Ageing populations and depopulation are not being assisted 1. Economic Opportunities 2. Provincial Nominee Programs Issues New Immigrants Face: 1. 2. 3. 4. Underemployment Hidden Racism Social Isolation Overqualified (Taxi, PhD)

50, 000 Taxi Drivers (50%) 200 PhD Lower Incomes High Rates of employment

Settlement Patterns Chapter 19 Rural Settlement Patterns We are going to learn about 3 specific patterns that exist in Canadian rural settlements o The long lots of southern Quebec o The concession system of Southern Ontario o The section system of the Prairies Ontario Lots are small Crops yield more so less is needed More money to build roads CONCESSION Quebec Long lots Access to water, only transport, so they were stacked up on the river LONG LOT

Prairies Lots were bigger Crops yield less money so more is needed Rows are called Townships, Columns are called Ranges SECTION SYSTEM Population Distribution

Canadas population is distributed unevenly in both concentrated and dispersed - Even - Uneven - Dispersed - Concentrated - A linear Pattern: is a specialized example of a concentrated pattern - Population Density: is the number of people who live in each square kilometer of land - Canada has one of the lowest population densities in the world with 3.3 people per square kilometer - Most of Canadas population live within 200 kilometers of the United States The Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut are relatively empty, embraced 41% of our land mass, but only o.3

Urban Settlement Urban Settlement Patterns Within the Rural Settlements framework, urban centers tend to emerge Particular settlements act as hubs and serve a particular purpose o Manufacturing (factories, mills, markets) o Transportation hub (ships, rail, highways converge) o Service hub (government, military, university) o Resource hub (forests, minerals, hydro-electric)

Urbanization vs. Urban Growth As those hubs grow their population grows and they become URBAN Urbanization is the process through which more people begin to live in urban settlements and it is one of the most important features in Canadian history In 1867, when Canada became a Country, 82% of Canadians lived in rural areas. Today almost 80% live in cities and towns

Urbanization in Canada Pre-industrial populations (80% rural); Industrial growth increased urban population; Slows again once rural populations are in cities; and

Solutions 2 Sprawl Create a NO DEVELOPMENT zone outside the city to prevent the city growing outwards Called the Green Belt by the Provincial government, not the municipal Green Belt made condos more of a regular occurrence because they are forced within the Green Belt

Torontos Downtown Tall Buildings Project Where should the tall buildings go? o Near main roads such as Yonge St. Also near subway stations; Then taper off in height as you move away from the street o In the downtown core and near pre existing infrastructure is located o Bay, Bloor, University to reflect their significance Why regulate building height? o To achieve an urban atmosphere o So as not to block views of an older work decreed to be important landmark o Airplanes and safety

How tall is too tall? o The objective of the Tall Buildings Downtown Project is to create a vision for tall buildings which identifies which downtown streets tall buildings should be located on the height ranges and build form typologies that these tall buildings should adhere to in order enhance the pedestrian environment; minimizes shadowing of sidewalks, parks and public squares; project landmark views and heritage resources and improve the quality of life (access to natural light, sky views and privacy) for people living and working in the core.

Urbanization: When the proportion of a countys population living in Rural vs. Urban settlements changes in favor of urban 1. All settlements start as RURAL 2. Over time certain Settlements grow in population and become URBAN (@ 10000) 3. This process whereby the percentage of the population living in urban areas vs. rural areas increases is called URBANIZATION 4. In Canada, the process of urbanization has occurred for two reasons MIGRATION, NATURAL GROWTH and RECLASSIFICATION 5. The gap between rural urban populations generates disparities in relation to the following factors a) Employment b) Economics c) Education d) Service 6. Increased urbanization triggers URBAN GROWTH a) Physical growth b) Population growth Sprawl 1. Urban growth that consumes more land is than necessary 2. Occurs when the percentage increase in occupied land area is greater then the percentage increase in population a. It is alleged to increase the level of traffic congestion and increase commuting distances b.

Chapter 22: Economic Geography The Canadian economy is divided into three sectors o Primary o Secondary o Tertiary Primary Sector: extracts raw materials from the earth o Agriculture- Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, S. Ontario, PEI o Fishing East, West o Forestry Shield (BC, Ontario, Quebec) o Mining, Oil and Gas Mining Shield ( Ontario, Quebec, Alberta) Secondary Sector: process raw material into usable goods o Manufacturing o Construction o Utilities Tertiary Sectors: Goods & Services Basic Industry: Brings money into a community o Pull in money from outside the local economy o Called basic because they are needed to support the local economy o They are the base of the local economy Non-Basic: Flows money out of a community o Siphons money out of the local economy o It is called non-basic because it cannot support the local economy and does not bring new money into the economy

Canadas Fishing Industry

Key Concepts
Fishing is a renewable resource (Eggs) Fishing is Canadas oldest industry Canadas fishing industry takes place in three areas: - The East Coast - The West Coast - Freshwater Inland Lakes

Fish Caught by Fisherman

Ground Fish:
- Shallow Water - Plankton - Dont migrate or school (Cod, Haddock, and Halibut)

Pelagic Fish:
- Deep Water - Migrate in schools (Tuna, Salmon, and Mackerel)

Shell Fish:
You find everywhere (Lobster, Crab)

Statistics
Commercial fishing only accounts for 0.10% of the total value of Canadas Economy Canada is NOT one of the worlds top 10 fishing nations More than 80% of the catch is exported Canadas fish exports are larger than our imports helping with our balance of trade

The East Coast Fisheries

What is a Continental shelf What is a fishing bank What is plankton

The Crisis in the East Coast Fishery

What is Sustained yield management What are the five major conditions responsible for the collapse of the fishery! - Overfishing - Improved Fishing Technology - Destructive Fishing Practices - Changes in Natural Conditions - The conditions

The West Coast Fisheries

Salmon are the most common fish with 5 different types The West Coast catch has traditionally been 400 times larger then the east

The Collapse of the West Coast Fisheries

Over Fishing:
During the 1990s Canadian and American salmon-fishing were catching 800 000 tonnes of fish a year This depleted the salmon population and didnt let them spawn newborns

Changes in the Environment:

Global warming is increasing the temperature in the salmons habitat They like the water below 7C so they will go more north to alaska where their is colder water in Alaska, so Canada loses the west coast fishery

Lack of a Salmon Fishing Treaty:

The USA and Canada cant come upon an agreement about how much salmon your allowed to catch This lets them keep on fishing for salmon at a rapid pace since their is no agreement against it

Challenges to the West Coast Fishery

1. First Nations
The Aboriginals are to fish for their own food and for social purposes fish for themselves The right to fish commercial is a focus of many First Nations land claim in North America

1. Sport Fishing
This industry want a bigger share of the available salmon Their argument is economic: A salmon caught by recreational angler is worth more then a salmon caught by a commercial fishing boat

1. Commercial Fishing
First Nations and Sport fishers want a bigger share of the fish so the government has to cut down on the amount of fish commercial boats can catch The government is doing this by gradually purchasing commercial fishing licenses and fishing boats so the amount of commercial fishers are reduced

Chapter 24 -The Business of FarmingA successful Agriculture Industry depends upon the interaction of four variable: o Climate (growing degrees days); o Soil (Fertility); o Biology (helpful vs. harmful); o Topography (drainage, erosion, etc.)

Climate Growing degree days: calculated by determining the number of degrees the average temperature exceeds 6C o 6 = 1 GDD o 10 = 5 GDD o 24 = 18 GDD

Land Capability for Agriculture To determine whether or not land was capable for agriculture in Canada, a survey was carried-out in the 1960s and 1970s This survey resulted in a classification system which divided Canadas land into 7 classes The classes indicate the degree of limitation imposed by the soil in its use for agriculture

Land Inventory System Classes of Soil 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. No limitations Moderate limitations Moderately Severe limitations Severe limitations Very Severe Perennial forage No Capacity

Types of Farming Intensive farming o Densely populated areas; o Farms tend to be small; o Large investments in labour and machinery; o Fruits, Vegetables, Dairy, Poultry, and Hogs; Extensive Farming o Population density is low; o Farms tend to be large; o Highly mechanized and requires few workers; o Cattle farming, grain and oilseed, mixed farming; Deficiencies & overcome

Canada Canada has a total land area of 921 500 000 ha. Only 13% of this area is suitable for any form of agriculture Only 5% of this area is suitable for farming

Size of Farms Use of labour/Machinery Types of Farming

Intensive Agricultre Small Lots Fruits, Veg., dairy, poultry

Extensive Agriculture Large Modernized Cattle, grain

Forest Resources
- Chapter 25 Tropical Tropical Trees o Palm tree o Banana o Ferns

Temperate Deciduous Trees (Leaves) Hard wood furniture, desks, hard wood flooring o Oak o Birch o Maple o Willow Coniferous (Pines, more north, cones) Soft wood Lumber, pulp and paper o Pine o Spruce o Cedar

Polar Tundra o Tree line o No trees

Forest Facts Sustained yield forest management Forests cover 42% of Canadas total area o 66% are coniferous o 12% are deciduous o 22% are mixed

Mixed Forest Region Long growing season Some coniferous (soft wood) is harvested for pulp & paper, lumber Some deciduous (hard wood) is used for maple syrup etc.

Boreal Forest Region Largest region Many coniferous (soft wood) Tree growth is slow Pulp and paper

Taiga and Montane Forest Region Stunted trees Coniferous Inaccessible and far from markets

West Coast Forest Region Most productive forest in Canada Temperate rain forest Abundant precipitation Volume of wood, per hectare, is highest in Canada

Three ways to harvest trees Clear Cutting o Economically feasible o Environmentally damaging o Wasteful Selective Logging o Aesthetics Shelter Wood Non-commercial forests are those that are unlikely to be cut down for industrial use Commercial forests are those which have trees that can be harvested profitably

Threats to Forest Acid Rain Insect pests and disease Forest Fires