BIOLOGY

Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction needs only one parent, unlike sexual reproduction, which needs two parents. Since there is only one parent, there is no fusion of gametes and no mixing of genetic information. As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each other. They are clones.

Plants
Asexual reproduction in plants can take a number of forms. Many plants develop underground food storage organs that later develop into the following year's plants. Potato plants and daffodil plants do this, for example.

A daffodil bulb at the beginning and end of the growing season, with a lateral bud where the new plant will grow

Types Of Asexual Reproduction In Plants

1.

Rhizomes Plants such as the grasses, cattails and sedges produce underground stems or rhizomes. As these stems grow through the soil, they will periodically produce adventitious roots and a new above ground shoot. If the rhizome subsequently dies, a new separate plant will have been formed

Plant Reproduction by rhizomes.

2.

Tubers Tubers are actually modified rhizomes. They are formed in such plants as Irish potatoes. They develop when specialized stem branches grow down into the ground and swell up with starch containing cells. Buds on the tubers will grow into new plants.

Tubers.

Plant Reproduction by the use of

3.

Runners

These are horizontally growing stems that produce few, if any, leaves. At the spot where a leaf would normally develop a node, these plants will produce adventitious roots down into the soil, and new above ground shoots.

Strawberry plant with runners - stems growing sideways

4.

Plantlets A few seed plants such as the duckweed produce miniature plants on the margin of their leaves. These drop off and develop into mature plants. The duckweed, which is an aquatic plant, reproduces almost entirely by this method.

Chlorophytum with plantlets - side branches growing

5.

Bulbs Onions, chives and lilies over-winter in the form of a bulb. Each bulb has a very short stem which is surrounded by fleshy leaves. In the spring, the shoot apex begins to grow using the nutrients stored in the leaves.

Plant Reproduction by the Use Bulbs.

6.

Corms This structure is similar to bulbs except that there are no storage leaves. The nutrients are, instead, stored in the swollen stem.

Plant Reproduction by the Use of Corms.

Another type is the growing of plants from cuttings. A piece of a plant stem, with a few leaves attached is cut from a healthy plant. This is planted in damp compost, where it will grow roots and develop into a new plant

Animals
In asexual reproduction, one individual produces offspring that are genetically identical to itself. These offspring are produced by mitosis. There are many invertebrates, including sea stars and sea anemones for example, that produce by asexual reproduction

Types Of Asexual Reproduction In Animals

Budding

In this form of asexual reproduction, an offspring grows out of the body of the parent. Hydras exhibit this type of reproduction.

Gemmules (Internal Buds) In this form of asexual reproduction, a parent releases a specialized mass of cells that can develop into offspring.

Sponges exhibit this type of reproduction.

Fragmentation

In this type of reproduction, the body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which can produce an offspring. Planarians exhibit this type of reproduction.

Regeneration

In regeneration, if a piece of a parent is detached, it can grow and develop into a completely new individual. Echinoderms and Hydra exhibit this type of reproduction.

Asexual reproduction in animals does occur - it happens in sea anemones and starfish, for example - but it is less common than sexual reproduction.

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction in Animals Animals that remain in one particular place and are unable to look for mates would need to reproduce asexually. Another advantage of asexual reproduction is that numerous offspring can be produced without "costing" the parent a great amount of energy or time.

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction in Animals A disadvantage of this type of reproduction is the lack of genetic variation. All of the organisms are genetically identical and therefore share the same weaknesses. If the stable environment changes, the consequences could be deadly to all of the individuals.

Sexual reproduction
The genetic information passed from parent to offspring is contained in genes carried by chromosomes in the nucleus. Sexual reproduction produces offspring that resemble their parents, but are not identical to them.

Sexual Reproduction In Plants

Plants produce specialized, haploid sex cells in their flowers. The male sex cells are the pollen grain and the female sex cells are ova. The male sex cells must be transferred to the female sex cells. This is called pollination. Pollination is normally carried out either by wind or insects. Following pollination, fertilisation takes place and the zygote formed develops into a seed, which, in turn, becomes enclosed in a fruit. The sex cells are produced by meisosis in structures in the flowere. Pollen grains are produced in anthers of the stamen. The ova are produced in the ovules in the ovaries.

Pollination
Transfer of pollen grains to the stigma is called pollination. If the pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of the same flower, the pollination is called self-pollination If the pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of another flower of the same species, the pollination is called cross-pollination. Cross pollination is brought about by various agencies like wind, water, bees, birds, bats and other animals including man.

Methods of Pollination
Insect Pollination: It is the form of pollination where pollen or spores are distributed by insects such as bees, flies and moths. Wind Pollination: Its the transfer of pollen from one individual plant to another. Wind pollination can take place in both, flowering and non-flowering plants.

Feature of Flower
Position Of Stamens Position Of Stigma Type Of Stigma Size Of Petals Colour Of Petals Nectaries Pollen Grains

Type Of Flower
Insect Pollinated
Enclosed within flower so that insect must make contact Enclosed within flower so that insect must make contact Sticky so pollen grains attach from insects Large to attract insects Brightly coloured to attract insects Present Larger, Sticky grains to stick to insects bodies

Wind Pollinated
Exposed so that the wind can easily blow the pollen away Exposed to catch the pollen blowing in the wind Feathery, to catch pollen grains blowing in the wind Small Usually green Absent Smaller. Smooth inflated grains to carry in the wind

Fertilisation
Pollination transfers the pollen grain to the stigma. However, for fertilization to take place, the nucleus of the pollen grain must fuse with the nucleus of the ovum, which is inside and ovule in the ovary. To transfer the nucleus to the ovum, the pollen grain grows a tube this digests its way through the tissue of the style and into the ovary Then, the tube grows around to the opening in an ovule. The tip of the tube dissolves and allows the pollen grain nucleus to move out of tube and into the ovule Here it fertilizes the ovum nucleus.

Seed And Fruit Formation

Ovary will lead to the fertilized ovule becoming a seed and the ovary in which its found becoming a fruit.

Four changes take place: 1. The zygote develops into an embryonic plant with small root(radical) and shoot(plumule).

2. The other contents of the ovule develop into cotyledons which will be a food store for the young plant when the seeds germinate

3. The ovule becomes the seed coat or testa 4. The ovary wall becomes the fruit coat; this can take many forms depending on the type of fruit.

Seed Dispersal And Germination In Plants

Seed dispersal is the scattering of offspring away from each other and from the parent plant. Seed germination is the restart of growth by the plant embryo using the food stored in the seed.

Seed Dispersal
Need For Dispersal

Improved chance of success by reducing competition and overcrowding. Enables colonisation of new suitable habitats Increased chance of species survival.

Methods Of Dispersal
1. Wind
Light weight seeds and high air resistance help the dispersal of seed using wind

Sycamore and ash produce fruit with wings Dandelions and thistles produce fruit with parachute-like devices

2. Water
Water dispersal happens when light, air filled fruits float away on water

Buoyant Fruit: sedge Buoyant seed: water lily

3. Animal
Animals too help with dispersing in various ways Animals seek the fruit as a food source, eventually the seed passes through the digested system unharmed and excreted. The seed is now dispersed. Eg: Strawberries, blackberries Fruits with hooks cling to the hair of an animal and its carried away. Eg:Goose grass

4. Self Scattering
Some fruits explode when they dry out and flicks the seed away

Peas and beans; the drying pod flicks out the seeds

Germiation
A seed contains a plant embryo, consisting of a root (radical), shoot (plumule) and one or two seed leaves called cotyledons. It also contains a food store. During germination, the food store is used up, providing the nutrients to allow the radical and plumule to grow.
The radical grows down into the soil where it will absorb water mineral ions. The plumule grows upwards towards the light, where it can start photosynthesis Once the seedling is able to photosynthesize, germination is over

The Conditions Needed For Germination

When seeds are dispersed from the parent plant, theyre usually very dry, containg only 10% water. This low water content restricts a seeds metabolism, so that it can remain alive but dormant for a long time. When a seed germinates, dormancy is broken. The seeds food store is broken down by enzymes and respired aerobically. This means germination needs the following conditions: Warm temperature- for activation of enzymes and for it to act efficiently Water- for chemical reactions to take place in solution Oxygen- for respiration