\

CENT^^
^

4fl^y'l

L f^f'Mc-^
p^^^i-v^

"Tu cnrx^

i-/^ic^

c-v^^

/A-

y/Wr
AS

fk. T9Y h Mm k-^w-^

fr<^nfK ChT<)matic Scale

M. Merimee'cs|

THE ART OF

PAINTING IN
AND
IN

OIL,

FRESCO:
BEING A

HISTORY OF THE VARIOUS PROCESSES AND MATERIALS EMPLOYED,

FROM
ITS DISCOVERY,

BY HUBERT AND JOHN VAN EYCK,

TO THE PRESENT TIME:

TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL FRENCH TREATISE OF

M.

J. F. L.

MERIMEE,

SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS, IN PARIS.

WITH

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS
ON THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF BRITISH ART, THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH

CHROMATIC SCALES, AND THEORIES OF COLOURING,

By W.

B.

SARSFIELD TAYLOR,

SENIOR CURATOR OF THE LIVING MODEL ACADEMY, &C. &C.

LONDON:
WHITTAKER &
Co.

AVE MARIA LANE.

1839.

iSoo
'6

S3

LONDON
GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS, ST. John's square.

TO

THE PRESIDENT AND MEMBERS

THE ROYAL ACADEMY

Mr. President and Gentlemen,

The

time has at length arrived which

so

much

desired,

and

have

now

the honour to lay before

you, the translation of

M. Merimee's

History of Oil

Painting, &c.

The duty
art, it is

of translating that valuable

I

work on

not very probable

should have under-

taken, but for the friendly advice which I received

from several distinguished members of the Academy,

and eventually

for the kind permission

which you

a2

IV

DEDICATION.

granted me, to dedicate this work to your Royal

Institution.

This circumstance determined

the task, for
it

me

to undertake

convinced

me

that a work on art

intrinsic merit,

must possess no small degree of

with which the Royal

Academy would

allow its

name

to be connected.

Inspired by these considerations, I have given

my

best attention to this work, and have taken every

method that
it

my
its

experience could devise to render

as useful in

new language
tongue.
I

as

it

is

calculated

to be in

its original

have neglected no
of this
in the

opportunity of consulting

members

Academy
language
I

on technical points of consequence

of art
;

and

have the satisfaction to say, that

have uniformly experienced the greatest attention

to

my

inquiries,

and every good

feeling for the pro-

motion of the object in view.

Having done

all

that was in

my power

to ren-

der the translation correct, I have added a rapid,

but correct outline of the rise and progress of

British
ts use
art,

which

trust will

not

be without

upon the public mind, together with ob-

DEDICATION.
servations on the

methods and materials generally

English school, and the English

employed

in the

theory of colouring exemplified by a chromatic

scale.

In doing
is

this,

was actuated by that love

of art which

natural to me, to give a clear view

of its true position,

to

at the same time pointing out

it

whom, and

to

what circumstances

owes

its

present condition.

Permit
the Royal
for

me now, Mr.

President and Gentlemen of

offer

Academy, to

you

my

best thanks
first

the kindly feeling with which you

to this work,

excited

my attention

and which has continued

steadily to its completion.

With

feelings of the highest respect, I

am,

Mr. President and Gentlemen,

Your most

obliged and obedient servant,

W.

B. Sarsfield Taylor.

a3

REPORT
INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.

The

following pages, by

way of

preface, are ex-

tracts from the report

made

to the

Academy

of

Fine Arts

in Paris,

by M. Quatremere de Quincy,

the Chairman of the Commission selected by the

lloyal Institute of France, to
script

examine the manuthis very important

work of M. Merimee, on
and to report thereon.

subject,

They

will

be found

very satisfactory, coming as they do from

science and learning,

men

of

who were eminently

qualified
lite-

to give a just decision

upon the merits of any

raiy or scientific production.

THE REPORT.
"

The Commission whom you have

A 4

selected to

examine the manuscript work of M. Merimee, en-

VIU

EEPORT OF THE
'

titled,

On Painting in Oil,

being an account of the

various methods and materials

made use

of by the

professors of that art, from the time of

Hubert and

John Van Eyck, down

to the present day,"

have

the honour to present to you the result of their

observations and their opinions upon this work.

"

The precepts which the author has

collected,

extended, and developed, with the judicious advice

he has

offered, are not so

much

intended to teach

this art, as to lay before the artist, the proper

rials for painting,

mate-

and how to make pictures durable.

principal object has been to collect

and

carefully
oil

describe the numerous processes used in

ing,
*'

paint-

from

its earliest

appearance to our own time.

The

result of this investigation

shows that the

older masters of the Venetian and Flemish schools,

did not paint as

modems

do, with pm*e oils, but

that they tempered their colours with varnishes; to

which must be attributed the state of preservation

in

which we find their pictures.

"

M. Merimee

describes the

modes

of preparing

the different varnishes that are proper to mix with

the colours, and also those which are to be used

over the picture

when

finished.

He

also

communi-

cates the most exact ideas upon the colouring substances, their preparation, solidity or durableness,

INSTITUTE or FRANCE.
their action,

IX

and

influence

upon each other when

effects of

combined, the changes from the

air, to

Hght and

which they are hable, and hkewise from the

oily

substances with which they

may be

united.

He

also points out the precautions to be taken for

permanently preserving pictures, and the means by

which they can be repaired when injured by time.

He

finishes his

work by a theory of

colouring,

on

the principles of natural harmony,

" The author commences his
setting
it

first

chapter by

down

as an incontrovertible fact, that

Eycli were the inventors of paint-

the brothers ing in

oil
;

Van

and refutes the assertions of Theophilus

and Cennino Cennini on that question.

"

He strongly points out the remarkable fact,

oil,

that

the pictures painted in

Italy, in the fourteenth

both in Germany and

and

fifteenth centuries are in

pai-t

a better state of preservation, than the major

the works which were painted at a
period
;

of

much

later

and particularly those painted

in the last

century.

Hence he

is

of opinion that the process

employed

in the earlier times of this art has

;

been

greatly altered in its descent to us

and that even

the traditionary accounts of this method are very

erroneous.
"

The great

object of the author appears to be,

a5

REPORT OF THE

that of bringing to light the primitive processes of

painting;
earlier

for this purpose

this art,

he has consulted the

works on

and has examined with

of those pictures which
effects of

the greatest care,

many

have most successfully resisted the

time

and exposure

and he

is

decidedly of opinion, that

these works owe their preservation to particular

modes

of combining, in a liquid state, resinous sub;

stances

by the use of which the colours were

in-

defended from the action of causes that have

jured or destroyed pictures of
dates.

much more modern

"

From the commencement

of the art, long before

the discovery of painting in

oil,

the employment of

varnish for the preservation of pictures from the

action of the air was well understood
;

yet

it

is

worthy of remark, that not one of the authors who

wrote upon this subject at that time, mentions a

word

of varnish being incorporated with the co-

lours, except

Armenini, who, in 1587, advised the

oils in

mixing of resinous substances with the

the

colouring materials, and even in the preparation of

the ground.

" M, Merimee has closely examined, and analysed

with great care, paintings of the earliest dates,

and has consulted many of the

ablest restorers of

INSTITUTE OF FRAXCE.
pictures

XI

and hence he

is

strongly of opinion, from

the hardness of the ground, and the brightness of the

pictures, that the colours have not only been incor-

porated with

oil,

but also with varnishes, even of

'

that sort called

to
later works,

hard

varnish."'
all

With

respect

almost

the pictures from the

all

commencement

of the sixteenth century are, as

those of the preceding one, painted on a white

ground composed of chalk and

couch of drying oil the
:

size,

primed with a

artists

began their work with

transparent colours
in this
''scuro,

and when they had completed

effect of ckiaro

way their design and general

they completed their

work with

lighter tints,

applied with
relief

full

pencil,

which gave greater

This was

and consistence to the picture.

the method pursued by the brothers

Van Eyck,

P.

Perugino. L. de Vinci, Raffael, and Fra Bartolomeo.

" Another method was practised by Titian and

Correggio.

They used

to lay in the first paintings

liquids

with

size,

and to use only resinous

and
It is

transparent colours in finishing the picture.

a very remarkable circumstance that the greatest of

the colourists have employed these two opposite
thods, and yet they have

me-

produced similar

results.

"

]\I.

Merimee

is

of opinion that the quantity of

glazing observable in the

works of the Venetian

A 6

XU

REPORT OF THE
is

and Flemish masters

a proof of the employment

;

of varnish in their colours

but he adds, that we

should be well aware of the great disadvantages

which are the results of excessive glazing, or of

its

being unskilfully done

for

we

see

pictures
fresh,

which appear of a
that in a
little

brilliant

character

when

time change and become of a dull

and darker tone.

And

it

is

not a

little

worthy of

observation, that the pictures of Titian, Paul

Ve-

ronese, and Rubens, which are in the best state of

preservation,

are those which they painted upon

distemper grounds.
" After having given a general review of the most
celebrated artists of the schools of Italy and Flanders,

M. Merimee comes
influential

to the

French

school,

which he dates only from the time of Simon Vouet

to

whose

example he attributes the small

advances that the French school has obtained in the

art of colouring.
If,

by

this, it is to

be understood
is

that Vouet had the

first school,

there

proof that a

number of very
It

clever pupils

were formed under him.

also, that

must be admitted, on the other hand

before his time France had

some very

clever artists,

without reckoning those

Italy.

who

settled there

from

If the school of

Vouet did not produce

some

great colourists, there would, perhaps, be

INSTITUTE OF FRANCE.
degree of severity in extending the
effect of

XIU

such a

pretended cause to

all

the succeeding painters in

are

France
will

amongst
title

whom
of

some

to

whom

no one

deny the

good

colourists.

"

M. Merimee

beUeves that he has traced the

deterioration of our pictures to have followed as an

inevitable consequence of the decay of our school.

And
more

adds, that as, since this school has

become

regenerated, the painters have proved themselves

careful, the

colourmen more conscientious and

;

better instructed

we ought,

therefore, to indulge

the hope that

scientific

knowledge, coming to the

assistance of art, will bestow upon our pictures a

more durable

character.

" The second chapter treats of the nature and

properties of the substances used in these compositions
;

and
'

after

some

inquiries into the nature

of the

Atramentum,"' or varnish of Apelles, the

author takes a general view of the resinous and

bituminous substances of which varnishes are composed, and also points out the different sorts of
oil

employed

in painting

but

it is

in the preparation

of the varnishes that

we

find

a great number of

new and we
"

valuable ideas, for the discovery of which

are indebted to the author.

The fourth chapter, which

12

in itself forms a con-

XIV

REPORT OF THE

siderable part of the work, relates to the preparation of colours,

and belongs properly to what may

;

be termed the chemistry of painting

and we can

bear ample testimony to the extensive and accurate

knowledge of M. Merimee, who

it

is

evident

has selected with judgment from amongst a heap

of preparations and receipts, those which he found

approach nearest to the simplicity of nature.

it

For

is

a remarkable

fact, that

the most permanent

class of colours, are those

which have been the

slowest of creation in nature's laboratory.

" The

fifth

chapter treats of the preparations of

is

the grounds for panels, cloths, and walls. This

of the

one

most

useful parts
all

and the methods pointed

out by the author,

tend to the preservation of

the colours, and the durability of the pictures.

" The sixth chapter treats of the best method of

preserving pictures, and describes the various injurious

modes
it is

in use,

for the

purpose of giving

them as

pretended a new existence.

is

" The seventh chapter

colours, as applied to the

entitled

'

a theory of
colouring.'

harmony of

After having clearly established this theory, which

is

founded upon the natural properties of colours,

the author proceeds to develop the principles of

harmony as

applicable

to

painting,

and

in

so

INSTITUTE OF FRAXCE.

XV

doing he places them upon their natural relations

to each other.
zation,

This part

is

not capable of analy-

and detached extracts would only convey to

it

the mind ideas of

"

that must be very imperfect.

To

these the author has added a chapter on

fresco, which,

though not mentioned

in

the
;

title

of

the work,

is

yet one of great usefulness

it

whether

we regard

in reference to the

employment of

this process of late years, or as to its great im-

portance during several ages, concurrently with

the art of painting in
oil.

" Entrusted with the duty of rendering a faithful

account of this work, the

Commission

are

of

opinion, that they have carefully pointed out the

great utility and advantages, that must result to

the art of painting from
its

publication.

"

The Academy approves

of the opinions con-

tained in the report, and have directed that a copy

of
it

be laid before the Minister of the

Home

Department."
(Signed,)

Quatremebe de Quincy,
to

(Permanent ) Secretary

the Institute of France.

THE

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

The pictures
are

of

Hubert and John Van Eyck, with

others of the same period, but by different artists,

now

in a better state of preservation than the

greater

number

of those painted in the last cen-

tury

the processes used in their execution, having

only been transmitted

it is
;

down by

tradition,

have not,
perfectly

very probable, reached our

time

pure

and

it

is

reasonable to suppose that those

pictures, that even

now

surprise us by their bril-

liancy after a lapse of three centuries, have not

been painted with the same combination of materials,

as those which

we

see evidently impaired,

though not painted one-fourth part of that period.

If
it

were possible to discover a manuscript of

the preparation and application

Van Eyck upon

of colours, there can be no doubt that the an-

THE AUTHOR
nouncement of
it

PREFACE.
a

XVll

would create

considerable

degree of eagerness to possess such a treasure,

especially

amongst those who

cultivate the art of

painting

this hypothesis does not appear likely

;

to be realized

but might we not gain the same

fortunate enough to discover

object

if

we should be

those primitive processes, and modes of painting,

by
that

consulting
art,

carefully

the earlier

treatises

on
of

and by

an

attentive

examination

those ancient paintings, which have best resisted

the numerous causes of decay to which such works

are liable
It
?

appeared to

me

quite possible that this object

could be attained, and I therefore determined to

undertake those researches of which this essay

the result.
If I

is

have not performed

all

that I

wished, or that

may be

achieved

still

it will

be

admitted that a commencement has been made,

and that

have traced out a way in which others

greater chances of success.

may succeed with

When

a pupil of the French school has attained

that degree of experience, which gives

him a

fair

chance of gaining the

painting, there can be
to

first prize

in the class of

no doubt of

his capability

make a copy from any

picture of his master.

first-rate pic-

Let him then be directed to copy a

ture of the Flemish or Venetian schools, and I

am

XVIU

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE.

quite sure he will encounter difficulties which he

will

be unable to surmount, should he not have

been made acquainted with the process used by

the colourist

whom

he wishes to imitate; but

if

if

these processes have been shown to him, and

he

have been taught the process for increasing the

liancy

bril-

and transparency of

his colour,

and how to

preserve those fine qualities, or to recover

them

after

he

may have

lost

them

a practical knowledge of

those methods
painter,

may soon

be acquired by a young

whose eye and hand have already attained

to a high degree of correctness and facility ; with

such instruction he

may

then set about to copy a

picture of Rubens, Rembrandt, Titian, and

Van-

dyke, without experiencing any greater

difficulties,

than he would find in copying a work of his own

master.

Every
in

painter, in the course of his studies, feels

gi'eater or less degree,

desirous of knowing

the nature and fitness of the colours he employs,

and there are few books that can give him much
satisfaction in these respects
;

and the Encyclo-

pedie^ a

work which ought

to be the

most

re-

plete with instruction, is that

which contains the

greatest

number

of errors.

Watin''s book, published in 1772, contains

instruction
;

much

this work, which, considering the time

THE AUTHOR
it

PREFACE.

XIX

was written, has a good deal of merit, has had

a great circulation, and has gone through several

editions;

and as nothing better appeared,

it

was

reprinted a few years ago.

M.

Tingry, a Genevese professor of chemistry,

has wTitten a work in two volumes on the same

subject, published in 1803.

The author was too

a mere work-

well informed to confine himself \vithin the limits

which would have been

sufficient for

man

he undertook with the aid of his

own branch
:

of science, to explain the theory also

this

work

would have been the best that could have been

produced at that time,
formation
if

he had united to the

that

in-

he

possessed,

knowledge

which

practice only can bestow.

his book,

If instead of enlarging

by borrowing from others what appeared

to agree with his

own

theoiy, he

had confined him-

self to describing the

experiments which he had

made and

repeated, his book would have possessed

higher value.

But

at

all

times, the

work of Tingry

upon the preparation and use of colours and varnishes, is

one of those that may be consulted with

the greatest advantage.

The two works

just cited,

are only intended for decorative painting, but there

are two others, composed particularly for artists

the

first

was published at Rome,

in 1813,

by M.
life,

Marcucci,

who had

studied painting early in

XX

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE.

when, being compelled by circumstances to take

a situation

in

pharmacy,

he preserved
;

in

this

situation his first affection for art

and to console
all

himself for his disappointment, he collected

that

he could
be useful

in chemistry, of
to,

what he conceived would

or likely to promote, the advancement

of the art.

The work

of
;

M. Marcucci
the
first

is

divided into

two

principal parts

contains the methods of

;

preparing the different materials used in painting

the other treats of the various methods used in the

schools of Florence, Venice, and Flanders, in their

most

flourishing times.

To

these are added, the

notes of a celebrated restorer of pictures at

Originally led
I

Rome.

away by the

title
it,

of the work,

had intended to have translated

additions to
it

and to have
I

made

it

where necessary, but

gave

it

up, as I found

would be requisite to recast the

part
;

whole of the

first

yet being the

it

work of one

acquainted with chemistry,

should have pos-

sessed more useful instruction.

Doubtless the author has not thought

to bestow
all

it

requisite

the care upon

it

of which he

was

capable.

He

contented himself with choosing,

among
most

divers works, the processes which he thought

likely to succeed,

but without trying them

himself, as he ought to have done.

He may

have

THE AUTHOR
supposed, that in large
reside, their
this

PREFACE.

XXI

cities,

where great painters

:

wants are easily supplied by commerce

;

may

be true so far

but

it

happens somereside unavoid-

times that an eminent painter

may

ably in a place where such resources are not to be

found

would

it

not then be of importance that he

should have the power of preparing or directing the

preparation of whatever his works

may require
the best
:

The second

part of the

work

is

it

con-

tains observations that are highly interesting,

upon

the operations of the old masters.

rightly judged that
sult
it

M. Marcucci
knowledge
in

would be most proper to con-

on

this subject a person of great

the art of restoring pictures.

In

fact, it is

by the
of

process of restoring, that discoveries are

the various
particular

made

methods of the

schools, as well as the

met hod of each master.

is

The second work

that of

M.

Bouvier, himself

a painter, and member of the Society of Arts at

Geneva.
the
title

He
of "

published

it

three years since, under

Artists and

Manual

for

Young

Ama-

teurs in Painting.""

In this work, which

is

the fruit of long expe-

rience, the author does not treat of the nature of

colours and their preparation, but merely the effects

that are produced in the employment of them.

In treating of the practical method to be used

in

XXU

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE.

the various stages of painting, he goes into details

that would appear superfluous to those who, being

placed under the instructions of a
skilfiil

master,

are therefore acquainted with the various means and

resources of art

but

it is

chiefly

arranged for the

cities,

use of persons living at a distance from large

in

which are to be found the best methods of instruc-

tion,

and every material necessary in the exercise of

the art.

Even persons who enjoy

situations the

most favom-able
the Manual of

for their instruction, will find in

M. Bouvier some

things of which

they were ignorant, and the knowledge of which

will

be of advantage, relating to the

effects of cer-

tain colours,

and the precautions

requisite to be

taken in their preparation and emplojinent.

The

artists for

a long period either prepared the

colours themselves, or else had

them prepared under

and

their immediate inspection, as well as the oils

varnishes which they used.

This was the business

of their agree-

of the pupils at the

commencement

ment, so that, before they began to handle the

pencil, they

had acquired a knowledge of

all

that

was most proper

after times this

to give pictures durability.

In

became changed, and the prepara-

tion of the materials

became

exclusively the busi-

ness of traders,
their

who had a

stronger feeling towards

own immediate

profit,

than any regard to the

THE AUTHOR
preservation
of
pictures.

PREFACE.

XXlll

The

artists then,

no

longer learning the nature of their colours, were in-

competent to detect fraud, or distinguish the good

from the

inferior sort,

and therefore used such as

came

to their hand,

and even some preferred those

prices.

which were sold at the lowest

To such

causes

may be ascribed

the rapid change

that has taken place in the greater part of the pictures of the last century
;

but as

it

happened

in

that time that our (the French) school had reached

the lowest point in

its decline, this

would not be a
if

subject of regret to the admirers of art,

of

the works

Boucher and some other able men had not ap-

peared at the close of that age.

In proportion as the school has regenerated
the artists have become more careful
business
lucrative
:

itself,

and the

of preparing

colours

has

become very

the

number

of establishments has in-

creased,

and some of the proprietors have a know-

ledge of chemistry, and those

who are not acquainted

with that science are so convinced of the advantages

it

bestows, that they educate in

it

those of their

children

who

are to succeed

them

in their business

so that in the next generation there will not be a

colour-maker of respectability, who shall not possess

a knowledge of chemistry equal to those who prepare our medicine.

XXIV

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE.

The

principal object of this essay being to

oil

show

the various methods of painting in

which have

been in use from the time of

Van Eyck, down

what has thus

to these days, a full description of

been collected
of the

should

form the

commencement
I

work

and from these researches

have

arrived at this conclusion, namely, that the

most

ancient painters

of

the

Venetian and Flemish

do, with pure oils, but

schools did not paint, as

we

that they tempered their colour also with varnish,

and to

this is to

be attributed the great preserva-

tion of their pictures.

I intend, then, to describe the

methods of prepareither
for

ing different kinds of varnish,

mixing

with colours, or merely for covering pictures

finished, to

when

give clearness
it

and brightness to the

against the action of

work, as well as to defend

such substances as would injure the colours.

In
like

manner,

intend to lay before the reader

the most correct information that I have been able

to obtain
relative

to

the colours

used by the
of these

painters

the preparation and soUdity

their action

colours

upon each other when mixed

degrees;

together in various

the alterations to

which they are

air,

liable

from the action of light and

as well as from the oily substances with

which

they are combined.

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE.

XXV

Finally, I shall point out the precautions that

should be taken for the preservation of pictures, as

well as the

means to be employed

in repairing the

injuries to which they are liable.

It

would perhaps be expected, that having de-

scribed the processes of the ancient painters, I

should point out those to which

preference, but this
is

would give the

not a part of

my

duty.

The
the

modes of

operation depend very

facility

much upon
which the

greater or less degree of

artist

may
his

possess

Rembrandt was obliged to return

;

to

work repeatedly
it all

he had not the power of

like

painting

up at once

Rubens

therefore

each must choose that method of operating which

is

most convenient and agreeable to

himself.

am

bound to give an account of what has been

done, but not to lay

of others.
I

down

rules for the guidance

all

was of opinion

along,

that at

the close of a work the special object of which

relates to the preparation

and use of

colours, I

should be enabled to explain the theory of colours

as applicable to the

harmony of colouring.

With-

out an harmonious arrangement,

brightness and

transparency of colour cannot produce an agreeable

combination to the eye.

This most interesting part

of painting, has hitherto been treated in a

manner
only

altogether

empirical.

conceive

that

the

XXVI

THE AUTHOR
its

PREFACE,
is

way by which
to found

principles can be comprehended,

them upon the natural laws

of colours.

Many persons who had been

I

apprised of the work

had

in progress, having requested

me

to add to

it

some instructions in fresco paintinp^lat first declined

to do so,

on the ground that

it

I
:

was not

sufficiently

acquainted with

practically

but afterwards, upon

a careful examination of the ancient frescos, and

having attentively consulted the best works which

describe the processes, I found out the chief cause

why

the frescos of later times have more the ap-

pearance of distemper painting, than resemblance

to the fine frescos of older times
I
;

consequently,

have determined to devote a few pages to that

species of painting, hoping that they will not be

without
'

utility in

the arts.^
I

It

was not until the moment when

had made
but

my

prepara-

tions for printing this essay, that I

was

told of the
;

work which
occupations

M,

P. de Montahert was about to publish

my

did not allow

me

sufficient leisure to
I

read the whole of that

Traite complet de la Peinture.

have only been able to take a

I

cursory view of those parts which relate to subjects of which

have specially treated

in finding that
first

and

have experienced great satisfaction

we have adopted similar views on points of the importance. M. de Montahert is of the same opinion with

me, namely, that the preservation of the pictures by

others

who

followed his method,

;

is

owing

to the

Van Eyck, and employment of

varnish in the painting

and we also agree in thinking that " har-

mony" ought
I
it

to

have

for its foundation the natural laws of colouring.

consider this opinion as important in aid of mine, coming as

does from an artist

who has

so deeply

examined into every

principle of his art.

INTRODUCTION.

The

translation of
I

M. Merimee's
was

" History of Oil

Painting," which

have now the honour to lay beoriginally suggested to

artists,

fore the British public,

me

by some very distinguished

members

of

the Royal Academy \ These gentlemen were themselves well acquainted with that treatise,

and de-

scribed

it

to be, as a practical work, of great vahu^

in the arts.

The
in

partiality

which

this account of the

book excited

me was

further corroborated by

the President, and several other members of the

Academy, who had the volume

in their possession.

Finally, having determined to undertake the translation of

it,

I
;

applied to the Royal

Academy
them
in

for

their sanction

and

received permission from

it

these gentlemen to dedicate

to

their

'

Sir Augustus Wall Callcott, Sir

David Wilkie, Mr.

Etty,

Mr.

Mulready, Mr. Hilton, Mr. Phillips, and Mr. Cooper.

a 2

XXVm

INTRODUCTION.

public and collective capacity.

Having obtained the

opinion and sanction of such competent judges of

its

merits, I no longer hesitated to

commence the

translation of the

work

which, after

many

inter-

ruptions from other engagements, I have at length

completed.

Had

that

work been

originally
it
;

my

own, I would
it is

not have said

of another, I

much about
that

but as

the work

may be permitted
it

to state in

commen-

dation of

it,

has, in its original language,

received the approbation of one of the most learned

and

scientific

societies in
;

Europe,

mean

the

Royal Institute of France

and to the Report of

the committee of that learned body, I beg leave to

refer

my

readers.
therefore,

That M. Merimee,

was

fully

compe-

tent to produce, and has produced, a

useful to the arts, there cannot

work highly

now be any doubt

and experience

and to have done

this,

it

required that he should

possess, not only considerable skill

as a painter, and accurate historical knowledge, but

also extensive experience as a practical chemist.

These various

qualities
;

M. Merimee

possessed in

an eminent degree

and therefore he was peculiarly had

well qualified for the difficult task which he

undertaken.

INTRODCCTION.

XXIX

Independently of the instructions conveyed to

painters, his advice will be found,

we

think, emi-

nently useful to those noblemen

and gentlemen
will

who, having valuable collections of pictures,

thus be enabled to superintend the restoration of

them

or at least
will

the possessors of these fine

works

be placed more on their guard against

the practices of ignorant picture-cleaners,

so

who do

much

mischief to the noblest works of art.

artifices of the inferior sort of co-

Against the

lourmen, he also gives some excellent advice, and

shows us that a great number of good pictures

have suffered nmcli, others have been ruined, by
the employment of materials
lent

made up

in a fraudu-

manner.
receipts for manufacturing the colours, oils,

The

and varnishes, of the purest and best kinds, at a

moderate expense,
artists
will

be found very valuable, not to

and amateurs

only, but also to the colounnen.

That section describing the proper methods of

preparing panels, canvases, and walls,
is,

perhaps,

amongst the most valuable

in the

whole work, as

every artist knows that the preservation or destruction of his colouring

depends mainly upon the prelaid.

paration upon which the materials are

The chapter on

colouring, and on the

harmony

a 3

XXX
of colours,
It lays
is

INTRODUCTION.
one of very high interest to
principles of harmony,
colourists*

down the

and explains

the causes of discords in painting, with accuracy so

far as those principles are
ai'tists.

known amongst French

With

us these are not new, but are

corroborative of the principles deduced long since

in this country,

from the experiments of Newton

rise

on

light,

which gave

to the first chromatic

;

scale, as applicable to painting

which scale was

composed by Moses Hairis,

will

in 1776, as our readers

see

in the " Original

Observations,"" at the

close of this

work

so that

we had the precedence

and yet
it

in that respect
is

by above

fifty-four years,

curious that Harris''s chromatic scale, which was

published at the time specified, in his " Natural

System of

Colours,""

seems to have been very

little

known
lished

in
it
;

London, the very place where he pub-

and

it

was almost
introduced

forgotten, until
it

Mr.

Phillips,

R.A.,
at

in

his

course of

lectures

the

Royal Academy,

about twelve

years ago.

The reasons

given in explanation of
in colouring are

what are the causes of harmony

more profound and

philosophic in the

work of Mr.
their

Harris than in that of

M. Merimee, although
"

general principles agree.

The information on

Frescos"'"' is

altogether

new

INTRODUCTION.
in this country,

XXXI

and

is

likely to
if

prove an acquisition

to our artists in time,

the nobility and

men
It
is

of

fortune, or the directors of public works,

demand
a

that

it

shall

be can-ied into operation.

splendid art,
situations
;

when properly executed

in this climate it

in suitable

and

would have a very

fine effect, if

employed for interior decoration.

With
at the

respect to the " Original Observations,"'^

close

of the volume,

they arose in the

Author's mind long since, in consequence of the

scarcity of sound information,

which

still

exists in

English society, with respect to a general and correct view of the rise, progress,

and condition of

the arts in England.

An

historical sketch is therefore

submitted to the

public in a chronological form, as the best calculated

to give

a clear and consecutive view of the whole

question of the arts, from the earliest records in

England.
the art
ralized

It will thus

be seen at a glance, that

of painting has not been decidedly natuin this

country for a longer period than

;

seventy or eighty years

we

shall

then find that

the honours and profits of this profession were, with

a very few exceptions, exclusively

foreigners, the

in the

hands of
returned

greater

j)ai't

of

whom

home when they had

realized

some property, and

XXXll

INTUODUCTION.

then sent over other parties to supply the deniaiul

for pictures
;

but no attempt had been made to

estabhsh a school to instruct the natives, nor were

the latter properly encouraged, even when some of

them
It

did display good talents.

is

therefore quite evident, that om* native

school of arts did not commence until the time of

Hogarth, Hudson, and Reynolds, but

it

was not

properly established until the chartered society of

native artists

commenced

their living
;

model school
only

in St. Martin's Lane,

1760

and

it

became

permanent when the Royal Academy was embodied

by George HI.,

in

1768,

(seventy years;)
it

and

during that brief period we should think

would

be

difficult,

if

not quite impossible, to point out

any school of painting which has advanced more

rapidly
lect,

in

improvement

we should

also

recol-

that whatever encouragement our school

is

may

have received,
nobility
all,

from the private funds of the

this

and gentry of

country, and not at

as in the continental schools, from the State

treasur\% as a remuneration for great works ex-

ecuted for the public

edifices.

Besides,

it

should be
full

recollected, that the schools of Italy

were

two

Jiundred years (1260 to 1480) in activity, before

they displayed works

much above mediocrity, though

INTRODUCTION.
assisted

XXXlll

by every sort of encouragement, public and that the highest honours were at

and

private,

that time conferred upon the professors of the arts.

The northern schools

in arriving at the

of

Europe were

still

slower

power of producing such splendid

works, as Rubens, Vandyke, and Rembrandt have

left

us.

It

is

clear,

therefore, that the cases of

all parallel
;

those schools, and of ours, are not at

they are by no means analogous to each other

and

therefore the reasoning applicable to one class can-

not have the slightest application to the other.

And
to

it

was from the erroneous

idea, that

these

cases were parallel, that false reasoning was applied

them, and consequently the most

erroneous

opinions were held, and injurious reflections were

freely

thrown, not only upon the British School of

Art, but even upon the intellectual capabilities of

the nation.^

The

object of the writer of this essay being solely

to lay before the British public a plain historic

sketch, supported by a few strong facts, to

show

the state of neglect with which the English artists

Banks and Flaxnian have shown what British talent can do so Iiave Rossi and many others now no more. And we have at present some of the ablest sculptors in Europe, native^

in sculpture

bred

artists.

XXXIV

INTRODUCTION.
in their

had contended so long

thereby to
distorted

native land, and

disabuse the

general

mind,

of the
float

and erroneous notions which

still

indistinctly

through society on that subject, to the

detriment of native talent, he

called

now

feels himself

on to

state, that his

arguments have no-

thing whatever to do with the foreign artists of

the present time.

previous ages
ai-e

The

facts regarding those

of

stated merely to prove that there

was a bad and unnatural system pursued generally

by the English governments of those days,
the foreign artists were not accountable
for
;

which

and to

show that, whilst every other govermnent

was

in

Europe

justly emulous to elicit the native talents of

their people, our

monarchs and statesmen, with the

exceptions stated, were acting directly contrary to

those rational purposes.

At

present, however, these matters are greatly

:

altered for the better

there

is

evidently a good

deal of encouragement for pictures,

and other works

;

of art, not, to be sure, of the highest class of art

but in the classes that are encouraged there

is,

in
:

general, much, very often high, talent displayed

and

if

our school

may have got the

may

character of

being more of the ornamental, than of the historic, or epic style, this

well be accounted for,

INTRODFCTION.

XXXV
is

when we

see

how

very small the encouragement

for works of the higher classes of poetic or historic

art.

In Queen Anne's reign there were three good

native artists,

the

two Olivers and Cooper

in

Queen

Victoria's reign there are

artists,

most probably
can paint well
talent

three thousand

most of

whom

many
this

of

them are men of very superior

must prove, that

so soon as the incubus of

neglect or contempt was removed from the native

arts, these intellectual pursuits

soon sprang into

a vigorous

existence. colouring, with the chromatic

oui*

The chapter on
scale,

was quite indispensable to show

prior

claim to the discovery of the diagi-am, which so

clearly points out the inseparable connexion

between

the prismatic colours of the divided rays of light,

and the harmony of colouring as applied to

pictures.

In concluding this introduction to the work, the

author cannot omit the opportunity of gratefully

acknowledging the kind attention of those members

of the Royal Academy, and of the profession generally,

who have encouraged him

in this

somewhat

arduous task, which, from

cal character, required

its scientific

and techniIn com-

repeated revision.

mitting the result of his labours to the public, he

XXXVl

INTRODUCTION.
it

trusts

will

be found that the work has been

fidelity.

executed with

In performing the duty of an historian, he has

selected his facts from the

most authentic materials

in

and having no other object

view but the substi-

tution of just ideas for those obscure and erroneous

notions which

still

exist

amongst

us, to the prejudice

of our School of Arts, he cannot suppose he has

given cause for any ungracious reflections

but

in

the pursuit of truth he would not think of averting

the unjust sentence of the

liating favour at the

illiberal,

or of conci-

expense of justice.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
An

I.

PAGE.
Inquiry into the various methods employed in Oil Paint-

ing,

from the days of Hubert and John Van Eyck

;

to the
I

present time

with original observations,

&c

CHAPTER
On
varnishes

II.

4)

SECTION
Of

I.

the different substances which enter into the composition

of the varnishes

45

THE BITUMENS.
Asphaltum, or Bitumen
40
;//.

Amber

XXXVni

CONTENTS.

THE RESINOUS SUBSTANCES.

PAGE.

Gum animee Gum copal Gum lac Gum mastic Gum sandarach

48
ih.

50
51
ib.

THE
Fixed or solid
Linseed
oil

OILS.

oils

52

53
54
ib.

Nut oil Poppy oil Method of preparing drying

oil

65

VOLATILE, OR ESSENTIAL OILS.

Essence (or
Oil of spike
Oil of rosemary

spirit)

of turpentine

58
59
ib.

Petrolium, rock

oil,

or naphtha

ib.

SECTION

II.

METHODS OF PREPARING VARNISHES PROPER FOR PAINTING.

Italian varnish

61

Flanders varnish
English varnish
Oil copal varnish

03
CO"
ib.

Picture varnish

80

CONTENTS.

XXXIX

CHAPTER
On
tlie

III.
PAGE.

use of varnish with the colours

84

SECTION
On
glazing

I.

8(i

SECTION
Effects of air

II.

and

light

upon

oils

and resinous substances.

...

90

SECTION
The

III.

causes of pictures becoming cracked, and the methods

of preventing that evil

92

CHAPTER

IV.

ON THE PREPARATION OF COLOURS.

YELLOWS.
Chromate of lead
Mineral
x'ellow, chloride of lead

94

96
99
103
ib-

Naples

j'ellow

Iodide of lead

The

ochres

Orpiment
Sulphuret of

106

Cadmium

107 108

Gamboge
Indian yellow

109
'i-

The yellow lakes

b2

xl

CONTENTS.
THE ORANGE COLOURS,
I'AGi;,

Orange chromate of

lead (sah-chromate of lead)

110
ib.

Massicot (protoxide of lead)

Minium Red orpiment

(rea/^r)

112

THE REDS.
Carmine
Cinnabar, or vermilion
Periodide of mercury

112
117

120
122
. ,

Lake Methods of preparing lake Brown Pink Madder lake

126
1

29

130
138

Observations on the foregoing substances

THE VARIOUS QUALITIES OF MADDER LAKE, AND THE SELECTION OF WATER FOR THE OPERATIONS.
The
violet-coloured substances, and the efTect of acidulated
14-1

water

140
1

The

precipitation of lake

48

Adulteration of madder lake

Method of detecting the fraud

150

The red oxides

of iron

PURPLE COLOURS.
Cassius purple
151

Tritoxide of iron {purple oxide of iron)

152

THE BLUES.
Cobalt blue {arserdate and phosphate of cobalt and alumine)

153

Egyptian

blue, used in ancient times

155

CONTENTS.

Xli

PACK.

Blue ashes
Prussian blue
.

58

Ultramarine

1G2

THE GREENS.
Malachite and mountain green
,

170
171

Oxide of chrome

Green earth

(terra verte)

173 175 170 179

Verdigris crystallized {acetate of copper)

Scheele's green

Vienna or Brunswick green

BROWNS.
Asphaltum, or bitumen
181

Brown from Prussian blue Brown pink Raw umber

Cassel and Cologne earths

183
185
1

8C

187

BLACKS.
Ivory black

187

Bone black
Charcoal

188
ib. ib. ib.

Liege
Coffee

Lamp
1

189
ib.

ndian ink

WHITES.
Ceruse
Flake white

201
ib.

Krems white

205
212

A method

of restoring to the original whiteness the lights

touched with white lead on ancient drawings

xlii

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
Oil the preparing and

V.
PAGE.

priming of panels, canvasses, and

214

walls

Priming on

taffety

222
ib.

On An

priming walls
expeditious method of laying in a dead colour upon dis-

temper ground

224

CHAPTER
On
the preservation of pictures and

VI.

the methods used for

restoring them

227

CHAPTER
A A

VII.

theory of the principles of harmony in colouring

theory of colouring, applied to the harmony of colours in
painting, with a chromatic scale

242
245

CHAPTER
On
fresco painting

VIII.

271

The

colours and other materials proper to be employed in this

branch of the art

279

CONTENTS.

xliii

SUPPLEMENT.

CHAPTER
SECTION
Introduction
I.

I.

VAUE.
291

Observations on the English School of Painting

293

SECTION
of painting

II.

Observations on the metliods employed in the English school

331
Sir J. Reynolds's notes,

&c

336

CHAPTER
cliromatic scale

II.

English theory of colouring, considered practically

Lectures at the lloyal

with

349

Academy

351

CONCLUSION.
A
plan for encouraging the cultivation of the grand style of

painting in England
List of
still

362
ib.

noblemen and gentlemen who have encouraged, and

patronize, the Arts

Architectural Society
Institute of Architecture

368
ib. ib.

School of Design

Art Union Society

Account of premiums, lectures, &c. at the lloyal Academy.,

369
ib.

xliv

CONTENTS.
PAGE.

Drawing The The The Mr.

Academies

Antique Scliool
Living Model School
Painting School
Sass's
:

3G9
ib.

ib.
:Y}(\

Exhibitions

Royal Academy
British Institution
Artists' Gallery

IJ?

ib. ib.
:

Water Colour Painting The old new

Societies

ib.
ib.

ERRATA.
Page 34, line 21, /or che si fania, read che si faccla. Page 81, lines 8 and 9, for parts read drachms. Page 182, line 5, &c.for grains read drachms.

THE ART

PAINTING IN

OIL,

CHAPTER
AN"

I.

ENQUIRY INTO, AND OBSERVATIONS UPON, THE

VARIOUS METHODS USED IN OIL PAINTING, FROM

THE DAYS OF HUBERT AND JOHN VAN EYCK TO THE PRESENT TIME.

For

a long series of years

it

has been the general

original dis-

opinion, that

John Van Eyck was the

oil.

coverer of painting in

Some

learned

men

have,

however, maintained that this art was practise*!

long before the era in which that painter
lived.

But

supposing that they could demonstrate the truth of

their assertions,
still

we are not bound

to conclude
at-

Van Eyck had any knowledge of whatever tempts may have been made in that way before
that
B

his

2
time

THE ART
;

01'"

and he cannot be deprived of the merit

this,

attached to a discovery hke

the arts.

so important to

One

thing,

however,

is

quite clear

which

is,

that, in the time of

Van

Eyck, the arts had made

oil

such progress, that the discovery of painting in

could not have been

much

longer delayed.
;

This
sur-

event was in some degree inevitable

and

it is

prising that the invention did not take place at the

same time,

in all

those countries where the arts

'.

were successfully cultivated

'

At

that period the

For some time previous

to the fifteenth century,* almost every

colour

now

in use was
;

known.

Painting on glass was practised

to

with great success

enamels were fused

be

employed

for

mosaics

and, by the aid of commerce, the artists could and did ob-

tain the Ultramarine, India lake,

and Chinese vermilion

likewise understood
his Treatise

how

to

prepare them.
in 1437,

and they Cennino Cennini, in

;

on Painting, publislied

describes a process
;

by which the ultramarine was extracted from lapis lazuli

also

and he mentions the lakes which were extracted from the resinwere prepared from the shearings of wool
:

lacs, or that

and

it

is

from similar shearings of a crimson

tint that the species of lake

was made, the mode of preparing which has been described by

Neri, in his treatise " Del Arte Vetraria."

In

fact, the

varnishes
distilla-

had been
tion
oils

in use for

some centuries
to

and the discovery of

too viscous,

had enabled the chemists

with which the varnishes,
as liquid as

produce the volatile or essential

when

might be diluted,

and rendered

might be required.
painting was erroneously attributed

In 1781, Dr. Raspe published, in London, a dissertation to

prove that the discovery of

*

oil

The celebrated Cinque

Cento.

I'AIXTING IN OIL.

artists all painted in distemper,

or,

as

it

is

comafter-

monly termed, " body colours

to the brothers,

;"

and they

Hubert and John Van Eyck.

This work, which appears
to

In support of his

opinion, the author produced an unedited Latin MS., entitled

De Arte

Phigendi.
a

have been written

by Theophilus,

monk, towards the

close of the tenth, or

com-

mencement

of the eleventh ceniury, Dr. Ilaspe brought forward,

as proving incontestably that, from a very remote jjcriod, pictures

were painted
attention
;

in oil.

have read that treatise with the greatest

and, so far from discovering any proofs to support the

I

learned Doctor's opinion,

that idea, as

have found quite enough

to

refute

we

shall see presently.

Theophilus has accurately described a method of making linseed

oil,

and

also a species of varnish

composed

of this oil and of a re-

sinous gum, which appears to have been copal.

He

then points

out the manner in which walls, wood-work, and even statues,

ought
oil

to be painted

but he does not any where give advice

to

apply

painting

to pictures.

And

further, in refutation

of Dr. Raspe,

we

find that Tlieopliilus directs the house-painters by

first

no means

to
;

lay on a second couch of colour until the

is

completely dry

and he adds this remarkable passage, that such a method would he loo slow and loo laborious for painting pictures. {Quod in imaginibm
diuiurnum
et

t<ediosum niviium

est.)

Had

Dr. Raspe been acquainted with the manuscript written by

Cennino Cennini, which was published a few years ago, he, no

doubt, would have produced, as undeniable evidence, some passages
in the eighty-ninth

and some following chapters, in which the

oil

author treats particularly on the methods of painting in

walls

upon

and

u'oodcn panels; a practice

which he assures us was very

i

mucli practised in

Germany

{che

Vusu7io molto

Tcdeschi).

Yet

these passages of the

work do not
oil

afford any better proofs than

those in the treatise by Theophilus: for

we know

that the brothers

to 1437,

Van Eyck

painted in

more than ten years previous

in 142<, leaving, in

the year in wliich Cennini finished his treatise.

Hubert Van Eyck died

the pictures in
oil,

an unfinished

state,

chapel in the Church of

which he had been engaged to paint for a St. John, at Ghent. These pictures were

B 2

THE ART OF

wards coated their pictures with varnish, which

communicated a transparency and brightness to

the colours, defending them, at the same time,
against the injurious action of the atmosphere.

The

idea of mixing

the

colours,

in

the

first

instance, with varnish,

is sufficiently

obvious, not to
;

have suggested

itself to

the

human mind

and

it is

not unlikely that some artists had already attempted

completely finished by his brother in 1432.
representing "
tion of the
It
is

One

of these works,

The Lamb"

in the

Apocalypse, was in the collec-

Louvre, previous to 1815.

impossible but that Cennini must have heard a report of

oil

pictures being painted in

by the Flemish

probability, he confounded with the

all

artists, whom, in all Germans hence, not being at

:

acquainted with that process as used for pictures, but merely

process employed in house-painting and decorating,

the

he de-

scribes that

method of using

it

exactly as Theophilus had done

it

several centuries before his time, and as

was practised in

his

day
half

to

paint walls, wood-work, and casts, or other objects of

sculpture.
its

He

directs that the linseed oil should be reduced to

quantity by boiling, or by exposure for a sufficient time to

It
is

the heat of the sun.

with this viscous

;

oil

only that he

directs the colours to be tempered

but he does not give us any

idea

how

the colours might be rendered more liquid, or

how

to

facilitate the

drying of the slow dryers; and he then directs that

the tints should be put into small pots of glazed earthen-ware, in the same

way

as practised for fresco painting.

It is quite

evident

that Cennini could never have had practical knowledge of the

process which he describes

*.

Vide the Journal of Ghent, Messager des Sciences

et

des Arts, in
July,

which several

articles are

inserted,

in

November, 1823,

August, and September, 1824.

PAINTIXG IX
to

OIL.

make

it

available

but many

difficulties

were to
fairly

be surmounted ere a novel method could be

substituted for that of distemper, to which they

were habituated ; the

artists, in fact,

not having the

requisite information or knowledge of the

means

by which

their efforts

might have been

successful.

The

varnish in use at that period was of an oily

;

and very viscous nature

nor did the practitioners

sufficieptly fluid to

know how

to

render

it

mix

well with the colours,

and thereby render them

Be-

equally manageable as they are in distemper.

sides this,

we know that there

is

a great
;

divei'sity

in the action of the oil

on various colours

some of

them, for instance, massicot, white lead, and raw

umber, give a drying quality to the

others, such as lakes, animal charcoal,

oils,

whilst

and bitumieffect.

nous earths, produce quite the contrary

artists of that time,

The

moreover, had not the methods

so as to obviate these difficul-

of preparing the
ties,

oils

and

to cause the drying process to be carried

all

on equally and expeditiously with

the

the colours at

same

time.
it

Van Eyck,
a remedy

appears, was the

;

first

to discover

for these defects

and

if

he may not be

allowed the honour due to an original discoverer,

he cannot be denied the merit of having canied the

B 3

THE ART OF
preparation and use of colours to a degree of perfection

which has never been surpassed, and to

which indeed we have, even now, scarcely arrived,

notwithstanding the great advancement of
scientific

knowledge since that

era.

In

fact, his pictures

are

in a higher state of preservation than the gi'eater

part of those which have been painted two centuries

later

than his time.

Biographers,

who have

transmitted to us some
it

accounts of

Van Eyck,

give

as their opinion that

he was compelled, by necessity, to seek a new method of painting.

It is stated

by these writers,

that the varnish with which he coated his pictures

could only be dried by the solar rays.

They

state

further, that in one of these operations the panel

on which a picture had been painted was

the sun's heat
;

split

by

and that these circumstances detertry

mined the

artist to

some other means, which

losing, in a

would ensure him from the danger of

moment, the

fruits of

a long and laborious study.

this
is

Perhaps the truth of

doubted
;

anecdote

may

be

but one thing

certain,

namely, that

the imperfect nature

of distemper painting was

quite a sufficient motive to cause that artist to

make

the researches which are attributed to him.

This painter possessed the art of imitation

in

PAINTI^TG IN OIL.

very high degree.

ties of

Therefore, to reduce the difficul-

manual labour, and to increase the resources

it

of art, were sufficient incitements,

to inspire
vehicle,

would appear,

him with a

desire of obtaining a

new

by means of which the colours, when dry,

would preserve the transparency and brilliancy which

they possess at the
to the canvass,

moment

of their being applied

and which medium, at the same time,

would allow them to dry so gradually as to give the

artist sufficient

time to comliine his half-tints, and

those insensible gradations of

produce the

effect of

shade which we see in nature, and producing in art

that relief or effect called chiaro
""scuro.

Thus, as

have already observed, the idea of

colour, being
it

incorj)orating the varnish with the

the most simple,

rally,

we may

infer that

would natu-

in

the

first

instance, occur to the

mind of

Van Eyck.

The

object of his researches would

fulfilled
if

have been but imperfectly

his colours
liable to

had been prepared as ours, and, equally

dry
to
in,

had required the aid of a coat of varnish

their clearness

draw out

and

brilliancy.

However probable the foregoing suppositions

may

appear,

it is

not on such a basis that

would

attempt to establish

my

opinion

that

is

founded
oil-

upon the closest possible examination of ancient

B 4

8
pictures.

THE ART OF
This examination, which was undertaken

purposely to discover the primitive modes of painting,

has demonstrated to

me that,

in the pictures of

Van

Eyck, as well as those of the painters who followed

his

method, the colours have not been used simply

oil

with

of a

more or

less

drying quality, but that

;

they were mixed with varnish

of the surprising preservation

which

is

the cause
in so

we witness

many

of the earliest pictures, and which have retained

their brilliancy of tone

much better than

the greater

part of those which were painted in the last century.

Having formed

my

opinion from
I

my own

observation of the ancient pictures,

sought for a

corroboration of

it

in

the works of different authors

I

who have

wTitten on the arts.

have consulted

the treatises of Leonardo da Vinci, Paul Lomazzo,

Vasari, Gerard de Lairesse, and also the two most

ancient wTiters with whose works

we are acquainted,
I

Oennino Cennini and Theophilus.

expected to

have found in the course of these researches a

complete elucidation of the preparations and uses
of colours
;

but

my
I

hopes have not been realized

as I could wish.

Yet

I have not been wholly

disappointed
all

and

shall lay before the reader

I

the testimony which

have been able to collect

on this subject.

PAINTING IN

OIL.

y
invited

We

are told that Julius II.,

to

who had

Leonardo

Rome, and had engaged him

to deco-

rate several walls of the Vatican, had also

the

curiositv to enter the atelier of this great artist

while he was absent.

Here, instead of finding, as

for the work,

he expected, designs and cartons

he

saw only some chemical apparatus and

" This

utensils,

which he undersitood were for the preparing of varnish.

ariist,"" said Julius,

" begins his work

where others
lish artist,

finish."

Mr. T. Sheldrake, an Eng-

quotes this passage in a memoir uTitten

derivable from the employ;

to

show the advantages

ment of varnish

in painting

and he considers

this

as a proof that Leonardo

was

in the constant habit

of mixing varnish with his colours.

There would be
theory,
if

little

difficulty in

proving any
;

we could admit testimony

for the

so vague as this

for the chemical apparatus

which the Pope judged

varnishes, might as
oils,

were intended

making of

well have been used for

rectifying
oil

making drying

or for
it

of tuqientine,

operations which
when the

is

very probable the painters were obliged to engage

in personally at those periods,

fabrication

of the materials requisite for the practice of the art

did not form, as

industry.

in

om* days, a lucrative branch of

B 5

10

THE AKT OF
In his " Traite de Peinture^'' Leonardo da Vinci

makes no mention of the use of

varnisli,

except in
is

cases where the acetate of copper (verdigris)

used.

For he
it

observes, that this colour, beinir a

soluble salt,

would dissolve in water whenever

;

the picture was washed

and that

is

the reason

he gives for covering this particular colour with

varnish the

moment

it

became

dry.

In another place he proposes an unchangeable

varnish for painters, to be composed of

amber and

nut

oil,

or simply of nut

oil

thickened by exposure

to the sun.

In the above extracts there

is

nothing to show

that Leonardo was in the habit of mixing varnish

with his colours

authors,

but one of the most ancient

technically described the process

who has

of painting (Armenini de Faenzd)^ and

who

lived

towards the middle of the sixteenth century, leaves

no doubt as to the use of varnish.

advises that
it

He

strongly

should be mixed not only with the

colours used for glazing, but also in those of the

general painting.

He

says,
is

" After the

dry, then

first

painting

completed and quite

commences the operation of retouching and

;

finishing each part with precision

for this purpose

the finest and best ground colours must be used,

PAINTIKG IN

OIL.

11

being prepared quite fresh, as they are wanted.

For

in this stage of the work,

tints,

it

is

usual to glaze

the flesh

instead of using solid painting with

these parts, which have already received a certain

degree of finishing.

To
it

facilitate the

execution of

the work, that part of

which

is

to be repainted

must be
fine

lightly rubl^ed \\ith the fingers dipped in

oil
;

nut

the work

is

then to be carefully wiped

with

silk

or linen, to take
oil,

away
if

all

that can be thus

removed of the

which,
it

allowed to remain,

would be detrimental, as

has a decided tendency

to give, in time, a yellow tone to the picture.

This

preparation very nnich facilitates the work, in causing the fresh colours to glide freely over the surface,

whereby the most

pleted with caire.

difficult

parts of

it

may be com-

Artists of experience employ

but few colours in this stage of the business ; glazing

the parts lightly, instead of using solid colour.
this

In

way they

c-an obtain

much

softness

and sweet-

ness of tone in the flesh tints and draperies.

" I

now

revert to the draperies as they are glazed

in the ordinary

way, though

skilful painters dislike

this

mode, because they do not desire to see the

stuffs

made

of one uniform tint throughout.

" In operating upon a green drapery, the process

we have hinted

at

is

managed
B 6

in this way.

After

12

THK ART OF

having laid on the dead colour with green, black,

and white,
varnish
is

in

full

and firm manner, some common

then incorporated with yellow lake and

verdigris.

With

this

mixture the parts prepared

are glazed with a large tool.

The same process

is

used for crimson, yellow, or other drapery,

only

mixing the appropriate colours with the varnish \"

^

Ma

finite

che sono tutte

far piil

le

bozze e quelle rascinte

s'incomin-

cia di

nuovo poi con

da sennocon

finissimi colori lavorando

ogni cosa, e tutta viu di quelli facendo le mestichc

mentre
si

si

la-

vora a poco a poco

perchiochfi questa volta

piii

presto

vela che

coprano

le

cose le quali sono gia condotti bene

si

al

segno e special-

mente

le

carni e perche egli vi riesca bene

si

deve prima ungere

quel luogo, quando recuoprir

chiaro, sottile, nel quale se
li

vuole, con ogiio di noce che sia

ben
si

bagna dentro due

che fatto

dita e di subito

pone

sii

quel luogo e caleavisi la pianta della

;

mano

col spargcrlo

ugualmente per quello spazio

il

si

netta con pezzette di

panno lino, perche quando riman mal netto s'ingialliscon i colori con tempo e questo porge tal ajuto che egli fa scorrere sottilmente ogni tinta o mestica che se li pou sopra senza, schiffar punto sieche
;

ogni cosa

difficile

con

facilita si

esprime.

Quivi

gli esperti
si

adope-

rano

le loro

mestiche con gran sparmio, auzi (come

e detto)
ri-

non coprendo

ma
i

velaudo sottilmente quel che t sotto ne fan

e

maner dolcissime

morbide

le carni e
si

panni.

Ma

ritorno a

panni che k velare

gli

usano se bene e valenti cio

vederli di un color solo,

sprezzano perchd troppo

offende

il

noudimmo non
Se
il

li

vogliamo losciar indietro.

panno

si

ha da

far

verde

il

modo predetto

sar4 che

dopo

che non verde negro e bianco

crudetto,
si

si

sari bozzato, clie sia alquanto

giunge poi con verderame un poco di vernice

commune

e di giallo santo e cosi

accompagnato

si
.

vien velando tutto ugual.

. Ma se sarS di lacca, si mente con un penello grosso di vajo. tien con quello il medisimo stile mettendovi dentro della predetta vernice: e cosi si dee fare d'ogni altro quando si ^ per velarli.

PAIXTIXG IN
Armonini afterwards

OIL,

13

describes the

method of

preparing different varnishes.

The uses
Gr.

of varnish are Hkewise pointed out by

de Lairesse in his Treatise on Painting.

He

describes

how
he

to paint

upon the dead colour of a

intended for

picture

tells

us that the part

repainting should be first moistened slightly by a

couch of mastic varnish, mixed with thick

fied in

oil clari-

the sun.

If the earlier authors have not afforded us

details as to the technical

more must

modes of the

art, it

be attributed to the various modifications which the

process was liable to, from the
into practical use, as
it

moment
at
fii'st

it

came

was known

only to

a small number of
selves.

artists,

who kept

it

to themit,

Others,
it

who were not acquainted with

out
;

sought to find

and we must admit that they

had much

difficulty in this respect.

The process of
of making
oils,

painting houses, wood-work, and even statues, was

known for several centuries. The methods

oil

varnish was known, as also the volatile

by

distillation.

By

these last they were enabled to

oils
:

render fluid the most viscous

fore,

nothing, there-

remained to be done, but to discover a mode

of giving a

more drying

quality to the

oils,

to coun-

teract the effects of certain colours,

which are very

14

THE ART OF
Of
this

deficient in that quality.

fully

we should be

aware

and even

in acquiring afterwards the

knowledge of

Van

Eyck's process, we should be

convinced that this

mode had been

way

simplified.

The most
process,
is

certain

of recovering the primitive

doubtless that of examining with attenoil,

tion the earliest pictures in

and by consulting per-

sons

who

are habitually engaged in restoring them.

We learn from these researches,

oil

that the colour of

first

those pictures which belong to the

painting, are mostly of a harder
;

epoch of

body than those

of a later date
better
;

that they resist dissolvents

much

and

that, if

rubbed with a

file,

they show

underneath a shining appearance, resembling that of

a picture painted in varnish.
It is easy to ascertain
;

the truth of these observations

and when there

is

no longer any doubt on

this point,

we may fairly con-

clude that the colours of those pictures have not been

simply used with pure

oil,

as those of our days, but

with a mixture of varnish, of which some would be

found to be of that description which we

varnish."

call

" hard

By

far the greater

number of pictures painted

from the beginning to the end of the sixteenth century are painted on wood
;

their panels are primed

with a couch of prepared plaster of Paris, well

12

J'AIXTING IN OIL.

15

ground, and incorporated with animal gluten,

oil,

preparation similar to that used by wood-gilders.

This surface was then brushed over with boiled

to prevent the very rapid absorption of the colours,

an accident which would impede the

free

motion of

the pencils, and render the working of

difficult.

them more

There

is,

at Florence, a picture

by Leonardo da

Vinci, and also another by Fra Bartolomeo, which are

merely dead-coloured

the outlines are

drawn with
in,

the pencil, and the shadows afterwards washed

like
is

a drawing in

bistre,

with a brown colour, which

found to be bitumen. The method of laying in the

picture with a kind of wash of a single tint was, I have

no doubt, the practice of

Van Eyck,

as

it

was con-

stantly followed by the chief painters of the

Roman

and Florentine
Vinci,

schools,

P.
;

Perugino, Raffael, da

and F. Bartolomeo and entirely by the school

of the

Low Countries, where

likely

their primitive

method

would most

be preserved for a long period.

This method, which habituates the eye to transparency, and seems on that account more agreeable
to colourists, was not yet practised in the Venetian
school, except, perhaps,

by the

first

of

them who

connnenced painting in
Titian,

oil.

and his immediate followers,

laid in their

16

THE ART OF
They had, no

pictures with a body of solid colour.

doubt, ascertained that they could obtain the same

degree of transparency by glazing upon their work

afterwards.

This method also gave them the advanall

tage of making

the changes that might suggest

themselves as

tliey

proceeded.

Corregio, and the

their pic-

painters of his school, also

commenced

tures with a

full

body of colour, and often in a gray

tone of simple black and white.

Those who adopted

careless as to gi'ounds

this

method were rather

upon which they painted.

There

are, for instance,

many
;

pictures of Titian
generally, they are

painted upon a red ground

painted upon distemper grounds,

of Paris

made

of plaster

and

glue.

We

have no doubt that the art of glazing was

practised from the

commencement
it

of painting.

As

soon as colours came into use,

must have been

perceived that the deepest tints applied in thin

glazes,

upon those of the brightest tone, produced

tints,

a new series of

which could not be matched

by any combination of opaque colours.

distemper, glazing was practised
:

Even
oil

in

but in

this art
is

was much more easy

for in

the latter there

no

danger of disturbing the ground upon which the

glaze
is laid.

PVIXTING IK

OIL.

17

The extensive

u^e

made

of glazing by the Flemish

far to

and Venetian schcols would go

they employed a
colours.
j^reat deal of
is is

prove that

varnish with their

This gla/;ing
its tint,

remarkable for the uniscarcely observable, ex;

formity of

and

cept upon close inspection

but

it

would be quite

impossible to produce the same effect with colours

incorporated with our drying

Titian,

oils.

Corregio, and F.

Bartolomeo, are the

painters
I

who have made the

greatest use of glazing.

is

have not yet seen a picture of Titian which

not

glazed from one end to the other, even in the

brightest parts
;

and

if

occasionally

we

see

some

parts without
shall find that

it,

yet upon a close inspection

we

it is

because the glaze has been car-

ried off in the cleaning.

Yet we should be awake

resulting
its

to the inconveniences

from an excessive use of glazing, or from

being done improperly.

For

it

does sometimes

happen, that pictures which come from the easel

with great brilliancy, become quite altered in a few
years
:

this

was not overlooked by the colourists of

the second age.

They

only glazed those parts

which, from their natural colour and tone, had no-

thing to fear from the bistre-like tint which they

must acquire

in time.

18

THE AKT OF
Thus Titian and P. Veronese
but
laid in their picofi

tures with solid colour, and very often painted

cloth primed in distemper
;

in the latter case

they laid their sketches on with water-colours.

This very expeditious process, which ought to

lead from distemper to
oil

painting,

is

described by

Leonardo da Vinci.
produced
in this

I have seen several pictures

manner, which evidently belong

in distemper had, in
I

to the period

when painting

some

degree, been given up.

am

astonished that

no person of our school has ever

but
I shall

tried this

method

endeavour to show the advantages deit.

rivable

from

If the

methods used by

Van Eyck
of which

have been in
it
is,

some measure preserved without

doubtless,
in

alteration,

that

school

he was the

founder, that

we must expect
this process

to find them.

Otho
after

Venius followed

two centuries
it

Van
who

Eyck's time, and transmitted

practised
it

to Rubens,

without alteration, as would ap-

pear from the pictures of both these artists shewing

the same transparency, and the same
in similar order.
tints,

arranged

The great superiority of the execuis

tion in the

works of this painter

purely owing

to the superiority of his genius.

Rubens painted most commonly upon panels

pre-

PAIXTING IN OIL.

19

pared in distemper, similar to those of the old Italian

masters
;

sometimes
light

also,

but rarely, he used cloths

oil colour.

primed with a

gray ground of

The

pictures of the
this

Luxembourg Gallery

are treated in

manner.
is

There

a great number of sketches by this

master, in which the process described

distinctly traced.

may

be

The

figures being first sketched with black lead,

are afterwai'ds gone over with the hair pencil, and

the effect

is

made out by a wash

same kind that
is

of a brownish

colour, of the

observable in the

unfinished pictures already described of Leonardo

da Vinci and F. Bartolomeo.

The

lines
;

formed by the colour are

fine,

yet

full

of colour

their perfect continuity proves that the

pencil flowed freely on the

surface

the ridges
;

formed by the brush are not effaced

and

full

touches of transparent colour, though very liquid,

have kept their situations.

Doubtless
flow freely
it

is

easy enough to

make the

pencil

upon a smooth surface

and the
finest lines

lightly moist-

ened with
thereon
;

oil,

may be

traced

but they are no sooner formed than their

is

neatness

gone.

If

we employ

liquid transparent

20

THE ART OF
:

colours, they do not remain an instant

as

we have

applied them, the

oil

separates,

and

in

a short time

the lines become more or less indistinct.

Rubens has

often painted a picture off at once

upon very smooth panels.

He
we

used very

little
;

colour in the shadows, or even in the half-tints

is

it

in the light parts only that

find touches of

sohd colour.
If,

with the colours now in use,

we should
similai'

attempt to paint a picture up at once upon a

ground, we should soon find ourselves stopped by an

insurmountable

difficulty.

The

colour would glide

it
; ;

over a surface too fine to retain

a second at-

tempt would obliterate the

first

and we should

very soon discover the necessity of beginning with a

slight

dead colour, and of substituting, for the smooth

surface, one

somewhat granular, and

retentive of

the colour.
If,-

by way of explaining the various materials

employed, we should suppose that Rubens used

very soft and free pencils,
lay

^therefore

more

fit

to

on the

colours,

and cause them to retain their

situation,
oil

this will not explain

itself

why

it is

that the

never separated

from the most liquid part

of the colour.

We

must, therefore, admit that

PAINTING IN

OIL.

21

Rubens

did not paint with colours prepared as ours

are, but that he

rubbed the surface of his panel

sufficiently

with an unctuous substance, which was

Hquid to allow

tlie free

movement

of the pencil,

and

at the same time to

make

the colour adhere to the

surface, as well as to prevent the tendency

which

some of them have

ought to do.
I

to spread farther than they

have stated that Rubens preserved unaltered

the process which he had learned from his master.

Yet, when
regio
;

in Italy,

he adopted the method of Cor-

painting, like him, every part of his picture

full

with a

body of colour, afterwards merely glazing

the shadows, the darkest parts, and the draperies.

But on

his return

home he soon resumed

the trans-

parent manner of his master.

Jacob Jordaens did not commence painting under

Rubens

and his method of dead colouring was not

like that of the latter,

composed of

light

washes

but his colour

that
nish.
it is

is

so brilliant

and so transparent,

not to be doubted he

made use

of var-

Van Dyke, who had

manner
in the

at first adhered

to

the

of Rubens,

and had even gone beyond him

extravagant use of cinabar, changed his prohis colouring

cess

and

when

in Italy

he painted


IZ
a

THE ART OF
full

witli

body of colour,

like Titian

but was

more cautious

in the use of glazing*.

After having, like his master, made an inordinate

use of Vermillion, he abandoned
coloviring less brilliant, but
it

for a

system of

more true

to nature,

arising, probably, from his painting so

many portraits,

which brought nature constantly before him.

As he

had some experimental knowledge of chemistry, he

found that the elements of cinabar were not favouraljle

to

its

stability

consequently he used

it

but

seldom.

It is probable, also, that

its

he recommended

to his pupils to be sparing of

application, as they
tints

would

find in the

Venetian red, the brightest

of the most brilliant carnations.

P. Tyssens, one

of the most skilful artists of this school, never

made

use of cinabar

and a

pupil of the latter exceeded

his master's instructions so

much, that

his pictures

present

little else

except a grayish tone.

Apparently nothing can be more remote from

the process used by

Van Eyck

than that of

Rem-

brandt, yet he followed that

method

in his earlier

works

but the vivacity and strength of his ima-

'

remember having

seen, in the Altieri Palace at

Rome

picture by

Van Dyke,
manner of

in which could be clearly traced the transthis pupil of

ition in the

Rubens, from that of his mas-

ter, to follow that

of Titian.

PAINTING IN
gination

OIL,

23

made him abandon

it,

as he no longer at-

tached any importance to the executive part.

Im-

patient to reahze the fine effects that presented

themsehes

to his imagination, this

made him rather

:

careless in the application of his colours

M'hatever

he found on
it

his palette, ho

turned into use.

Then
tints
;

was that he often used muddy and opaque

were
brilliant

for those that

and transparent

but

he had too

fine

and just a sentiment of colouring to

admit of

his looking

upon

this species of art but for

a brief period,
palette,

and

his first care in

making up

his

no doubt, was to restore the

is

lost transpa-

rency by glazing. It
like this, in

really surprising that a school

which the executive part was not valued,

should produce an artist (G.

Dow) who
The

looked upon

that quality as very essential.

pupils adopted

the later manner of their master, which was less

careful than the
first.

In this respect Gerard

Dow
for

was an exception, which we cannot account

sufficiently

by attributing

it

to the patient character

his imagination
;

of that artist,

and the slowness of

will

but our surprise

that

be diminished when we

find,

when

Dow

entered the atelier of Rembrandt,

the latter had only begun to be admired, and his

works
care.

at that time

were executed with remarkable

24
It

THE ART OF
seems to be the
fate of the arts, that their de-

cadence begins immediately after they have attained

near to perfection. This destiny had been already,
in great part, accomplished in Italy,

when the
Even the

chief

founder of the French school, Simon Vouet, went

thither to study the great masters.
tradilost,

tionary accounts of their process had either been

or had been so corrupted, that the practitioners,

who

had constantly before their eyes the

chefs-iToiivres

of Titian, of Raffaele, and Corregio, were prodigal

of their applause to Joseph Arpino.

The greater

number of
fresco,

pictures painted at this time were in

after drawings

and were done from memory,

less finished.

more or

The

result of this was, tliat

the artists contracted the habit of painting their

easel pictures after a similar fashion,

and were no

longer capable of painting from nature.

By

this

vicious practice, each painter adopted, without per-

ceiving

it,

certain forms

and
all

tints,

which they con-

stantly reproduced, until

their figures appeared

as

if

done from the same model.

state of the arts at the time that
his education.

Such was the

Vouet received

It is reasonable to

suppose that this state of things should have a great

influence

upon the French school the

:

style of Vouet
;

has more of elegance than elevation

he treated

PAINTING IN
hlstoiy in a
several of

OIL,

25

more agreeable and

contemporaries,

just

manner than

liis

who enjoyed much

;

celebrity in Italy.

He

was not a colourist

the

numerous pupils of

his school

were never distin-

guished for that quality, which he himself did not

possess.

Our

historical
:

painters then constantly

worked from designs

were
tliose

the only imitators of nature

portraits, animals, or scenes
is

who painted
life
;

of familiar

and

it

in this class alone that

we can reckon any

tion, the

colourists.

If against this asser-

names of Blanchard, P. de Champagne,

it

and La Fosse should be mentioned,

answered,
that

may be

the

first

studied a long time at

Venice, and the second was educated in the Flemish school,

which was formed by masters who must

have preserved the traditionary account of Rubens'

methods

and, finally, that

La Fosse

is far

from be-

ing considered a fine colourist.

Perhaps he would

have carried this seductive part of the art to a high

degree of improvement,
if

he had been obliged,

like

Iligaud and Largilliere, to paint portraits, or, like

Despontes, animals, or Vandermeulen, landscapes

and
life.

battles, or, like

Watteau, scenes of familiar

He

would have equalled the Venetians and

Flemings, with whose methods he was well acc

26
quaintod,
if

THE ART OF
he had been obhged to apply himself

constantly to the study of nature.

It
is,

school,

" painting from drawings,"that we may

efforts of

therefore, to the established practice of our

attribute the want of success in colouring which

has attended the

our historical painters.

Le Brun was not

ignorant of the methods employ;

ed by the colourists

he understood how to

in-

crease, by glazing, the brilliancy and transparency

of colours.

His pictures display many specimens

;

of fine colouring

and

have no doubt whatever,

but that he would have been ranked amongst the

colourists
if

he had painted from nature.

artists cease to take nature for

AVhenever the

their model, the art itself follows a

downward career
it

with a frightful rapidity, that soon brings

decay, and at last a time arrives

to

when the

faithful

representations of nature are looked

down upon

as

being incompatible with genius.

Under

this

morbid influence, success can only be

obtained by a mean submission to the arbitrary dictates of

bad
it

taste.

Then, and for so unworthy a

motive,

is

that the limits of good taste are in-

vaded by sweeping forms, that well may be called

hyperbolic curves, with broken lines

and

different

"

PAINTING IN

OIL.

27

surfaces united by extravagant touches

and the

execution of the work

is

pretended to display so

much more knowledge

tion.

in proportion as it diverges

farthest from the truth.

This

is

not an exaggera-

Cochin, in his eulogy on the works of Chardin,

boasts particularly of that sort of execution, whilst

he says,
as

" Painting being an

art,

that art

is

carried
artist

much nearer

perfection as the

means of the
!

appear turned from their legitimate object

Such was the doctrine acknowledged

up under Restout, who taught

in

the

French school when Greuze came forward. Brought

his pupils that

a globe

ought to be represented as a polyhedron, Greuze

most
tice

implicitly

adopted that doctrine, and in prac-

showed that he considered the round cheeks

of a

young

girl,

or of infants, as bodies cut into

decidedly, that with a

facettes.

Yet he has proved

constancy the most imperturbable, and by never

losing sight of the object

which he would

attain,

the artist will at length succeed, whatever round-

about methods he
ceive the

may

adopt.

It is easy to con-

possibility of

forming a sphere from a

;

cube, by cutting off its angles indefinitively

is

but this

certainly a very tedious

method

of proceeding.

Greuze

far

suqiassed

all

his contemporaries in

the science of colouring, and

c 2

may

be ranked

among

28
those

THE ART OF
who have
materially assisted in restoring the

character of the French school, by bringing back

thc!

art to its true basis,

" the

careful study of

nature."

The

following

detail

of his method

is

given

upon the authority of one who was

with
in
it.

well acquainted
it

He

always, in painting a head, laid

full

first

with a

body of

colour.

Afterwards,

when he would
with

repaint
it

upon

this dead colour,

he

began by glazing
effect

entirely,

and then got

in his

transparent

colours

combined with

a strong unctuous vehicle, by means of which his

pictures dried without absorption.

After this pre-

paration, which he carried on rapidly, he entirely

i-opainted the head,

commencing by the

lights,

and

going progressively to the shadows.

not possess great
\\'ork

But

as he did
finish his
it

facility,

he could not
;

in

the second operation

in

therefore

still

appeared only

an advanced state of dead colour.

it

Sometimes he could not get

several sittings
;

to

his liking for

but at

last,

by following the same

mode

of operations, he

was enabled to produce a

work, in which we admire the colouring, without

perceiving any traces of the labour by which
it

was

produced.
Sir

Joshua Reynolds, who was contemporary

PAlN'TIXG IX OIL.

29

Avlth Greuze,

was the

gi*eatest colourist of his time,

and the

influence of his talents has in this respect

given a tone to the Enghsh school.

By

profoundly

studying the works of Rubens,

Rembrandt, and

Titian, he was enabled to discover the

modes of

operating used by these great masters, and to found

his

own system
with a

of execution upon theirs.

He
tians,

frequently laid in his pictures like the Venefull

body of colour, and sometimes with

;

a mixture of black and white

he afterwards

laid

on

his colours,
this

and made out

his effect with glazing.

it

When
colours,

was dry, he repainted

with solid
In this
in Italy
;

and always finished with glazing.

way

have seen one of his pupils paint

and, with respect to the colour of his work, nothing

could be
Sir

more

agreeable.
tried

Joshua painted with varnishes, and

great variety of

them

it

is

much

to be regretted

that he has not left any notes on this subject.

The

greater part of his pictures had a most brilliant effect

when they came

them have

fresh

from the

easel,

but several of

lost their

charming tones
;

some

have

faded even in a few years

others have changed to

a greyish tone in consequence of the absorption of

the glazing by the sohd colour on which they were
c 3

30
laid

THE ART OF
;

many

parts have faded from the action of the

Ught and
the
oils

air,

and some have become brown from

and varnishes used having been badly preLike P. Veronese, he has often painted on

pared.

distemper grovmds.

There

is

at Paris' one of his

finest portraits, painted

on such a gi-ound.

At

the

back of the canvass, and exactly behind the face

and head, there

is

a couch of white and

size,
oil,

which
which

has been applied to absorb the redundant

would have remained

in that

work, from

its

having
it

been repainted several times without allowing

each time to become quite dry.

Mengs
colours
;

also used a mixture of varnish with his

and

understand that his method

is still

very generally practised at Dresden.

Among

the

modern painters

could mention

many

others, to

show the advantages derivable from the proper combination of varnish with the colour, but I prefer re-

turning to the older masters

jjrocess of
artist,

who have
I shall

followed the

Van Eyck
first

and

add, that any

by an attentive examination of the pictures

period of
oil

belonging to the

painting,

may

In the possession of the Prince de Broglio

it is

the portrait

of " the

Marquis of Granby."

PAIXTIXG IN

OIL.

31

convince himself that some of the Itahans have em-

ployed

oil

varnish of a harder description than that

it

used by the P'lemings, for

sistance to solvents/

offers

a stronger re-

We

find in

Theophilus and Armcnini receipts for

the preparation of varnish.

The

first especially

has

particularly detailed the preparation of an excellent

hard varnish, which has been employed in the early

times of art, for
it

was known some centuries bewas abandoned

;

fore painting in distemper

but, inis

dependent of this circumstance, the great point

to

show that they mixed

their colour with varnish.

Our chemical knowledge, and the advancement made

in

the preparation of varnish for several years past,

justify

our belief that

it

can now be made as

fine as

any that ever was in use.

Those who use it at the present time, either on

pic-

tures, or generally in painting, are not in possession of

method by which

it

can be employed in the colours

;

without inconvenience

varnish owing as

it

does

'

have had occasion

is

to

examine

closely the fine picture

Giorgione which
ir.to

in the

Museum, No.
it is

1011.

This work

is

by drawn

wrinkles in several places, which proves that the artist

oil

em-

poyed an

varnish, for

the constant effect of this vehicle to

rtn into wrinkles in drying.

c 4

THK AKT OF
its fluidity

to the essential

oil

of turpentine, which

evaporating quickly, the colours become so clammy

that they quite impede the

movement

of the pencil.

Varnish intended to be used with colours, ought

not to dry more rapidly than the
are ground
;

oil in

which they

and, in place of adding difficulties to

it

the executive process, should give

ties.

greater

facili-

The

latter qualities are to

be found combined

in

a substance, of which the invention has been

I

gratuitously attributed to me.

have found

it

em-

ployed in Italy
its invention, I

and as no person can account for

it

presume that
honey

must be very anand

is

cient.

It resembles
oglio
cotto

in consistency,
oil)
:

named
oil,

(baked

it

is

merely nut
in solution

baked before a slow fire, and holding

as

much

litharge as

it

will retain.

In using this
to

preparation, the usual

method

is

mix

it

with

common
in

varnish
is

this

produces a sort of pommade,

qualities

which

combined the greater part of the

is

required in varnish which

to he used with colour.

oil,

This varnish flows under the pencil like

and yet

on the palette
This quality
ter
is

it

holds

its

place like the colours.

:

valuable for transparency

no mat-

how

liquid the colours

may be

that are

made

by

this mixture, they

can be freely used, without

PAINTING IN

OIL.

06
tlie

the danger of separating or spreading beyond

spot where they are placed by the pencil
in this respect to
;

superior
it

asphaltum, which, whether

oil

be

dissolved in drying

or

oil

of turjDentine,
it is

is

equally

clammy and
it

intractable, for

impossible to keep
it

on the palette, or yet to spread

sufficiently

thin

upon any part of the

picture, without its run;

ning beyond the bounds required

with this varnish, that tendency

but when mixed

prevented, and
it

is

becomes as manageable as the other colours. AVith

this oglio cotto,

which

is

a true varnish, the imitalittle difficulty

tion of

Rubens' sketches presents

this cannot

though

be managed by our ordinary

this oil loses its fluidity,
it

materials.
is

Whenever

it

owing to the varnish with which

;

must be com-

bined

for the volatile oil of the latter constantly

evaporates, and the colour becoming too thick for

use, restrains the

freedom of the pencil.

It

is

therefore only useful to those

rapidity, or for the

who work with great

purpose of glazing, which does

not require

much

time.

There

is

another preparation which, I believe,

in the school of Flanders,

was employed

and has

not the disadvantage of rendering the colour clammy

in a short time. It is

composed of mastic

in grains,

and

fine

wax, dissolved together in white drying

34
oil.

THE ART OF
Prudhon^ a man whose
it

loss

is still
^

regi'etted

by
not

the friends of art, used

to the use of the

constantly

and

it is

medium

that

we can

attribute the
:

cracks that have ruined some of his pictures

they

would

all

have been preserved,

like
if

his

Psyche,

his ZephjTus,

and many

others,

care

had been

taken not to varnish them until they were perfectly

dry.

From
mastic,

the small quantity of wax added to the

this varnish resembles one of those de-

scribed by Armenini.'
'

In the varnish used by

life

In the latter years of his

he gave the preference to the

varnish of Theophilus, the preparation of which will be described

in the chapter
2
.

on varnishes. Alcuni dunqiie pigliavano

del oglio d' abezzo chiaro, e

10 facevano disfare in
11

un pignattino

a lento fuoco, e disfatto bene,

ponevano tanto
essi lo

altro, oglio di sasso, gettandovelo

la

dentro subito
cosi caldo,

che
lo

levavano dal fuoco, mesticando con

il

mano
;

stendevano sopra

lavoro prima posto al sole, e alquanto caldo,

e questa versi

sicche toccavano con quella da per tutto egualmente

nice e tenuta la piu sottile, e piu lustra d' ogni altra che

fania;

ioho veduto usarla cosi per tutta

la

Lombardia da

piu valenti; e

mi fu detto che cosi era quella adoprata dal Corregio e dal Parmegiano nelle sue opere, se si pud credere a quelli che li furono
discepoli.

Altri sono che pigliano mastice che sia bianco et lustro, e

tono in

lo

met-

un pignattino al fuoco,
lo
;

e con esso vi

mettono tanto oglio di noce

chiaro che

cuopra bene,

e cosi lo lasciano disfare, tutta via mesti-

cando

lo

assai

di poi lo colano con

una pezza di
vi,
si

lino

rada in un

altro

vasetto, e questa suol venir

bolle

piu lustra se

getta dentro fin che

un poco

di allume de roccha abbrugiato e tutto in polvere sottile,

e di questa se

ne pu6 mettere negli azzuri

fini,

nelle lacche e in

12

PAINTING IN
Mengs, mastic
is also

OIL.

85

the chief ingredient.

is

That

the l)rightncss of colours

altri tali colori accio si

greatly

augmented by

aschiugino piu presto. ..Altri ancora pig-

liano tanto

mastice quanto sandaracha, e no fanno sottilissime

polveri e le coprono con oglio di noce al fuoco nel

altre de sopra, la qual poi collata vi

modo

delle

aggiungono un terzo

di oglio

di abbezzo e lo incorporano con quelle

la

ma

vuol bollir j)oco, perciie

vernice verrebbe
si

viscosa

e tutte

queste predette vernici,

nientre

fanno disfare

al fuoco, si

mesticano sempre con una

piccola bacbetta, le quale poi coperte nel suo vasetto, siconservano

longo tempo, con

farsi

piu purgate, et

sottili.

Translation.

Some

painters (says Armenini) prepare their

varnish by placing a portion of transparent turpentine (that of the

fir-deal) in a vessel,

and exposing

it

to the action of a
j

slow

fire;
oft'

when
the

quite liquified, they

mix

it

well together

then

it is

taken

fire,

and an equal quantity of petrolium (rock

is

oil) is

added;
the

these being well incorporated, the liquid

applied to the picture,

which has previously been warmed by the sun's heat.

species of varnish, this
I
is

Of

all

considered the lightest and most brilliant.

have seen

it

used

all

through Lombardy, and,

pujjils, it

if

we

credit the

reports of Corregio's and Parmegiano's

those two great masters.

was employed by
for this

Other Artists used white and clear drop mastic

they poured upon a quantity of this

purpose

gum

sufficient nut oil just to

it

cover

it,

then they kept stirring

it

over a slow heat until

dis-

solved, and finished

by straining it through apiece of smooth

cloth.

This varnish acquires a greater degree of transparency and brightness, if

when

it

has

commenced
all

to boil, a

little

calcined alum

is

added

to it finely

powdered.

This preparation

may

be used with
it

ultramarine, the lakes, and

that class of colours, as

causes

them

to

dry very quickly.

is to

Another method employed,

take equal parts of mastic and

gum

sandarac, and dissolve

;

them

in

nut

oil,

as

described in the

preceding process
turpentine
is

when
added
;

ready, one-third of their bulk of fine

after this the boiling

to be

tinued a long time, because the varnish would otherwise

must not be conbecome too

c 6

36
varnish
is

THE ART OF
allowed by
all

painters, but

it

is

found

that this advantage

is

only gained at the expense

of the solidity of the colouring, which fades in time

for to its injudicious use is attributed the cracks that

appear often in pictures, and which sooner or later

occasions their destruction. I have already observed, that the cracks are not always consequent on the

use of varnish, but are attributable to other causes

which we may control.

It is

not

uncommon

to see

pictures cracked throughout their surface, although

there has not been any varnish employed in their

execution

this accident always

happens when we

employ

in succession several

couches of thick var-

nish upon a picture, of which the surface only has

been allowed to dry, and perhaps also the varnish

of bad quality.

is

Several manufacturers of that article, wishing to

realize a great profit,

do not put in a proportion of ^

it

mastic sufficient to render

substitute the strong
oil

brilliant

they often
is

of tui*pentine, which

much

cheaper, and ])roduces for the instant a simi-

lar effect,

but varnish prepared in this way soon

In
all

thick and clammy.

these operations, great care must be

taken to keep the mixtures constantly stirring with a spatula.

These varnishes, when safely kept from the air in proper vessels, become very clear, and acquire by time a finer quality and better
substance.

PAINTIXG IN
loses its transparency,
it

OIL.

dries only

on the upper

part, a portion of

it

penetrating under the surface

is

of the colours softens them, and the picture

soon covered with cracks

these accidents happen

whenever a couch of colour not dry underneath,

is

covered by one of a thin consistency completely

;

dry

the soft portion dilates

is

itself

when the temand the

perature

raised to a

certain

height,

upper surface, not having the power to resist or to

follow the expansion of that underneath,

becomes
it is

soon cracked on the surface, the moment

posed to any ordinary heat.'

ex-

From
it is

these observations

we must

conclude, that

highly improper to varnish pictures until they

are completely dry.

That the proper use of varnish

of the picture becoming cracked
this injury arises

is is

not the cause

very evident

from the varnish having been badly

;

manufactured or improperly applied

this

is

proved
re-

by the vast number of varnished paintings that

These cracks or gashes are very rarely

pictures, yet

we do

find tliem in his

to be met with in Titian's work The Croivning with thorns.

They

are observable in a place where this Artist has repainted,

full pencil,

with a

upon a part

of the picture which had a strong

couch of bitumen previously

the surface.

laid on,

and which had only dried on

38 main without any

THE

AllT

OF

alteration,
in

and

also our coaches,

and the numerous objects

japanned works which

are exposed to every sort of temperature.

In considering simply what constitutes the true

manner of each

school,

and of the several masters,

so far as regards merely their technical process,

we
to

perceive that the entire code

may be reduced

two

points, viz. transparent^

and opaque painting.

The

former, a most important quality in colouring,

has been particularly attended to by the ancient

Artists.

To

gain

this

essential

object,

some

painters have laid in their pictures with thin washes,

and have used but

little

colour

others have com-

menced with
glazing,

solid painting,

and then finished by

which method has produced the most

;

transparent effects

and thus by
;

different

modes

obtaining similar results

paintings

for

we find

that the solid

of Titian and

Rembrandt are equally

transparent with those of Fra Bartolomeo and the

Bronzini.

The changes which are observable

tures,

in

many

pic-

from their original lustre to a yellowish tone,

afterwards caused

many

Artists to give up

the

advantages of transparency.
Sasso Ferrato
is

an example of this feeling

in

PAINTING IN

OIL.

39

the seventeenth century/ and the French school

followed the

same course towards the middle of

think

the following age.

In this essay,

it

is

sufficiently proved,

that the brothers

Van Eyck, and

the Artists

who
the

adopted their methods, used varnish

ing,

in their paintall

and

this

it

was which brought forth

brightness of their colours, and preserved their

works from the injurious action of the atmosphere.

This process, which the inventor only transmitted at
first

as a secret to a select

number of

practitioners,

and unfortunately, not being com-

mitted to wTiting, soon became impaired, and was

at last reduced to the

mere use of plain drying

still

oils,

a method which some schools

practise.

That the process employed by the Van Eycks,

whenever or with whomsoever
nated,
is less liable
it

may have

origi-

to change, than any other

known

method,
it

is

quite evident, and that

we may consider
with great adis

certain, that

Kubens adopted
;

it

vantage to his works

for

one thing

quite clear,

which

is,

that there are

many

parts of his works

which cannot be

faithfully imitated

by any of our

common methods
'

of painting

yet

when wo make
1G05, died in

Sasso Ferrato (Gio. Batista Salvicia), born in

1085.

40

THK ART OF PAINTING IX

is

OIL.

use of a vehicle in which varnish

these difficulties can be overcome.

an ingredient,

But experience alone must determine, whether

my

observations are just, and

useful.
I shall

if so,

how

far

they

may be
may be

now proceed

to describe the

composition of the varnishes, with which the colours

prepared, in a similar

manner

to

those

originally

used

in

the

Flemish

and Venetian

schools.

CHAPTER

II.

THE VARNISHES.

Every
gives
it

substance

may be

considered as a varnish,

which, when apphed to the surface of a sohd body,

a permanent histre.

Drying

oil,

thickened
a varnish,
It
is,

by exposure

to the sun's heat or a fire,

is

and as such has often been employed.

ever, probable that varnishes,

howdis-

composed of resins

solved in

oil,

have been used in very ancient times.

But

it

is

beyond

all

doubt, that

when the

arts

flom'ished

in Greece,

the composition of varnish

had long been known in India, Persia, and China.

It is not

then to be supposed that the Greeks were

Unacquainted with this art.

Yet such would have

been the case

Pliny,

if

we

give credit to a paragraph in

who

tells

us that Apelles was indebted for

his unequalled colouring to the

employment of a

42
liquid

THE VARXISHES.
which he
calls

" Atramentum," with which he

covered his pictures when they were finished, and

with which substance no other painter was acquainted.

Pliny observes, "that there

is

in

the

pictures of Apellcs a certain effect, that cannot be

equalled,

and that tone was obtained by means of

fluid

atramentum^ which

he passed over his pictures

finished.

when the painting was completely

liquid,

This

we are

told,

brought out
colours,

all

the brightness

and fulness of the

and

also prevented the

dust, or other similar substances,

from impairing
it

their lustre.

It

was so transparent, that

was not

perceptible until you were very near to

its

it.

One

of

greatest

advantages was, that the brightest

its

colours,

under

influence, so far
if

from dazzling

the sight, seemed as

or through a glassy

viewed from a distance,

medium, which imperceptibly

tints, render-

lowered the tone of the most brilliant

ing

them more chaste and agreeable

to the eye.'"
in this ar-

Sir J. Reynolds believed that he

saw

Unum

imitari

nemo

potuit,

quod absoluta opera airamento

ad nianum intuenti

illi-

nebat, ita tenui, ut idipsum repcrcussu claritates colorum excitaret,

custodiretque a pulvere et sordibus

demum
6

appareret, sed et tiim ratione magna, ne colorum claritas oculorum

aciem offenderet, veluti per lapidem specularem intuentibus

longinquo, et
daret.

eadem res nimis

floridis coloribus

austeritatem occulte
10.

Pliny's Natural History,

Book xxv. chap.

THE VARXISHES.

43

tide a description of the process of that plan of

glazing, to which he owed, in

a great measure, his

This glazing augwliilst, at

admirable system of colouring.^

mented the

brilliant effect of

the colours,

the same time, they were brought more into har-

mony, and rendered more pleasing

this

to the eye.

But

was not done with any

it

liquid of a uniform tint

neither did

prevent the pictures from being in;

jured by the dust

for Pliny positively declares, that

effect of

no other painter could produce the same

colour which Apelles obtained by the assistance of

a transparent
tint,

liquid,

supposed to be of a brownish
^

as the term atramentum

would imply

and

that this liquid,

when appHed

to coloured pictures,

completely secured them against whatever might in

any

\\

ay

soil

or discolour

them

and

this

can only

be understood as applying to varnish.

'

Refer to

tlie

note 37 on the

poem

of Dufresnoy, printed at the

end of his discourses.

^

The term atramentum

is

frequently used by Pliny as expres-

sive of the fluid

was composed.

exact technical term for

and carbonaceous matter of which that substance From tins it would appear, that not having an it, he had adopted one, of which the

general signification meant to describe a liquor of a brownish

appearance.

Copal varnish has

in the large vessels
;

this tone

it

appears

so, at least,

when

it

is

and,

when applied
it
it

in thin couches,

it is

so

equally transparent, that

does not communicate any colour to

the most delicate picture to which

may

be applied.

44

THE VARNISHES.
Reynolds, in adopting that meaning of the above

passage, probably did so because he could not believe

that the Greek painters were unacquainted

with the art of making varnish, which for a long

time previously had been used in the eastern countries.

He

rather supposed that Pliny had not well

clearly understood,

described, or

the method of

Apelles.

However

this

may

be,

even admitting

that Apelles had

known
it

only the preparation and

rational to suppose, that

the use of varnish,

is

some time
empire)
it

latter (suppose in the time of the lower

was no secret to any Greek

artist

and

probably from them the Italians became acquainted

with
ing.
it,

along with the elemental principles of paint-

In the works of Theophilus, already quoted,

we

find a

method of preparing an

oil ^alnish

very

well described.

The
is

process

is

remarkable for being

the same that

used at the present day for the

difference, that

same sort of varnish, with merely this

the varnish of Theophilus
of resin in pure linseed
oil,

is

only a simple solution

without the addition of

it

any essential
at that time

oil
it

to render

more

fluid.

In

fact,
;

could not have been otherwise

for

the art of distillation, by which the essential oils

are prepared, was not known.

The varnishes have been arranged in three classes.


BITUMEKS.
viz. spirit oil

45

of wine, (alcohol,) spirit of turpentine,

and
Alit

varnish, called " strong," or hard varnish.

in
oil

cohol varnish not being used

paintino-,

would be superfluous to describe

its

preparation,

which, besides, does not differ in the process of

making from that made with

oil

of turpentine, but
it

simply in the nature of the resins of which

is

composed.
I shall

not take up the reader s time, except upon

oil,

those sorts of varnish which belong to painting in

and either used

for

mixing with the colours, or em-

ployed in covering the surface of the painting when

dr\-.

But previous
them,
it is

to showing the
I

modes

of pre-

l)aring

but proper that

should describe

the materials of which they are composed,

such as

the bitumens and resins which form their bases, and the
oils in

which they are dissolved

SECTION

I.

SUBSTANCES WHICH ENTER INTO THE COMPOSITION

OF VARNISH.

BITUMENS.
These substances, which are unctuous and
flammable, are dug out of the earth, and
in

in-

many

respects resemble the resins so strongly, that one

46

ASPHALTUM

AMBEB.
origin.

might well suspect them of a common

these,

Of
in

only

asphaltum and amber are

used

])ainting.

ASPHALTUM,
This substance
is

a mineral pitch, of a very rich

l)rown colour, hard and brittle, forming compact

masses.

It has a bright

glossy fracture, and

is

easily soluble in oil of turpentine,

oils.

and

in the drying-

It

then affords a very brown and transparent

varnish, but very viscous,

and with such a tendency

it

to flow off the palette, that

can hardly be used,

of the other subit

unless

when mixed with some

stances to correct this disadvantage, and fix

its position.'

in

AMBER.
Yellow amber, called also carabe, or succin,
classed
is

among
yet
it

the resins, because

evidently has

it is

found in the
origin.

earth

vegetable

In

fact,

the forms of the larger pieces clearly indi-

cate a substance that has been liquid

similar to the resins
;

and

flowing,

and we sometimes

find pieces
inci-

of

it

in

which insects are enclosed, and these

dents could only have originated

when the amber

was in a
1

fluid state.
articles

Vide the

on browns,

in the

Chapter on the preparation

of colours.

RESINS.

47

Amber
yellow
it

is

sometimes opaque, but often as transits

parent as glass;
:

colour,

different

shades

of

grows darker by exposure to the

air

very old works in amber being brown, whilst those

of a recent date are of a bright yellow tone.

Amber differs essentially from all the

not only by
its
its

other resins,

superior hardness, which admits of

its

being cut into various ornaments, but also in

evolving on fusion a volatile acid (succinic), which

flies

up to the top of the receiver.

be fused except at a higher tem-

Amber cannot
varnish

perature than that used to dissolve copal.

is,

Amber
their

of course, very brown,

and can only be

increase

employed with
strength and
stance
;

dark

coloiu-s,
:

to

transparency

the umbers, for in;

the oxide of
colours.*

manganese

and

all

the

brown drying

RESINS.

These substances,

like

the bitumens, are either

hard or of a thick consistency ; are very inflammable,

insoluble in water, but

more or

less so in alcohol,

'

In

tlie

earliest

of

tlie

Italian receipts, the carabe, or amber,

is

placed amongst the materials which enter into the composition of

It is possible,

varnish.

however, that they may have confounded

is

the carabe with the copal, which

more

fusible.

48

GUM AXIMEE

GUM

COPAT,.

aether, or the oils.

like

With the

exception of lac, which,

wax,

is

an animal substance, the resins flow

spontaneously from certain trees, and form a viscous

juice,

which grows thicker and harder on exposure

air.

to the

Of resinous substances, we

find

a great number
I

which do not relate to our subject.

fore, confine

shall,

there-

my attention to those which are

of varnish.

proper

for the

making

GUM ANIMEE.
Under
this

name we

find resins

which do not

belong to the same tree.

The true gum animee

In
clearness
it

flows from the courbaril tree.

resembles copal, but

yet
it

it

is

whiter and more brittle

of a temperature

will

not dissolve in

oil

much

lower than that gum, and

is

it is

so coloured that there

it

no advantage derived from employing

in place

of copal.

It will dissolve in oil of turpentine,

is

but

the solution

muddy

it

will

become

clear in

time by depositing the msoluble matter which re-

mained

in a state of suspension.

GUM COPAL.
This
resins.
is

the most brilliant and the hardest of the

;

There are two species of it

one which flows

GUM COPAL.

49

from a tree (the eleocarpus copalli/erus of Jussieu,

and denominated by Linnoeus urateria Indica)

other kind
is

the

is

imported from Spanish America, and

species

oftheshumac
sorts,

{rhus copallinum).

Be-

sides these

two

we

find, in

the copal of com-

merce, certain portions which are nearly the same

in appearance,

but are fusible at a

much

lower deto dis-

gree of heat.^

The varnish-makers pretend

cover them by their globular forms and superior

whiteness.

But the

difference
in

becomes evident

between these two kinds

a preliminary operation,
it

which the copal must undergo to disengage

from

an opaque crust, arising probably from the action

of water and the atmosphere.

Formerly

this crust

was scraped

off

with a knife

the present
for

mode
in

of

removing
strong lye
fectly,

it is
;

to steep the

gum

two days

it

must then be washed, and dried perthis impurity evaporates

and when broken up,

in dust.
'

During

this operation, the softer particles,

in the

Reaumur, who has made many experiments

manufaccopal in

turing of varnishes, and

who has succeeded

in dissolving

alcohol and in oil of spike, has

remarked that

in the copal of

commerce

all

the pieces are not equally soluble.

To

ascertain at
his ope-

once the quality of these pieces previous to

rations, he tried

commencing

them on

the heated blade of a knife, to ascertain

their capability of resisting a

change of colour; some parts melted

more or
last

less readily,

other parts fried like

fusible portions.

gum

he rejected the

and only used the

50
which are always few
in

I.AC.

proportion to the mass, be-

come more

soft,

and adhere to whatever they touch.

this portion

We therefore
by
itself,

must be careful to put

;

to be used separately

because being more

it

easily
first,

melted than the other part,

would dissolve

and, by remaining in this state, too long exit

posed to the action of heat,

tinge,

would take a reddish

and thus communicate too strong a colour to

the varnish.

Copal

is,

in general,

more transparent and

amber
;

less
it

coloured, though not so hard, as

yet

is

not unlikely that copal has been cut into ornaments

instead of amber.

LAC. This material, which

lac," is
is

incorrectly called "

gum

a resinous substance, produced by an insect

that had long been considered a winged ant, but

which the recent observations of naturalists have

classed

among

the gall insects, like the cochineal

it

and kermes, and thus and coccus

in
lacca.

has been termed coccus ficus

of this tribe collect

The females

great

numbers around the small branches of

which they cover with
It is

trees, to deposit their eggs,

a resinous substance

this is the lac.

used

in

making varnish and sealing-wax.

The eggs and

MASTIC

SAJ^DARACH.

51

embryo

of these creatures, like those of the cochi-

neal and kermes,

contain colouring matter of a

complete purplish crimson.'

MASTIC.
This resin
distils
is

from a species of

lentil tree, of

which there
pelago,

abundance

in the isles of the Archi-

and particularly

in Scio.

This

gum
;

is col;

lected in the

form of drops or roundish grains

is

is

transparent, and of a light citron colour

ous,

odor-

and softens so

far in the

mouth that

it

can be

pierced by the tongue, and

threads, &c.
It is

may be drawn
name

into ribbon
in

commonly chewed by the people

its
is

the Levant
all

and hence

derived.

Nearly

of

it

that was collected in Scio used to De sent to

Seignior,

the

Grand

and was used

in the seraglio.

Mastic m\\ dissolve at a temperature equal to that

of boiling water; but
its

solution in alcohol

is
;

cloudy,

which shows that

it is

imperfectly dissolved

but

in

the fixed, and volatile

oils, it will

dissolve completely.
oil

The

solution of this resin, with

of turpentine,

forms the

common

picture varnish.

SANDARACH.
This gum, in colour, and somewhat in
*

its

fonn,

Vide the

article "

On

the preparation of Indian lake."

D 2

52

FIXED OR SOLID

OILS.

resembles mastic ; but differs

points
:

much from

it

in other

for instance,

it will

not soften in the mouth.

easily in alcohol,

It is very brittle,

and dissolves

but

not in

oil

of turpentine.

Reaumur

assures us that

he succeeded

in dissolving it in oil of spike, after

it

having steeped

in spirit of wine.
;

have not suc-

ceeded in doing so
I

though,

in several instances,

have found the advantage of mixing alcohol with

oils,

the essential
oils

Sandarach
;

will

melt in the fixed

at a low degree of heat

but to form a perfect

is

combination, the highest heat

lution
is

required

the so-

then of a brownish colour.

OILS.

There are two

distinct species of oils,

;

one

sort,

viscous and greasy to the touch

called " fixed oils ;"

all

of this class are

class,
oils."

and those of the other

without adhesiveness, are termed " essential

FIXED OR SOLID

OILS.

The

true nature of these oils

was not known

until the

experiments of

M.

Chevreuil upon fatty

substances developed their combinations.

This experienced chemist has shown that there

are in these
oils

two distinct substances

oleine,

to these

he has given the names of

and

stearine,

or

LINSEED
margarine.
naturally,

OIL.

53

These substances, which are not acids

becomo so when combined with metallic

oxides.

With

potass and soda, fixed

oils

form soap

oxides of lead give them a drying quality,

and

combine with them so

unguent.
All the fixed
oils

far as to

form a paste or

are subject, in time, to

;

become

thickened by exposure to the air

is

but this operation

more or
oil.

less active,

according to the nature of

the

Some

of them, having naturally a drying

tendency,

will, in

time,

become as hard as the

nut,

driest
oils

resinous substances.

The linseed,

and poppy
It is

used in painting, are of this description.

improbable that others of this class
similar properties,

not

may also possess

in paintin use.

and might be employed

ing with the

I

same advantage as these now

it is

have read in some work that

possible to exoil,

tract

from the stones of

raisins,

a drying
in

said

to be extremely proper to be

employed

making

hard varnish.

LINSEED
This
oil

OIL.

has the

fullest

body, and dries better

than any of the three

its

oils in

use amongst artists

colour

is

a strong yellow, but this effect does not

d3

54
arise

NUT OIL

POPPY OIL.
fire

from the action of the

to which the seed

it.

is

exposed in extracting the

in fact,

oil

from

This colour,

proceeds from the pellicle which covers the

grains,

and which contains a strong colouring matoil.

ter soluble in

Linseed

oil,

cold drawn, as used

in medicine, is equally coloured with the other sort but, like that of wax, this colour is carried off

by

exposure to the sun.

Linseed

oil

is

extensively

employed in the manufacture of hard varnish, because

its
it is

of a

more drying nature, and preserves

oils.

transparency better than the other

NUT

OIL.
oil

When
linseed.

cold drawn, this

has very Httle colour,

less tinge

and the common sort has even a

than

oil

of

Some give it
;

a preference for pictures

besides, it does not

much

exposed to the air

become so
lead.

dark as linseed

oil

by the action of the oxide of

OIL.

OLIVETTE OR POPPY
This
is

the most colourless, but the least drying,

oils.

of the three

As

the poppy plant

is

much

culoil

tivated in Flanders,

we may suppose that

this

has obtained a preference in the school of the

Countries, where the poppy
is

Low

in

many places

called

the

olivette.

TO PREPARE DRYING

OIL.

55
dry,

Although these oils have a natural tendency to

yet this quality
is

not sufficiently strong to overcome

it

the action of some colours which retard

in various

degrees
black,

for instance, the

lakes,

bone or ivory

and particularly the bituminous earths.

is

But

experience, from which this information

derived,

has also taught us, that there

is

a drying power in
the prepara-

some

metallic oxides,
oils,

which

facilitates

tion of

in a

manner that

quite overcomes their

original difficulty in drying.

TO PREPARE DRYING

OIL.

From

the tendency that several of the oxides and

oils,

metallized salts have to unite with

and thus to
a great

render them more drying, has resulted

many
oil.

different receipts for the preparation of drying

Some recommend

sulphate of zinc, calcined

verdigris, plaster of Paris,

umber, oxide of manoil

ganese, &c.

others prefer putting into the

a
all

crust of bread

and a head of
is

garlic.

But, in

these preparations, litharge

the chief ingredient.

The oxide
the
oils,

of lead having the greatest

power over

to

recommend other substances woidd be

superfluous.

In this process litharge, in the proportion of one-

D 4

56

TO PRKPAllE DRYING OIL.

eighth part, should be reduced to the finest powder

this condition is indispensable to its perfect solution.

The

vessel containing the oil and litharge is then

fire,

to be placed on a slow

and frequently stirred

with a spatula

a considerable quantity of
ebullition
is

scum

is

soon formed
as to

and the

so great at times,

make

it

necessary to withdraw the vase, to

prevent the

oil

running over.
disappeared,
;

When the scum has quite

that the
to stand
oil is in
still
;

it is

a sign

a proper state

it is

then allowed

then the litharge which has not

combined

precipitates,

and

in a

few hours the sur-

face of the oil will be covered with a pellicle,

which

indicates that the operation

is

complete.

This preparation
is

is

of a brownish colour, which

it

increased in proportion to the time that

may
fire
;

have been exposed to the action of a strong

it

becomes clear when allowed to

rest,

but

is

never

colourless.

By operating at a lower
oil,

temperature, in
in

a balneum marice (a water bath), or even

water with the
ration,

mixing

and supplying
drying
is

its loss

by evapo-

an

oil

less

obtained, but less cofaint

loured,

which colour grows more

by exposure

to the light.

drying

oil

nearly colourless

may be

obtained

TO plEPARE DRYING
by combining
triturating
this will
linsiJed,

OIL.

57

or nut
for

oil

with litharge, and

;

them together

a considerable time

produce a sort of yellowish creamy

sul)-

stance, which, being allowed to rest, soon

clear
;

becomes

but

if

ther^ be not time to wait, this fluid

may be
goes

filtered

through blotting-paper
AV'ith

it is

then

transparent, but
off"

little

colour,

which soon

when exposed
fall

to the light.
lead,

By

letting

some of the oxide of

which

it

held in solution, this operation

may

be completed in
oil in

a few hours.

It

is

evident that the

combina-

tion with the litharge forms

two

distinct substances

the transparency of the

first is
is

not impaired by the

oxide

it

contains

the other

a thick substance, a
oil is

kind of soap, in which even the

changed, as

if

by the
fully in

alkalies.

This matter

will

be noticed more

the chapter on varnishes.

affinity

The chemical
of lead
is

of the oils and the oxide

such, that they

oil

may be combined by
;

triturating the

with a leaden muller

the

oil

then assumes a gi'ay colour, arising from the solution of the lead
;

this

mixture being collected

in

cup, the metal soon subsides,

floats at the

and the

oil,

which

top, is very clear

and

dries better

because

it

holds in solution a portion of the lead.

litharge

Where

cannot be had, lead D

filings

and

58

ESSENTIAL OILS

OIL OF TURPENTINE.

pieces of flat lead

linseed or nut
oil,

may be

put into a bottle with

;

and frequently shaken

oil

in

a few

days this

will

produce an

almost colourless, and

capable of drying the lakes, as well as the ochres.

As

the drying oils become fat in a short time,

it is

best to prepare only a small quantity at once.

ESSENTIAL
This class of
the solid
oils
;

OILS.

oils

has very different qualities from

these are thin in consistency, are

caustic, odorous,

and

easily ignite at the near ap-

proach of any flaming substance.

OIL OF TURPENTINE.

This spirit

is

much used

in

oil

painting,

and

in

the preparation of varnish.

lation,

It is prepared,

by

distil-

from the rough turpentine of commerce, which

fir

exudes from the pine, larch, and

properly distilled, this essence

trees.

When

is

without colour
be rendered

when

it

has an amber

tint,

it

may

colourless, without

a new

distillation,

by merely mix-

ing with

it

little

quick lime in powder, and shaking

;

the vessel with the mixture for some time

lime precipitating, carries with
ter,
will
it

the

the colouring mat-

and when

this has quite subsided, the essence

be as clear as water.

To

hasten the separation

OIL OF SPIKE ROSEMARY OIL

of the lime

NAPHTHA. 59

is

easiV done, by filtering the mixture

through unsized pa^er.

i>IL

OF SPIKE.
by
distillation,
is

This

oil

is

dra\\n,

from a large
in

species of lavender, which

very

common

the

ancient province of Langiiedoc.

in

It is called " aspic"

oil

commerce.

Thii
it

oil

is

adulterated with

of

turpentine,
sort
is

and

b probable that even the best

made by

distlling that essence several times

with lavender or asjic flowers.

Reaumur has
This
oil

suc-

ceeded

in dissolving copal in
oil

it.

has more

body than

of turpentine, and from this I infer

that Reaumur's varnish ought to be very durable.

ROSEMARY

OIL.

It is probable that this oil is

prepared as the
full

last-

mentioned
spike
oil,

oil.

It has

not so

a body as the

and
and

is
it

therefore better calculated to

make

varnish,

appears to have a stronger action

on copal.

NAPHTHA,
Called also volatile
is

oil

of petrolium, or " rock oil,"

in

collected

among the rocks

Italy

and other
it,

places.

very strong odour exhales from

simiis

lar to that of turpentine.

The Persian naphtha

D 6

60

NAPHTHA.

greatly celebrated, and

facture of varnish.

much employed in the manu-

It is probable that the ancients

made

their varnish by dissolving resinous substances

in naphtha.
less
;

When

distilled, it is perfectly

colour-

it

may

thus be used in the preparation of

the varnishes.

Armenini,

in chapter ix. of his

book, gives re-

ceipts for different sorts of varnish,

and describes
and of

one,

composed of naphtha

(oglio di sasso)

turpentine (ogho di abesso), which, he assures us,

was used by Parmegiano and CoiTcgio.'

Oil of naphtha, as well as those of lavender

and

rosemary, gives out so strong an odour, that in this

respect
it

makes the use of them rather disagi'eeable.

In the sixth volume of the Annals of Chemistry,

we

find a receipt of

Monsieur de Saussure's for deits

stroying the odour of naphtha, without altering

powers of

solution.

The same method

oils,

is

equally

applicable to other volatile

and when so pre-

pared, there would be nothing to prevent their being

employed
*

in the preparation of varnish.^

See, at page 33, the note relative to the varnish described by

Armenini.
'

This process consists in mixing, by small portions at a time,

the sulphuric acid of

commerce with
air,

oil of

naphtha, and then

al-

lowing this combination to remain in contact for several days in a

flask well closed

from the

taking care to shake the vessel fre-

ITALIAN VARXISH.

61

SECTION

II.

TO PREPARE VARNSHES PROPER FOR PAINTING.

ITALIAN VARNISH.
I

have already noticed the strong

oil

prepared in

Italy from a very remote period, and which pos-

sesses the double ad'^antage of drying well, and pre-

venting the flowing ^bout of the most liquid glazing.

fire,

It is

prepared by incorporating, over a slow

liuseed or nut
oil,

two parts of

with one part

of litharge, ground as fine as possible.^

The mix-

ture must be frequer.tly stirred with a spatula, to

quicken the operation.

The combination

is

com-

pleted in a longer or shorter period according to

the quantity of the materials employed.

ascertained by dropping a small quantity of
flag,

This
it

is

on a

or other cold surface, when,

if it

fixes in cool-

ing, like tallow,

the operation

is

rightly

done

if

not,

quently.

This operation gives a black sediment, or precipitate,

tlie
off,

which appears

to be a combination of sulpliuric acid and odorous principle of the oil. The clear liquor is then drawn

and the portion of acid with which it is united is removed from it by saturating the liquid with a solution of caustic potass or quick lime will do equally well. Annates de Chemie et de Physique, 1817, tome vi. p. 308.
;

Nut

oil

gives less colour in this preparation than the

oil

of

linseed.

62
then

ITALIAN VAENISH.
it is
:

clear that the process has been stopped too

oil

soon

the

must again be placed on the

fire,

and
it.

about a sixth part of pure white wax added to

This
is

useful in

all

cases, to give

a firmer consist-

ence to the preparation.

When
is

the

wax is

entirely

incorporated, the mixture

to be

thrown on the

grinding slab, and

it

should be ground well with the

muUer

to prevent any separation, and to cause the

parts to be perfectly united.

In using this

oil,

some mastic varnish must be

palette.

added to

it,

and well mixed upon the

soft

This

mixture forms a

pomatum-like substance, which

flows freely in the pencil, and which remains in its

place, without flowing about.
It is therefore

proper
it

for glazing

but the addition of varnish to

its

is

necessary to prevent
it

frothing under the brush, as

this accident

would do hke soap, and

would preThis comit is

vent the work from being clearly seen.

bination
is in fact

a soap, which, except that

all

not

soluble in water, has

the other qualities of the comoils

mon

soap formed by the union of

and

alkalies.
it

It would, therefore,

be better to prepare
;

in

boiling water, as

we prepare common soap

for it is
fire

not easy so to regulate the temperature of the

that
it

shall not

exceed the proper degree, and the

is

heat of boiling water

always the same.

As

the

TO MAKE FLANDERS VARNISH,

63

water evaporates, more water must be added; and

when the union

of the materials

is

completed, the
is

water remaining at the bottom of the vessel

colourless,

found

and has a sweetish

taste.

To

this liquid

the

name

glycerine {the saccharine principle of oils)

has been given.

Also, by a long continued trituration, the

same

combination could be formed, which would have less

colour, especially
It is of
if

we use

oil clarified

in the sun.

much importance
should
it

that the litharge be

pure

for,

contain oxide of copper, this

oil,

substance would be dissolved by the

give the varnish a greenish tint.

and would

TO MAKE FLANDERS VARNISH.

Dissolve grain mastic in alcohol
is
:

this operation

requisite to

detach the impurities which are

resin.

mixed with the

ought to be

The proportion

of spirits

sufficient to cover the mastic,

its surface.

and one-

fourth part more above

The
heat
:

solution

must be carried on with a very slow

is

when

completed, the liquid

;

muddy, but

it

clears very well in a short time

as the impurity falls

to the bottom, this subsidence

may be
freed

accelerated

by

filtering the

mixture through cotton.

The preparation being thus

rities,

from

all
is

imputo be

one-eighth part of fine white

wax

64-

TO MAKE FLAXDERS VARXISH.

it,

added to

and the mixture

is

then to be fused

in

a balneum marice (water bath);

melted,
it

when thoroughly

should be thrown into a bason of cold

it is

water, where

to be

worked with two wooden

spatulas, care being taken not to let the fingers

touch

it,

for

it is it

so

clammy that

it

would be

diffi-

cult to

remove

from the skin. from

During

this operation the alcohol separates

itself

the resin and wax, uniting

with the water,

and the substance becomes more firm by degrees,

so that at length
it

may be handled without

the

danger of

its

sticking to the fingers, provided that

they are kept wet.

The composition

is

then formed

into balls, or rolls, which

may
is

be preserved to any

period by keeping

them from

dust.

The mastic of commerce

sandarach
;

sometimes mixed with

but

it is

easy to discover this adulterain the cold

tion at the time of

working the mixture

water, for the spirit of wine, though weakened by

the water,

still

holds the sandarach in solution

it,

it

carries that resin with

and

this combination, in

precipitating, gives the water a milky colour.

this happens, the

When

mixture

is

to be

washed

until the

water comes away quite clear.

To make use
tion of
it is
oil,

of this prepared substance, a por-

to be melted, at a slow heat, in white

;

drying

nearly equal parts of each

when

united

TO MAKE FLANDERS VARXISH.

its fitness
is

DO

to le tried on the palette with the

knife
if

and

if it is

found too
oil.

soft,

add the mixture

too hard, add t\e

As this compouid contains drying

soon formed on
adviseable not to
2ielt

oil,

pellicle is

its surface, for which reason it would be

a greater quantity of it than

could be used in a few days, and to keep it under water.

Or the mastic and

Take

oil

may

also

be combined thus

forty graiis of mastic varnish,

oil

made with
;

equal parts of mastic and

of turpentine
oil,

Forty grains of nut, or poppy

sun

clarified in

the

Five grains of acetate of lead in powder: expose them to a

ligl.t

ebullition in a

balneum marice,

and then pour the mixture

it

into pure water,

and

stir

for

some

time, renewing the water to carry the

portion of acetate uot combined.

If

we

could get genuine mastic, free from im-

purities

and

adulteration, there
it

would not be any

;

occasion to dissolve

in alcohol

it

could be melted

and incorporated
rendered fine

at

once,

and then washed and

in the cold water.

We
all

may

also,

with equal success, dissolve the

oil.

mastic in clear drying

Allowing

it

to rest until

the earthy particles have subsided, and then

it

drawing

off carefully,

add the wax as before.

66

ENGLISH VARNISH

OIL COPAL VAIIN'ISH.

ENGLISH VARNISH.

When

mastic varnish

is

mixed with drying

oil

which holds litharge

in solution, the

mixture soon
;

assumes the appearance of a firm

strong in proportion
litharge,

jelly

which

is

as

greater quantity

of

and a stronger varnish, have been used.

its

This substance holds

place on the palette like

its place.

the colours, never moving from

The peculiar nature

brush with great

of this mixture

makes it parunder the

ticularly useful in glazing, for it flows

facility.

But

instead of using

brown drying
is

oil, it

would

be preferable to use that which

fire.

prepared without

It is also better that the mastic

full

should be
smaller in

of a

body

for if the essential

oil

is

proportion to the resin, the drying quality will be

less active,

and the operations can therefore be

carried on in painting,

much

longer, without being

interrupted by the vehicle becoming too thick.

OIL COPAL VARNISH.

This varnish has been known a long time, and

has, in all probabihty, been used by
Italian painters, as, I believe, it

many

of the

was by Fra Bartobril-

lomeo, whose pictures are remarkable for the

OIL COPAL VARNISH.

liancy of their colours.

Its preparation is thus de-

scribed by Theophilus, in his

work already men-

tioned
vessel
;

Put some
then add a

linseed oil into a

new earthen
the resin

sufficient quantity of resin called

;

fornis,

ground to an impalpable powder

resembles very
fracture
is

much transparent
;

incense, but its

brighter
let
it

place the mixture on lighted

it is

charcoal,

and
;

digest until

reduced to one
it

third part
shall

but great care must be taken that

not boil over, or the flame rise high enough to

it,

communicate with
instantly,

as

it

would then blaze out

difficult

and
it.

it

would be extremely

to

extinguish

Pictures prepared with this varnish

are brilliant, and remain without any alteration.'

ANOTHER METHOD.
Place around a brazier three or four granite or other
stones capable of resisting the action of
fire
;

upon
ves-

these supports
sel

is

to be placed a

common earthen

containing the resin fornis, called by the

Homans
gummi
luci-

'

Pone oleum

lini

in ollani

novam parvulam,

et

adde

quod vacatur for ins, minutissime tritum, quod babet speciem

dissimi tburis; sed

cum

frangitur, fulgorem clariorem reddit;

sic,

quod

cum

super carbones posueris, coque diligenter

tertia pars

ut non bulliat,

donee

consumatur

et

cave a flamma, quod periculosum

est nirais et difficile extinguitur si accendatur.

Hoc

glutine

om-

nis pictura

super

linit.i

lucida

fit

et

decora ac omnino durabilis.

68
glassa

OIL COPAL VAR^'ISH.

cover the vessel with a smaller one, pierced

:

with holes in the bottom

closely that the vapour

lute

them together so

may
is

not escape between

their joints

the resin

to

be stirred

with a

crooked iron rod, furnished with a handle, and the

melting of
it

carefully ascertained.
oil is

Meanwhile, some linseed

to be prepared in

another place, and poured, by degrees, in a boiling

state on the melted resin, at the

moment when
which
it will

it is

completely

fluid.

This state of it can be ascertained

off

by drawing out the iron rod,

in threads.

run

Stir

it

well, to assist the incorporation,

fire
;

and

let it

remain some time longer on the

try it occasionally, by dropping

some of

it

on a
it

piece of

wood

or stone, to ascertain whether

has

a proper consistency.

The
is,

best proportion of the materials to be used

resin,

one part

and two linseed

it

oil

when
it

suffi-

ciently boiled, take

'

off the fire,

and set

to cool.'

Compone quatuor

vel tres lapides qui possent

'\tk

ut resiliant, et super ipsos

supra dictum
foramen.

gummi

fornis

ignem sustinere pone ollam rudem, et in earn mitte quod Romana glassa vocatur et super
;

OS hujus ollae pone ollam niinorem quae habeat in fundo

modicum

Et circum

lineas ei

pastam

ita ut nihil

spiraminis inter

ipsas ollas exeat.

situra,

Habebis etiam ferrum gracile manubrio impo-

ut

carbones positam, in qua

unde commovebis ipsum gummi et cum quo sentire possis Habebis quoque ollam tertiam super omnino liquidum fiat. sit oleum calidum et cum gummi penitiis
;

liquidum

fuerit, ita ut

extreme ferro quasi filum trahatur, infunde

OIL COPAL VARXISH.

69

We are

not aware what kind of resin Theophilus

designates as fortiis and glassa Romana.

We

do
in-

not find these terms in our glossaries

quiry proves, that there
is

but every

not any other resin to

which

this description

would apply. The American

copal was not

known

in the time of Theophilus, but

the Italian painters must have been long acquainted

with that of India

and

it is

from that region that

is

the greatest proportion of the copal of commerce

still

brought.
described

The two methods

employed.

may be

successfully

And

it is

worthy of remark, that the

oil,

proportion of one part of resin, to two of

must

produce so strong a varnish that

possible to use
it

it
it

would not be
with an addi-

without diluting

tional quantity of oil.

If the text be correct,

we must
:

suppose that only a part of the resin was dissolved

for

when

the whole

is

to be united,

it

will require

four or five parts of

oil

to one part of copal.

am

also of opinion, that the intention of Theophilus, in

directing that the

oil

should not be boiled, was,

ei

oleum calidum,
et

et ferro

commove,

et

insimul coque ut non bul-

liat,

interdum extrahe ferrum et

lini

modice super lignum sive

;

super lapidem ut probes diversitatem ejus

et

hoc caveas in pon-

dere ut sint duae partes olei et tertia gummi.

Cumque

ad libitum

tuum

coxeris, diligenter ab igne

removens

et

discoperiens refrige-

rari sine.

70
that
its

OIL COPAL VARNISH.

ebullition

might not become gaseous, and

rush out of the vessel.

Gum copal will

moment
we
of which

neither melt, nor combine with

oil,

until the latter is at the boiling point.

This

is

the

we ought

to take advantage, if

desire to have a varnish very slightly coloured.

When

the operation

is

carried

on

in a glass
it

matob-

trass, all the points

connected with

may be
it is

served with exactness, and in this way

also the

most

likely to succeed.

For
neck,'

this purpose a glass mattrass,

is

with a short

used

this is to

be

filled

about two-thirds,
oil

with a mixture containing five parts of nut

part of copal, finely powdered.

and one

To prevent any risk in

approaching the
fully,

fire,

and to manage the process care-

the neck of the mattrass must be carefully

fastened by iron wire to the end of a long forked stick.

Thus prepared, the operator holds the mattrass over

a furnace
filled

with ignited charcoal, without any

flame, and care

must be taken not to bring it forward

too suddenly.

When the oil has acquired a heat supe;

rior to boiling water, the copal is seen in agitation,

ascending to the surface of the liquid

*

the tempe-

neck of the retort was long, the water which is evolved with the other vapours would condense, and, flowing back again
If the

into the vessel, would cause those explosions that are always dis-

agreeable,

if

not alarming.

12

OIL COPAL VARXISH.

71

rature rises progressively

the resin ascends in a

greater volume

and vapour begins to leave the

:

aperture of the vessel

by degrees this becomes

;

abundant, and
oil

fills all

the vase

the surface of the

to boil,

tumifies like milk

in

when about
if

and

it

would evaporate

foam

the vessel w^ere not re-

moved

little

from the

fire.

This

is

the
:

moment
the
oil,

at which

the copal begins to dissolve

changing to a state of

va})our, has acquired the pro-

per degree of heat to effect that object, and, by

giving gently a rotatory motion to the mass, the

white vapours and scum soon disappear, and the

fire

being seen clearly through the liquid, indicates

is

that the operation

complete.*

When

the copal has not been well ground, some

small lumps will appear, which could not be dis-

solved because of their size

but this

may be done by

prolonging the ebullition

the varnish would of course

become more coloured by remaining longer exposed

to the
to
fire.

It

would, therefore, be better, previous

to
sieve,

the

operation,

pass the
or
still

pulverized

copal
it

through a silken

better to grind

'

When

the

oil

has been exposed a sufficient length of time to

it

the rays of the sun,

no longer

tumifies, neither does

it

give out

any scum. Should

it

have become very viscous,

six parts of oil

must

be added, otherwise the varnish will be too thick for use.

72

OIL COPAL VARKISH.

well with oil before

it

is

put into the mattrass

this will certainly quicken the operation,

and con-

sequently the varnish will be less coloured.

The mattrass might be

placed in a sand bath, and

allowed to remain there without being stirred until

the whitish vapours begin to
oil
fill

up the cavity, and the

mounting in foam, it would be in danger of rushing

;

out ofthe vessel

but

in this case
fire

the operation would

be

much slower, and the

must be much stronger,

to bring the sand up to the degree of heat required.

I

have tried to produce this combination

but did not succeed
;

in

a silver

vessel,

for the external air

it

prevented the resin from heating, and

softened, though coloured strongly.*
It
is,

was merely

therefore, better to
is

employ a mattrass
;

in

which the heat

to give

strong,

and kept nearly equal

but,

more

certainty to the operation, I would

advise that no

more than one or two ounces of

;

copal
in-

should be dissolved at a time

but should

it

be

tended to melt several pounds at one time, recourse

must be had
1

to the second process of Theophilus,

we should always succeed in diswhen reduced to an impalpable powder, if we took the pains to project it in small portions upon the boiling oil, and then waiting patiently until that was dissolved ere we added another part of the powder but varnish made in this way would
I

am

quite persuaded that

solving the copal

no doubt be a good deal coloured.

OIL COPAL VARXISH.

the same that
oil

"3
/

which, as

have stated,

is

is
;

followed
substi-

at the present day in

making

varnish

tuting a mattrass of copper, with a wide opening,

instead

of the two vases luted together at their

edges.

This mattrass should be furnished with two

it,

handles, for the convenience of removing

and

its

edge should be surrounded by a ledge, which

form a channel
:

will
for,

this is a

most

useful

appendage

without the greatest care in constantly stirring the

substance,
into flame,
it

foams, rushes forth, and would burst

it

were

not prevented by this trough.

With this apparatus five or six pounds of copal may be fused at a time. Some very experienced manufacturers have assured me, that this quantity
is

the most proper

is

they say that

if

only one pound

used, the varnish imbibes a strong colour,

and

that only the

used.

same thing will occur

if

ten pounds are

But

know

not why, witii an apparatus proto dissolve a

perly constructed,

we should be unable

pound of copal into the best varnish.

As soon
\

as the copal begins to dissolve, whitish

apours arise from the neck of the mattrass, which

increase
stirred

abundantly

it

must then be

carefully

about with a

fine iron spatula, to

prevent

the melting resin from boiling over, and to accele-

74

OIL COPAL VARNISH.

rate the fusion by changing the

surface.

The

process

is

complete when we no longer obsers^e

any more pieces of copal floating about, and when,

in

drawing forth the spatula, the resin runs rapidly

in drops,

and

falls off

without forming threads.

Upon

this fused matter the boiling linseed oil is

it

to be poured slowly, stirring

well at the

same

time to insure
of the boiling
resin,

its

union

because the temperature

oil

being inferior to that of the melted

its fluidity if

the latter would lose

it

the

oil

was

poured upon
imperfect.

at once,

and their union would be

When
spatula
is

this incorporation has taken place,

the

drawn

out,

and some of the

:

liquid is drop-

ped on a piece of glass

fectly transparent, the

should the drops be peris

union

complete

if

cloudy,
fire

then the mattrass

until the

is

allowed to remain on the

;

drops become transparent

is

this

soon takes

place,

but the varnish

of a higher colour.

-When

this operation has terminated, there only

oil

remains to be added the mixture that degree of

for this

of turpentine, to give the

fluidity
is

which
taken

is

desirable

purpose the mattrass

its orifice well

off the fire,

having

covered with a wet cloth, to

prevent the oily vapour from expanding, the odour

OIL COPAL VARNISH,

of which
first
oil

is

very disagreeable
little,

the mixture

is

allowed
volatile

to cool a

merely to prevent the

from becoming

ignited.

The manufacturers
which the operation

of varnish usually dissolve

their copal in the open air, to prevent the accidents

to
is

exposed by catching
is

fire

a single spark from the furnace

ignite the vapour,

sufficient to

which issues

in

a large quantity

from the mattrass.

Whenever

this happens, the

it

flame must be stifled by throwing over

cloth,

a wet

kept ready for that purpose

but a coverlid,
still

furnished with several folds of cloth, would be

better, for,

by

its

handle,

it

may be

applied in-

stantly to the vessel.

But these accidents could not happen

fiu"nace

if

the

was constructed so as to prevent

fire

all

com-

munication between the

if

and the vapour, and

they would use a very simple apparatus, which

one of the most experienced manufacturers has

had constructed, according to an idea which

communicated to him

the contrivance not only

prevents the possibility of the vapour igniting, but

the bad smell
is also
is

destroyed by

it.

This apparatus
tunnel, about

composed of a

tin or copper
is

two

feet in length,

which

inserted
is

into the neck of the mattrass,

and the upper end

76
closed with

OIL COPAL VARNISH.

iron wire

the

vapours easily pass

:

through, become inflamed, and burn like gas

the
is
;

neck of the mattrass, into which this tunnel

fixed, is sloped

and resembles the neck of a

is

flask

upon

this

inclined plane

tabular

opening,

stop})cd with a cork,

which can be taken out to

allow of the resin being stirred with the spatula.

The same manufacturer using

it

in the

open

air,

and finding that the wind extinguished the flame,

conceived the plan of substituting, for the straight
tunnel already mentioned, one of a curved form,

which descended near the ground.

condensed in this tunnel
collected,
;

The fumes
which,

and, cooling readily, he

by

distillation, volatile oil of copal,

^\hen rectified,

may become
in

very useful.

In this way he obtained the double purpose he

had

in view,

preventing accidents from

fire,

and

in destroying the offensive smell.

The

safety and

salubrity of this method,

it is

hoped, will encourage

our varnish-makers to abandon the barbarous me-

thod now

generally

in

use,

and that they

will

adopt this apparatus, which

improved.
It is

may

be

still

further

recommended

to use a strong heat in melt-

ing the copal.

This resin being a bad conductor,

it

the caloric penetrates

very slowly

and the part

OIL COPAL VAUKISII.

77

first dissolved

gets browner in proportion to the

fire.

time

it

is

exposed to the action of the

Al-

ways near the

taken that the

close of the operation, care nuist be

fire

be not too strong

too great an
it

elevation of the

temperature would cause

it

to

explode

and for this reason

would be proper to
it

arrange the furnace in such a way as that

be moderated at
will, or,

may
to

which

is

not

difficult,

have the power of interrupting

with the mattrass.
coloured
if

its

communication

The

varnish would be less

it fuses,

the copal could be drawn off as

oil.

and then incorporated with the

This object

would be obtained by means of an ingenious apparatus which T'lngry has proposed for a different
purjjose,

and of which the original idea

Varnishes^''''
it

is

to be

found in a " Treatise on

by P. Bonnani.,
This

who

states that he
is

had

from a German.^
cylindrical

apparatus

composed of a

furnace,

either cast or of earthenware, with holes properly

arranged around

its

diameter, to introduce the air

required in the combustion.

At the bottom
in

of this

furnace

is

an opening of circular shape,

which

" Trattato sopra vernice delta

communemente

'

Cinese,'

dai

Filippo Bonnani, della compagnia di Gesu."

translated into the

This work has been

French language, and the translation has the

rare merit of being faithful to the original text.

E 3

78

OIL COPAL VARNISH.

should be placed a crucible of conical form

this is

open at both ends, the upper being intended to

receive a lid closely fitted on.

In this crucible a bag of metallic wire

placed, similar in form, but smaller, that
it

is

to be

may not

touch
wire
;

it

in

any point

it

is

secured by hooks of

this

bag

is

then

filled

with copal reduced

lid,
it is

to very small pieces, and directly closed with a

which

is

firmly fixed by

means

of iron wire,

and

luted by a mixture of argill and sand.

The

crucible, being thus prepared,

its

is

so placed in

the furnace that

aperture will be exactly in the

it is

direction of the opening in which

fixed

the

furnace
ble
is

is

then placed upon a tripod, and the cruci-

surrounded with lighted charcoal. The caloric

it

soon penetrates to the copal, which, as

flows
oil,

melts,

down

into a vase containing boiling linseed

it

with which

is

incorporated by being stirred

iron.
is

up with a spatula of
Whilst the copal

melting, a great quantity of

vapour issues from the crucible, and, being drawn

towards the
air

opening in the furnace, would

if

in-

flame very quickly,

cut
off".

the communication was not

This

may

be done by a large plate of iron, with

an opening

in it of the diameter of the crucible, the

OIL COPAL VARNISH.

79

lower end of which

is left

outside the furnace, and by

directing the vapour in a particular channel.

This

can be done more simply by covering with wire

the air-holes of the furnace, as the ignition
will

only

take place on the outside of the wire.

As

the copal
is

will

not incorporate with the

oil, if

the latter
to have
it

not actually boiling, care must be taken

;

quite ready

for the

moment

that the fur-

nace

is

lighted the copal begins to melt.

proport/ion of oil

The

employed must be deterto be

mined by the species of varnish intended

made.

Four or

five

parts of linseed

oil

to one of

resin will give a varnish that mixes easily \\ith the

colours,
brilliant

and which renders them more

without drying more rapidly.
is

full

and

If a

more

quickly drying varnish

oil

required, only
;

two parts of

should at

first
it

be added

the varnish will then be

;

so thick that

cannot be used

but, before
oil

it

cools,

two other parts of white drying

may be

added,

which must previously be heated to the same temperature.

Finally, should a varnish be required for covering

pictures

when they

are completely dry, only one part

:

of

oil is

required for two of copal

oil

this should be

afterwards diluted with

to give
it

of turpentine, sufficient

the proper degree of fluidity.

E 4

80
Linseed
oil,

PICTURE VARXISH.
even when very clear,
it

still

contains
purified

some mucilage, from which

previous to the operation
:

must be

this

may be done by
of the

exposing

it

for

some weeks

to the rays

sum'

Drying

oil is

employed
oil

in the varnish

which
;

is

afterwards mixed with

that
oil

of turpentine

and as

must be

in a boiling state,

some precaubecoming too

boil

tions ought to be taken to prevent its

highly coloured.
it

It will, therefore,
fire,

be best to

first

over a slow

with only a sixth part of

;

litharge finely ground, and then filtered

is it

when

it

thus sepai'ated from the uncombined litharge,

may

be boiled without danger of

its

growing

darker.

PICTURE VARNISH.

The

usual

method of preparing
oil

this varnish is

by
it

dissolving mastic in

of turpentine, adding to
:

a sufficient quantity of fine turpentine

paration has a
full

this prebril-

body,

is

viscous,

and gives

The blanching

of the

oil

maybe much
effect

accelerated by exposing
;

it to

the action of the sun in shallow saucers of porcelain

five or

six days will produce as

extended surface as

upon the shallow liquid with could be effected in six months upon the

much

quantity contained in a pint bottle.


PICTUHE VARXISH.
liancy to tbe varnish.
it

81

But
its

have ah-eady stated

is
:

not durable, from

it

containing an excess of

oil

only dries on the surface, and this causes

;

the picture to crack

it

would, therefore, be better

to omit the turpentine,

and to increase the quantity

proportions

of mastic.

The

following

may

be

used

100 parts of mastic, 200 of

oil

of turpentine.

The

best mastic should always be chosen for this

;

purpose

but as the impm-e parts are not soluble in

oil, its

the essential

colour

is

not injured by them

they naturally separate and descend, leaving the

solution transparent
;

or

it

may be

filtered

through

a tunnel with a piece of cotton in

it.

The

solution of the mastic

it
;

may

be accelerated

by grinding

but

it

dissolves so readily that this

:

may be
and

dispensed with

in fact

it

melts as soon as

the heat reaches the boiling point, and even sooner;

if

only the sun's heat

is

used, you will have

a colourless varnish.*

Should the above prepara-

tion produce too strong a varnish, the addition of

'

If the solution is to be

made by

the heat of the sun,

it

will

be requisite to reduce the mastic to a very fine powder,

to

add the

spirit of turpentine

by small portions, at

and only the same

time stirring the mixture with a spatula until they are completely
incorporated.


82
oil

PICTURE VARNISH.
of turpentine will give
it

the consistency re-

quired.

Copal varnish could be used advantageously for

the
first

couch instead of mastic.

Its superior
effects
is

solidity will preserve the

work from the

of

frequent washing
fectly dry,

and when the picture

per-

fine

couch of mastic

may be

laid

on

it,

which at any time may be removed without

least

in the
artists

endangering the glazing.

But many
it

object to the use of copal varnish, because

slight colour, like amber,

has h

and cannot be made as

is

colourless as mastic

yet this

not the fact

for I

have succeeded

in

doing so by following Reaumur''s

method, by dissolving, without heat, the softer copal

it is

longer in drying, but

is

very proper for pic-

tures.

The method

is

to

add the dissolvent by

degrees, adding, each day,

some

fresh material, as

the former portion becomes absorbed.

Reaumur used
affinity for copal
oil is

oil

of spike,
oil

which has more

;

than

of turpentine

but as that

more

solid,

and evaporates more slowly than

it

the

latter, I

have only used

to soften the copal,

and have

finished the operation with the essence in

:

the following manner

I

have reduced to powder the softer kinds of

fine copal,

and have ground

it

in

a mortar of porce-

PICTURE VARNISH.
lain,

83
of lavender, the

with a
I

little

of the volatile
;

oil

purest

could obtain

the copal
;

is

soon softened,
then allow
;

and becomes a

sort of thick jelly

it

to remain for a day,

stimng

it

occasionally

on

the following day

oil,

added a few drops of turpentine

this

and triturated them together, continuing

treatment until the union was complete,

occupied three weeks in summer.
I

which

have also

employed aether to commence the solution, and

finished as before.

This operation would be completed in a shorter

time by heating
dissolvent
it

in

some degree

but then the

:

must be added drop by drop

is

for

when

the solution
oil

nearly complete, should too

much

be added,

it will

not combine, and even a separaoil

tion takes place between the

and the resin

off,

when

this happens, the oil

must be drawn
I

and

returned in smaller portions.

tial
oil

have used the essenit

of rosemary for that of spike, and

effect

ha.s

produced an

much more
if

rapidly in dissolving

the copal, particularly added.

little spirit

of wine be

The

latter oil is

more drying, and would

;

be most useful in the preparation of varnish

its
it,

but

odour

is

so strong that few persons like to use

though, as I have stated before, that pungent

smell

may

be prevented.

E 6

CHAPTER

III.

ON THE USE OF VARNISH WITH THE COLOURS.

Of

the four species of varnish, which

have just

described, the process for

making the copal varnish

:'

appears to

me

entitled to a decided preference

brilliancy
it

it

gives greater

and transparency to the

dries slowly

colour

and though

enough to
it

allow of the most careful execution, yet

completely, and becomes very durable.

dries

It is not
it

so firm on the palette as the others; but

may
it

be prevented from running down by adding to

little

mastic, wax, or hard sperm.

I

In the following

chapter

shall

point out the precautions to be

it is

attended to when

used in glazing.

The

selec-

tion of these varnishes chiefly depends

' It has been already remarked Prudhon always used during the

upon the use

that this

is

the varnish whicli

of his
life.

latter years
is

His

picture of Christ on the cross, in the Louvre,

painted with this

it

varnish

and we can there judge of the

effect

is

capable of

producing.

ON THE USE OF VARNISH,

they

&;C.

85

may be

a])plied to,
in

and the peculiar habitudes

less

of each artist
hquid.

working with colours more or

When

it

is

intended to paint up at once on a

very smooth ground, a very viscous varnish must

be rubbed over the surface, or the colours

will

not

adhere to
stiff

it;
;

this
it will

ought to be rubbed on with a very

give a body to the colour, ren-

brush
it

dering

fine,

and preventing a fresh touch from

it is laid.

taking off that on which

Should

it

be required to glaze a great portion of

a picture, the varnish must be

made

liquid

enough

to flow freely under the pencil, without spreading

beyond the place to which

cases a
little

it

is

applied.

In such

practice will soon teach us to choose

it

the best for our purpose, observing that

can be

rendered more solid by the addition of the copal.

It

often happens that very skilful painters have

;

not any great facility of hand

as

some are

obliged,

were

Leonardo da Vinci, Dominichino, and

E-embrandt, to return several times to their work.

Those, therefore,

who have a

similar slowness of

execution, should be careful in their

commence;

ment

to use colours of a very drying nature

for

colours that are slow in drying are

more

liable to

be disturbed and altered.

When

the work

is

not intended to be painted

86
I

OK GLAZING.
it

up at once, and when

is

necessary to return

several times to the principal parts, there

must not
and but
It is in

be any varnish used

in the first painting,

a small quantity in the next operations.

the finishing that
of the colour
is

all

the transparency and brilliancy

:

to be brought forward

and,

more
com-

especially to prevent absorption, to secure the

plete drying of the colours in the lower as well as

the upper couches,

it

will

be found useful to use

distemper grounds.^

SECTION

I.

ON GLAZING.

The
is

effect

produced by the colours used

it is

in glazing

such, that

impossible to produce any thing

it

like it

with solid colour;

forms a distinct series of

impossible to represent

tints, \\athout

which

it
it is

is

transparent objects ;
ing owes
as
it

to this

power that oil

paint-

its

supremacy over distemper painting ; but

is

of great consequence to imitate the trans-

parency of nature, so we should be careful so to use

our means as not to overlook the advantages derivable

from the contrast of unglazed colours.

It is
is

a fault of the Flemish school that their glazing

'

See Chapter V.

On

the preparation of panels

and primed

cloths.

ON GLAZING.
sometimes applied in

87

wrong

situations,

and where,

had the

colours remained opaque, a better effect

would have been produced.

a clear water near a rock, or

Suppose, for instance,

fine

bank,

it is

evident

that the opaque bodies should be

painted with

mat

or dull colours, and then the glazing employed

in giving transparency to the water

would produce

a more natural
Glazing
it is

effect.

never rightly performed except when

the picture
the
effect

gives

to

of

coloured

varnish.

To

obtain

this

essential
it

object,

the

varnish

should be well prepared,

should flow freely in

its

the pencil, and not spread beyond

place

and

the colours should be prepared and ground as finely

as possible.^
ditions,

By

attending carefully to these con-

such opaque colours as vermillion, the oxides

of iron, and even Naples yellow,

glazing,

may be used

in

and produce

tints that

cannot be obtained

by any other means.

soon as the picture
is

It is always best to glaze as

dry enough to prevent the

it

glazing being absorbed ;

then forms a union with

the colours beneath

off in the cleaning.

it,

and is less liable to be scoured

This, however,
is

not always

'

The perfect

trituration

of the colours increases their bright-

ness and transparency.

88
possible

ON GLAZING.
with

some

glazings

which

affect

the

general tone of the picture, and which cannot be

used until

it is

nearly completed.

With

respect to the glazing

on solid colour,

which we see so frequently practised in the works

of Rubens, and which are the most lasting, they

must have been touched on when the colours on

which they are
laid

had become firm enough not

t<>

be disturbed by the pencil.

It

sometimes happens that the parts to be glazed

dry,

become too
like

and then the glazing runs

:

off

them

water from an oiled surface

when

copal var-

nish has been used, the

this accident.

work

is

particularly liable to
it is

In such a case

best to wash

the part with alcohol and

warm

water, mixing after-

wards some drops of alcohol

in the glazing, or moi.s:

tening the brush in that liquid

glazing
lie

this will
It

make

the

on quite smoothly.

would answer

equally well to apply at first a very light couch of the

drying

oil

and mastic varnish described at page 81.

is

The

intention in glazing pictures

to give a

natural and agreeable mellowness to the execution

of the work.

For

this reason

it is,

that those parts

of the picture intended to be glazed should be painte<l

with firmness in solid colour.

in

It should be borne
is

mind, however, that softness

not

neces.saril}

ON GLAZING.
the result of glazing

89

and the pictures of the great

masters of the Venetian and Flemish schools give

abundant evidence of that

fact.

In glazing,

it is

of

great importance that we should take into account

the change that time occasions in the colours of

oil

and varnishes.

It

is,

as

we

shall

prove in the

next paragraph, quite inevitable that they should

take a yellowish tone, of a lighter or deeper shade

according to the time they

therefore, such precautions

may have been

painted

must be taken as

will

prevent, as far as possible, so great a disadvantage.*

For

this purpose,

when bright

parts are glazed, to

which even a

slight tinge of yellow

would be a
smallest

disadvantage, there should be only the

portion of
oil

used.

Besides, the glazing ought to

allow for the alteration which this yellow tone will

produce in the original colour.

For instance,
it

if
is

we wish

to glaze a grey

shadow upon white,

better that the violet should predominate than the

*

Several of Titian's pictures are covered with a bistry

tlie

tint,

pro-

duced by

varnish used in their glazings having turned yellow.

in the pictures of

Such changes are not observable

Neither
is
:

Fra Bartolomeo

a fact which proves that the latter employed a better varnish.

the above defect to be seen in the genuine

works of
with a

Rubens
ter

possibly he

may have composed

his
:

shadow

tints

mixture of ultramarine lake and Dutch pink

the fading of the latoil.

would balance against the yellow tendency of the

90

ox THE EFFECTS OF LIGHT, &C.

mixture of yellow and
violet

red, for the

produces

the true tint required.

SECTION

11.

ON THE EFFECTS WHICH LIGHT AND AIR PRODUCE

UPON OILS AND RESINOUS SUBSTANCES.

In describing the natural properties of oils,
I

have

stated that the various shades of yellow colour arise

from a colouring substance, which produces the

same

effect

on wax, and
;

is

destroyed by exposure to

a strong light

but wax, after being bleached, recolour

if left in

sumes
is

its original

a dark place which

badly ventilated.
:

Oils are liable to a similar alte-

ration

after being bleached they

become rancid

that

is,

more or

less coloured

according to the situ-

ation of the places where they have been kept.

The

whole class of

oily

substances

is liable

to this change.

Even the

resinous bodies which are most free from

colour, such as mastic, sandrach,

last is

and

copal, (which

the firmest of

all,)

are found coloured on the

surface with a yellowish tinge, which penetrates to

a greater or

less

depth according to the nature of the

substance, and the length of time they

may have been

ON THE EFFECTS OF LIGHT,

&;C.

91

deprived of the light in a bad atmosphere.

Even

amber,

in time, will

take a brownish tone.^

This alteration in the colour of those substances

ought to be well attended

lost in carefully

to,

and no time should be

watching every circumstance con-

nected with this tendency to take a yellowish tone,

so inherent in
all

the

oils

and varnishes. The experifor this purpose

oil

ments which have been made

us, that if

show

we put a couch

of

or mastic on a sur-

face of fine white lead, or glass, or white pottery, and

then place them apart in a dark situation, where the

circulation of the air is confined,

and place another

portion in a light and airy situation ; in a few years

we

shall

be satisfied that the combined influence of

the air and light retards very

much

the yellowish

tendency of the
varnish, which is
its original

oils

and varnishes, and that copal

harder than mastic, preserves

much

brightness

much longer than the

others.

It would

appear evident from these

facts, that the best

way of preserving

pictures would be to varnish

them

lightly with copal at first,

and when

this layer is

There

is

a very striking example of the alteration which oily

substances produce upon the transparent, varnished, or oiled paper,

used in tracing.

In the course of a few years

this

paper acquires
it

a very dark brownish yellow colour.

well to examine whether

In such a case

would be

some combustion ol the paper has not taken place from the action upon it of the oily substance.

92

ON CRACKS, &C.

perfectly dry, to lay over

them a couch

of mastic.
chilled,

In a few years this

will

become yellow or

and then

it

may

be removed.

The

copal varnish,

being extremely hard, will not suffer by the removal

of this covering, but will preserve the picture so
well, in

that even the glazing cannot be endangered

the cleaning.

SECTION

III.

OF CRACKS IN THE SURFACE OF PICTURP'.S,

AND

MEANS OF AVOIDING THEM.

I

have elsewhere observed, that those cracks we

so often see in pictures are not always the conse-

quences of using varnish, but that they will constantly

appear when the lower couches of paint remain
at the
soft,

same time that those on the surface are

is

dry.

When a couch of thick drying oil

soon

applied to the

surface of a primed cloth, the surface of the latter

becomes dry

when

this

is

painted upon
is

afterwards with flake white, the colour

immediately, and
it

absorbed
quickly
it

will

dry so
oil it

much more

because a portion of the

contains will leave

to unite with that of the under couch.

case, should the

In such a

atmosphere be warm enough to

allow the colour to dilate, the couch of white will

ON CRACKS,
be rended.'

SzC.

93

To prevent
to

this state of things, care

must be taken

commence the work with

colours

that dry readily, and not to use bituminous earths,

but, instead of these, to employ charcoal black,

raw

umber, and oxide of iron

if

the lakes are used, they

oil,

should be ground with drying

and mixed with

the red oxide of iron, massicot, or other colour of a

drying nature.

Many

artists

make

their first painting in transIt

parent colour, like a wash.

that this method
is

cannot be denied
:

favourable to colouring

it

was

the practice of Rubens and the Flemish school

yet Titian, Corregio, P. Veronese, and Rembrandt,

have commenced their

first lays

with solid colour,

and, with the aid of glazing, have obtained as

much

transparency as

we

find in the

works of F. Barto-

lomeo and Rubens, who commenced with washes.

Besides,
ers
it

must be observed, that the

earlier paint-

who

in their first painting

pursued an extreme

degree of transparency, always worked on panels

primed with plaster of paris

nese, they painted

but

if,

like

P. Vero-

upon distemper

gi-ounds, they
oil

need not be afraid of cracks, for the excess of

would be carried of by the priming of the canvass.*

'

See

in Cliapter

VI. " On

the Restoration of Pictures," the re-

medy
*

for these cracks,

when they

are not of too long a standing.

See, in Chapter V., the article

on the method of laying the

first

painting, or dead colouring, expeditiously

upon distemper grounds.

CHAPTER

IV.

ON THE PREPARATION OF COLOURS.

YELLOWS.

CHROMATE OF LEAD.
This colour
state
:

is

found quite perfect in

is

its

natural

that of commerce

an

artificial

production.

In

its natiu*al state it

has long been kno\vn as " Si-

berian red
it,

lead.""
it

In 1797

M. Vauqmlin

analysed

and found

to be a combination of oxide of lead

and an

acidifiable metal, to

which he gave the ap-

pellation of " chrome," because of the various colours

which the

different preparations
is

assumed.

In

fact,
;

the chromate of lead

of silver, purple
;

yellow

that of mercury, red

is

and the oxide of chrome

for porcelain

green,

and very valuable

it

and enamel, because

will resist

a very high temperature almost without

changing.

YELLOWS.

95

Red
lin's

lead,

which was the object of M. Vauquebeen found only

in Si-

enquiries, has hitherto

beria,

and even there

it is

not

common

so that the

laborious research of this learned chemist would not

have been of much advantage to painters,

if it

had

not been for the discovery, in France, of a mineral

containing a considerable portion of oxide of chrome,

mixed with oxide of

in

iron.

It has also

been found

the United States of America, chiefly in Maryit is

land ; and

from Baltimore that the greater por-

tion of this substance is exported.

The chromate

of lead

is

prepared with this mineral by the union of

the acid with oxide of chrome, and at the same time

combining potass with the acid

then decomposing

the chromate of potass with soluble salt of lead.

For
potass

this purpose,
is

one half part of the nitrate of

to be mixed with one entire part of the

earth containing oxide of chrome.

is

This mixture

then to be calcined in a close crucible, and the

is

substance

afterwards to

be washed in

warm

water, filtered, and thi'own into a solution of acetate,

or nitrate of lead

and nothing more

is

required to

complete the operation than to wash the precipitate\

is

In proportion as the chromate of potass

the neutral state, or that of subchromate
1

in

The

nitrate of lead produces the finest yellows.

96

MINERAL YELLOW.
is

and according as the precipitation

or

made

in cold

warm

water, the tint will vary, from a delicate

clear yellow to that of orange colour.

It is not, however, a

permanent

colour,
it

and

is

less so in proportion to the oxide of lead

contains.

In a few years

its
;

brightness goes

off,

and it becomes

like yellow ochi-e

it

but when combined with alumine,

continues brilliant for a

much

longer period.

believe that a mixture of alumine, silex,

and chro-

mate of
heat,

lead, will sustain

a considerable degree of

and that the

colour, half vitrified, will

be un-

changeable.

MINERAL YELLOW (cHLORIDE OF LEAD).

This
is

a combination of lead and chlorine.

in various
is

It is

prepared

ways

the following

method by
:

M. Chaptal

one of the oldest on record

Four parts

of litharge, reduced to an impalpable

salt,

powder, are moistened with one part of marine

dissolved in four of water.
It is

then formed into a thin paste, and to remain

it

undisturbed until

begins to whiten

it

must then
its

be stirred well with the spatula, to prevent

ing too hard.

grow-

In proportion as the consistency increases,

is

salt

added

and

if it

appeal's that there is not sufti-


MINERAL YELLOW.
cient of this ingredient, water

97
to

must be added

retain the paste in a proper condition.

In about

twenty- four hours this compound should have be-

come

well bleached, very compact,

:

and quite
stirred
:

free

from lumps
sionally, to

but

it

must

still

be

occa-

complete the decomposition

it

it is

then

to be carefully washed, to deprive

of the soda,
salt,

which

will

be found separated from the mai'ine

and the white paste must then be placed to drain

on a
filter.
dr}', it is

When

reduced to powder, and exposed

in the receiver of

a reverberatory furnace,
;

until it

assumes the yellow colour required

is

this

powder

then to be thrown into a crucible which has been

is

brought up to a red heat, and

into the furnace, where
until the composition
it is

then returned

only allowed to remain

;

has melted
;

thus fused,
cool, it

it is

thrown on a plate of iron

and when

forms

a crystalline mass striated transversely.

I

have witnessed in England the following method

of producing this

pigment

Acetate of lead was

salt
:

first

decomposed by marine

the chlorine, as in the former instance, was

separated from the soda, and formed a

new combi-

nation with the lead; this chloride of lead was then


08

MINERAL YELLOW.
and when dry was mixed with
;

carefully washed,

a certain quantity of pulverized litharge

it

was

then melted quickly in a crucible, and thrown upon

a plate of iron
;

but according as the mixture

is

exposed
of
fire,

for

a longer or shorter time to the action

;

the shade of colour will be lighter or darker

is

the heat

therefore to be kept equal

first,

the crucibles
at the

are heated to red at

and withdrawn

same

time.

In the following process bismuth and antimony

are used, and should have the effect of rendering

the

colour

more permanent.

They are ground

exactly ascer-

a})art,

that the proportions

may be

tained,

which are as follow

Bismuth,

3 parts
.

Sulphuret of antimony,
Nitrate of potass,

24 64

...
it
it is

This mixture

is
;

to be di'opped by degi-ees into a

dissolved,

heated crucible

when

must be thrown
to remain, and

into a vessel of water,

where

must be
It

well stirred for the requisite time.

until the
fil-

must then be repeatedly decanted

all its

water has lost

tered,

smell;

it

is

then to be

and the oxide thus obtained

is

a fine powder,

of an impure yellow tint.

An

eighth part of this oxide perfectly dry,

is

then

NAPLES YELLOW.
inixed with one part of muriate of ammonia,

99

and

sixteen parts of very pure litharge.

The

fusion

is
:

then to be carried on as in the

great care must be taken, how-

English process

ever, that the degree of heat,

and the duration of

It is as

the process, shall be exactly the same.

well to be aware, that the best crucibles will not be

able to sustain

more than three or four operations

they do not stand the heat,
fire
if

and

also, that

kept
is

exposed to the

during a longer time than

required to fuse the mixture.

Fifty years ago the

:

mineral yellow was not

known

it

is

not so perin

manent as Naples yellow, and gi'ows paler

it

time

may be used with the

latter colour

and with the

ochres.

NAPLES YELLOW.
The discovery of
this colour belongs

to

high

antiquity, even so far

back as the
it

earlier

working
of Gial-

of enamel.
lolino
;

The

Italians give

the
it

name
so
:

Cennino Cennini writes

styles
it

Paul Lo-

mazzo
e

Giallolino di
;

Furnace di Fiandra

di Allamagna
artists
it

but

it

is

probable that when the

this colour, they obit

French
tained

began to use

direct

from Naples, where perhaps

was

made

of a better quality than elsewhere.

F 2


100

NAPLES YELLOW.
is

There
Sciences,

in

the

Memoirs

of the

Academy

of

a.

d.

1772,

an account of a process
:

communicated by M. Fougeroux de Bondaroy

is

it

as follows

Proportions

to be used.

Ceruse
Sulphuret of antimony
Calcined alum
Sal

12

oz.

....

2
^
1

ammoniac
all

" These materials must

be reduced to powder,

then mixed

in

exact proportions, and placed in an

lid

earthen pan covered with a

this

of the same material

potter''s

pan
it

is

then to be placed in a
to be
calcined,
first

furnace,
heat,

where

is
it

at a low

increasing

by degrees,

until

the vessel has as;

sumed a moderately red appearance

it will

require

three hours of this calcination before this mixture

is

properly prepared.

"

The product

of this operation will be a fritty

;

substance, of a golden yellow hue

this frit is

then

thrown
salts it

into

water, to separate

it

from whatever
its

may

contain

it

is

then ground, and

tint

becomes much

paler."

This process has been

repeated exactly as directed, but without success.

M. Fougeroux

has translated into the

word

alum, the Italian expression, which

in the receipt


NAPLES YELLOW.
101

given to him, was doubtless allume di/ecia, thai

"salt of tartar;" he
is

is,

also

mistaken in naming
it

" sulphurei of antimony" amongst the ingredients,

is

the " oxide of antimony" that should be used.

In a collection of receipts relative to various

processes of the arts, printed at Venice, in 1758,
is

a memoir by Passari on the manufacture of

;

faience
for

mention

is

also

made

in it of

the materials

compounding Naples
it is

yellow.
:

According to

that author,

thus prepared

Antimony
Lead

Ih.

li
salt

Common

....
, .

1
1

00.

Tartrate of potass

Passeri observes, that by changing the proportions, the yellow obtained will

be of a more or less

golden hue.

In four out of the six receipts which

is

he gives, there
salt
;

no mention whatever of marine

the effect of this salt would be to render

the colour

more

clear,

but

less rich,

because

it

produces a portion of chloride of lead (mineral

yellow),
originally

which takes away the golden tint that

characterises

the

combination of

the

oxides of lead and antimony.

* Allume di

fecia.

f3

102

NAPLES YELLOW.
it

In the manufacturing of Naples yellow,

is

of

great

consequence that the lead and antimony

;

should be in the complete state of oxides

they

must be intimately blended together

in the grinding,
;

and afterwards passed through a silken sieve

mixture
is

the

then to be laid in a vessel of unglazed

earthenware covered up, and placed in a potter's

oven, in the least heated part of
it,

to prevent the
lead.
is

danger of the fusion and de-oxidation of the

The

yellow used in

enamel painting,
;

very

similar to Naples yellow

it

is

composed of the

oxides of antimony and lead; by varying the proportions,

and

also the duration of its exposure to

the

fire, different

shades are produced.

M. Guimet,
has sent

to

whom

the arts are very

artificial

much

indebted for his invention of

ultramarine,

me

a specimen of the yellow of antimony

tint,
is

bearing a fine golden

more intense than that

quite satisfied as to
its

of Naples yellow, and he

durability.

It is prepared as follows

Antimoniate of potass, or diaphoretic

antimony, (carefully washed,)
1 part.

Pure minium,
These ingredients must be mixed

2 parts.
carefully to-

gether, and ground, upon a marble flag, to the con-

IODIDE OF LEAD
sistence of a paste

THE OCHRES.

103
be dried,

this paste is then to

reduced to a powder, and exposed to a moderate

red heat during four or
five hours,

taking care to
as to prevent
oft'

regulate the fire in such a

sit rising to

manner

a temperature

sufficient to carry

the oxygen of the lead and antimony.

M. Guimet

thinks, that the deutoxide of anti-

mony and

the oxide of lead are alone sufficient to

;

produce as strong a yellow

it

appearing to him,

that the potass has no other action in this case

than that of completely oxidising the antimony,

which process
operation.

is

indispensable to the success of the

IODIDE OF LEAD.
This colour, which
is

not yet

much known

in

commerce,
lead.
It

is

as bright as orpiment or chromate of

is

thought to be more permanent

its

but

time only can prove

(juality.

pretension to so essential a

It is

prepared by precipitating a solution

nitrate of lead, with hydrochlorate

of acetate or of potass
:

the nitrate produces a more brilliant

yellow colour.

THE OCHKES.
These substances are " hydrates of iron." which
F 4

104
signifies,

THE OCHRES.
that they
are

composed of water and

oxide of iron, mixed in various proportions, and

sometimes
earth.

closely

combined with various sorts of

The greater
will

the proportion of clay, the brightei"

:

be the colour

when there

is

a portion of

argil,

the substance

feels

greasy to the touch, and has

more body than those have which are mixed with

chalk and
silex.
:

The
brown

yellow ochres become red by calcination

ochres,

the

when
of

pure, produce the finest red.

The " ochre

old

ru,""

which

is

incon*ectly spelled

and pronounced " rue," takes

its

etymology from the

word

ru,

(ruisseau), a rivulet or brook, probably

because that this ochre was found deposited in places

formed

in

brooks of ferruginous waters.

to the
fire,

Exposed

this substance takes

a reddish

brown

colour, not so brilliant as that of the oxide

of iron.

This fact proves that

it

contains
or

some

remains of vegetable
matter.

substances,

bituminous

Terra

di

Sienna

is

a brown

oclu-e,

which, by

calcination, produces only a moderately strong red.

This proves that

it

must contain substances which

prevent the development of the violet colour, which

belongs to the oxide of iron in
its

pure state.

THE OCHRES.
Ochres may be prepared
artificially,

105
by moistening

the rust of iron, and precipitating by the alkalis,

solutions of this metal.

For

instance, in precipi-

tating

it

by the sub-carbonate of soda, or of muriate

of potass, of nitrate, of acetate of iron, or persulfate

of iron, the most brilliant brown ochres are obtained.
If the sulphate of iron
is

of a low oxidation, the pre-

cipitate is olive-coloured, but it

soon becomes yellow

at the surface

by absorbing a greater quantity of

this operation to all the preciair,

oxygen.
pitates,
it

To extend

only requires exposure to the

by

stir-

ring

it

up for a sufficient time. The same thing may

easily,

be obtained in winter quite

by exposing it to
:

the action of frost in wide shallow pans

passing
into

the water

the

state

of

ice,

leaves

a small

quantity of air disengaged, which unites with the

precipitate,

and

is

sufficient

to give

it

an even

yellow tone.

When
sary to
of iron
;

bright ochres are required,

it will

be neces-

mix alum,

in certain proportion, with sulphate

is

the solution

then to be precipitated by

lime water.'

There

exist in the natural state ochres

of so very fine a quality, that they require no other

preparation than that of being washed

But

therefore

'

this will require a very large quantity of lime, for

it.

water

only dissolves one five-hundredth part of

F 5

106
it is

OKPIMEXT.
scarcely worth while to manufacture

them

arti-

ficially.'

The permanency
at Pompeii,

of these colours

is

proved by the

state of the old pictures.

In a box of colours found

and analysed by M. Count Chaptal, he

discovered yellow ochre purified by washing, which

had preserved

its original

brightness.

ORPIMEXT.
This colour was known
in

ancient times

the

Latins called it auripigmentum (gold colour), whence,

by corruption,

its

present

name

is

derived.

It is
in

a sulphuret of arsenic, found perfectly formed

natural
state
:

it

is

also

prepared

by

artificial

means.

There are two kinds of sulphuret of

arsenic, the

results of different proportions of these substances

in combii^tion. If the sulphur should predominate,

'

do not believe that any

as a natural ochre,
silex,

artificial

ochre,

composed merely of
to those

the oxide of iron, carbonic acid,

and water, can have the same per-

manency
founded

which contains, in addition

enumerated, lime,

my opinion upon

and alumine, in combination. I have what we commonly observe of the action

;

of water and air upon iron

for

we

see,

on a dry morning, after a

covered with
in a

rainy day, that the iron

tires of carriage- wheels are

;

rust of a clear and bright yellow colour

few days this rust

it

becomes a yellowish brown, and,

strong red colour.

after

some time,

changes

to a

SULPHURKT OF CADMIUM.

107
;

the product will be a clear and very brilliant yellow

but should the arsenic predominate, the colour

will

be orange; and
" realgar."'

it is

then called " red orpiment," or

Both

tlicse

species have been in use from the

;

earliest times of painting

and

it is

easy to perceive
lead,

that this colour

must not be mixed with white

nor with any of those colours into which lead enters, such as massicot, minium, muriate and chromate of
lead,

and Naples yellow.

in

The sulphur

combination with the arsenic, havit

ing less affinity with this metal than for lead, lets
go,

and forms a sulphuret of lead of a dark greyish But oi-piment may be employed alone, or

colour.'

with ochres, and other colours that do not act upon

them, as teri'e verte and ultramarine.

have no doubt

but that the brilliant yellows, which we see in some

ancient pictures, are preparations of orpiment.

Red

orjjiment, as

we

shall

show

in its place, is

not so permanent as the yellow sort.

SULPHURET OF CADMIUM.
Chemists who have prepared this colour say that
it

does not change.

'

am

not, however,

aware

It is probable, that after

some time the orpiment takes up the

for tlie

oxygen from the

darkening of the

lead.
tint

This would be an additional cause

composed of the two

colours.

f6

108
whether
lead.
1
it

GAMBOGE.
has been used in combination with white

fear that in such a case the sulphur would

quit the

cadmium, to unite with the

lead.

If that
dis-

should not happen, this would be a most useful

covery.
It is to
is

be regretted that at present cad;

mium
we

scarce in France

but

it is

to be hoped,

that as chromate of iron has been discovered there,

shall be equally fortunate with respect to this

article.

We are assured that the sulphuret of cadmium is

used in Germany
;

and

it is

to be

had here

(in Paris)

amongst the

principal manufacturing chemists.

VEGETABLE YELLOWS.
DROP GUM, OR GAMBOGE.
This
called
is

a resinous gum, which

distils

from a tree
is

cambogium

or caracapulli, which

a native

of India,

found principally beyond the Ganges.

dissolves readily in water,

This

gum

and makes a

most

brilliant yellow
oil

wash.

This colour would be

resists for

useful in

painting,

as

it

a long time the resinous

Al-

the action of strong

light,

provided
if

part could be separated from the other parts.

cohol will dissolve the resin, but will attack the

colour also
;

yet,

probably,

the

gamboge was
it

powdered, and the alcohol allowed to remain on

INDIAM YELLOW
for

THE YELLOW LAKES.

109

some

time, the greater part of the colouring

matter would be deposited, and the resin would

remain united to the alcohol.

INDIAN YELLOW.

For many years past the English traders have

furnished us (in France) with a brilliant yellow
lake,

which

is

more
I

lasting than the greater

number

of this class.
naturalist,

have been informed by a learned

who

travelled in that country (Bengal),

is

that this colour

manufactured

in Calcutta

by an

Englishman, who keeps the process quite a secret

but the traveller has found out that the colouring

matter is extracted from a tree, or large shrub, called

metnecylon tinctorium, the leaves of which are

ema

ployed by the natives in their yellow dyes.

smell
colour,
like
it is

From

cows' urine, which exhales from

this

probable that this material

is

employed

in extracting

the tint of the memecylon.

THE YELLOW LAKES.

These are tinctures extracted from various vegetable substances,

and joined to a

basis,

which acts as

a mordent, such as alumine, or chalk and alumine.

Drop lake

is

the most permanent of this class

its

colour inclines slightly towards the green shade,

is

and

therefore very useful for the brilliant green tints.

1 ]

ORANGE CHROMATE OF LEAD, &C,

In cases where this object would be particularly

desired, the colouring matter

must be

precipitated

with acetate of copper

or this acetate,

when

preci-

pitated, should be tinged with a decoction of wood.

It is

remarkable that the chrystals of copper are

purjjose

the best for this

found.

that

have yet been

ORANGE OHROMATE OF LEAD, OR SUB-CHROMATE

OF LEAD.
This colour
realgar
;

is

not so bright as the minium and

but

it is

more

lasting than yellow chrome.

The

action of the

oils is

always too great upon the

oxides of lead to allow of this colour being quite

permanent

it

should therefore be used with caution

in those draperies

where

its

changing would not be

of

much

importance.

MASSICOT (protoxide OF LEAD).

The substances which are sold

the

in the shops,

under
less

name

of massicot, are only ceruse

more or

calcined,

and are named

light,
is

yellow,

or gold

coloured.

Genuine massicot
;

the strongest oxide

is

of lead (protoxide)
yellow.

its

colour

a dull orange

In the preparation of
ill

minium the
;

load

is

calcined

a reverberatory furnace

this

process gives a

MINIUM.
mixture of massicot and lead

Ill

these are separated

the massicot being
in
;

by washing and

trituration

much hghter remains suspended

is

the water

it

drawn
it

off,

and

left
is

to

settle

the depositmu
dried,

which
is

then forms

collected

and
is

and

this

the true massicot.

;

But

it

not to be had in

our colour-shops

it

can only be procured from the

It

red-lead manufacturers.

may

be employed with
oils
;

advantage in preparing the drying

the same effect as litharge
It

it

produces

when very finely ground.

:

may

also be
;

employed as a colour
it is

its tint is

not brilliant
lead,
it

but as

a better drier than white

it

may be

substituted for

in

mixing with

colours which dry with difficulty, as the lakes and

the bituminous earths.

MINIUM.

higher degree of oxidation transforms the mas-

sicot into

minium.

On

a large scale minium

is

pre"

pared by calcining massicot in reverberatory furnaces

;

it

becomes

first

of a dark orange colour,

its

then purple, but this last tint disappears on

cooling
;

when at

this point, the doors of the fur-

naces are closed, but not hermetically,

allow of a
little air
;

so as to
cools

entering.
it

The massicot

very slowly

and, as

absorbs the oxygen of the

112
air,
it

RED ORPIMENT

CARMINE.
colour,

becomes of a strong orange

finer in proportion to the

and
its

grows

slowness of

cooling.
If,

instead

of massicot,

we

calcine ceruse,
is

peculiar red, called " mineral orange,"

it is

obtained,
brilliant

a minium, but of a tint more pure and

its class.

than any of

RED ORPIMENT (rEALGAR).

We have seen, under the head

orange colour, and
it

" Orpiment,"" that

is

when the metal predominates, the sulphur

is less

of an
orpi-

permanent than

ment
used,

for in pictures of flowers,

where

it

has been

it

seems to have absorbed the colours of the

Perhaps this would not have happened had

ground.

the ground been of a colour which did not contain

any lead

such as yellow ochre, for instance.

THE REDS
This rich crimson
Minium was known
It
oil

CARMINE.

is

a combination of the most

'

to the ancients

under the appellation

of

cerusa usta. times of

It

was amongst the pigments employed

in the early

painting; but they soon found that the colour faded.

has come under

my

observation to

mark

the action of the light

I

directly

upon

this colour.

At one

of the exhibitions

noticed a

picture, some drapery in which was painted in minium, and in a

few days the tone was

much

injured by the sun's rays.

CARMINE.
brilliant portion of

113

the colouring matter of cochineal

united to some animal matter fixed upon an acid

basis. ^

There are various ways of preparing

this colour,

and many receipts have been published

but all these

:

are resolved into the three following methods

process.
in river

First
boiled

pound of cochineal,

in

powder,

is

or rain water, and to dissolve the colouring

five

matter four or

drachms of subcarbonate of
;

soda and potass are added

boiled
for

this liquor having

a quarter of an hour, eight or ten

in

drachms of alum
it is

powder are thrown

into

it,

and
the

stirred well with a spatula or large brush

is

vessel

then to be taken from the

fire,
;

and allowed
liquid is

to

remain quiet for half an hour

off^

the

then drawn
well

clear into very clean saucers,

;

and
at

covered up, to prevent dust getting in

the end of seven or eight days, the water being

drawn

ofi",

the carmine

is

found deposited at the

is
fit

bottom of each saucer, and when dry

use.

for

The second method.

'

have seen carmine pre-

MM.

Pelletier

and Caventou have made a course of experito

ments upon cochineal, by which they have been enabled

the colouring matter in a pure state from
this

separate

the grosser parts.

To
et

they have given the

viii. p.

name

of carmine.

Annals de Chimie

de Physic, torn.

250.

114

CARMINE.

pared very quickly as follows.

Though the operator

thought he had the power of keeping the secret, by

disguising

some

of the materials employed, but in

describing that which passed before

will

my

eyes,

it it

not be

difficult

to supply those details which

was intended to hide from me.

pound of ground cochineal was put into a cop;

per vessel well tinned

after boiling for a quarter

of an hour, two drachms of a substance resembling

cream of tartar were added to

strong effervescence
off
;
*

it,

which caused a

the vessel was then taken

filtered

the

fire,

and the mixture immediately

;

through a silken sieve

off clear,

after this liquid

was drawn
it,

another liquid was thrown into

in

which
dis-

little

carmine had been infused (no doubt to

its

guise

true colour)

this addition immediately

chanjTcd the colour of the decoction from a dull

crimson to a bright blood colour

the mixture was

little

then twigged for some minutes with a

of fine osier twigs,
close linen
;

broom
of

and passed through a

filter

the carmine remained on the

trial,

filter

and
It

took some for

which

found very good.

appeared to

me

that the liquor which was

thrown on the decoction of cochineal contained

'

This might liave been the acidulated oxalate of potass

salt of sorrel.

tliat

is,

CARMINE.
nitro-muriate of
tin,

115

which instantly changed the

scarlet.
I

crimson of the cochineal to

also contained

think

it

alum

and as the union of these

tint,
tin,

two

salts

produced a whitish

which would
little
it.

have discovered the solution of

carmine

was added

to the mixture, to disguise

Third method.
init into

A pound
is
;

of ground cochineal
five

is

a vessel containing four or

;

quarts of

river water

to this

added three drachms of

effervescence accompanies

subcarbonate of potass
the boiling, which
little
is

reduced by the addition of a

stiiTing
it

fresh water,

and

well with a brush

is

after

an ebullition of some minutes the vessel

fire,

to

be taken off the

and placed upon a

table in a

slanting position, to allow the

wash or

liquid to be

readily drawn into another vessel ; six or seven grains

of

alum

in

powder are then thrown

stirred
;

into this decocaccele-

tion,

and

it is

up with the brash to

rate the dissolution

the colour soon changes and

becomes of a deep

red,

this is

what manufacturers
;

term the return of the carmine

of an hour the carmine
is

in

about a quarter

completely deposited at
is

the bottom of the vessel, and the wash

as
if filtered
;

as clear

it

holds in solution the colouring

matter and a

little

alum
size,

it is

then decanted into

is

a vessel of equal

which

set

on the

fire,

116

CARMINE.
gi'ains of

adding to the mixture three and a half

isinglass dissolved in water

and passed through a

sieve

the whole must be well stirred with a brush,

to remain perfectly
;

and then allowed

first

still

until the

appearance of ebullition
is

at this

moment

the

carmine

seen mounting to the surface of the liquid,

is

and a coagulum
white of egg
fire,
;

formed, as in clarifying with

is

the vessel
is

then removed from the

and the mixture

;

stirred for

some short time

with a brush

and

in

twenty minutes, or at the

is
is

farthest half an hour, the carmine

found deposited

at the bottom of the vessel

it

then decanted,
filter

and the depositmn

linen
:

is

thrown upon a
should
;

of fine

the

isinglass

be
it

cut

small,

and
easily

steeped in water for a night

swells,

and

is

reduced to a
glass mortar

jelly
;

by trituration

in a porcelain or
is

some

boiling water

then thrown

upon

it,

and

it

melts instantly.
receipt,
is

The above

which

is

the

best

am
;

acquainted with,

to be found in several places

but, instead of isinglass, white of egg diluted with

water

is

prescribed

and some advise that the

it.

yolk also should be beaten up with

Carmine

is

seldom used
flowers.

in oil painting, It is

except

by those who paint

lour,

a brilliant co-

but

it

does not long resist the action of a

CINNABAR.
strong light
it is

117

principally used in water colour

artificial flowers
;

drawing, and to colour

it is

adulis

terated sometimes by vermillion, but this fraud

easily detected by dissolving
it in

a solution of am;

monia, which only acts upon the carmine

this

produces a very bright red ink, which

is fit

for use

when

the smell has gone

left

off.

The remains of the

making

cochineal
lake.

after the operation are used in

CINNABAR.
This
is

also called vermillion,

from the Italian

word

vermiglio (little

worm), given to the kennes

{coccus ilicis), which

was used as the

scarlet

dye

before the discovery of America

cochineal.

introduced the

Cinnabar

is

composed of mercury and sulphur

(sulphurct of mercury) very intimately combined.

It is found naturally

formed

in the quicksilver
is

mines

but that which

production.

is

used in painting

an

artificial
is

In

Germany and Holland cinnabar

prepared by dissolving one part of sulphur, and

adding to

it

gradually five or six parts of mercury

the mixture becomes black, takes

ethiops,

the
;

name

of

or black sulphuret of mercury

this sub-

stance

is

then reduced to powder, and sublimed in

118
appropriate vessels,

CINMABAR.

when a

crystallized

mass

is

thus

obtained, composed of bright filaments of a violet

tint
;

by trituration

it

becomes of a scarlet colour.

will

But the mere grinding

not be sufficient to

give a bright tone to the cinnabar ; various

methods

are employed for that purpose, which are not generally

known.

Some manufacturers
for

grind these in-

gredients up with plain water or with urine, and

afterwards boil

it

some time
it

others treat

it

with nitric acid

but

does not hap})en that any

of the methods hitherto employed for heightening

the colour of cinnabar, obtained by sublimation, give

the same brightness as the Chinese vermillion, which

appears to be prepared

in

the moist manner.

Bacholz has obtained some cinnabar of a very fine

description by digesting the following mixture in a

sand bath,

one part
this

of flour of sulphur, four parts

of mercury, and three of potass, dissolved in six pints of water

and,
;

compound
digestion

first

forms black sulphur,

when the

is

prolonged, the red colour

developes

itself.

The

operation

could be

much

shortened by only adding the solution of potass in

small portions, to give to the mixture the consistency

of thin paste, and supplied as

^evaporation,
facilitated

may be

required by

and

this, as well as

the combination, are

by being stirred constantly by a glass tube. 12

CINNABAR.
It is

119

not required to have a precise quantity of

a greater portion than

potass

may be
require.

required

of

this

hquid

is

placed near the vessel, and used

with a s])Oon as occasion

may

By

this

process several pounds of mercury

into Vermillion.

may be

converted
fire is

The longer the heat

of the
will

kept up, the more strongly the colour

take the
it

carmine

tint.

If

it

be requisite to have

of a

clear shade, the fire

must be moderated immediately

itself.

as the colour begins to develope

It is

very injurious for those employed, to inhale

;

mercurial vapours

for

which reason this operation

should be performed only in a place where the

chimney has a good current of

air

*
;

there also

should be fixed to the tube of glass with which the

mixture

is

stirred a staff sufficiently long to hold at

vessel
;

good distance from the

in the

same way

the spoon should be lengthened with which the

potass
is

added.

When
tube
full

the colour has attained the shade reis

quired, the Vermillion

thrown into a small vat or

it

of water, and

is

washed

until all the

'

For

this

purpose the apparatus contrived by M.

It

d' Arcet

ought

to be

employed.

was at

first

used in the workshops of the

the dangerous action of

metal gilders, to secure the

the mercurial vapour.

workmen from

120

PERIODIDE OF MEKCUIIY.
is

sulphuret of potass

caiTicd

off.

The advantages
it

derived from this proceeding are, that

in a

produces

short time vermillion finely prepared, and of

the particular shade required.

From
in tint

the striking resemblance which the coloui-s

thus prepared bear to the vermillion of China, both

and fineness of grain,

am

of opinion that

the method used by the Chinese in the preparation

of cinnabar
is

not very different from that which I

have described.

PEBIODTDE OF MERCURY.
Iodine, which
lour, is
it
]

is

one of the elements of this co-

a simple substance as combustible as oxygen

was discovered about eighteen years since (from

with sulphuric acid the sea- water

8.S0), in treating

of the soda of Varec.

The name

iodine

is

derived

from the beautiful

takes

violet colour

which this substance

when
the

it is

in

the state of gas.

it is solid,
;

At

common temperature

and has
it

a metallic lustre resembling black lead

tilizes at

vola-

the temperature of boiling water.

it

Comtakes a
T

bined with the deutoxide of mercury

scarlet colour brighter than vermillion.

.several
trials of its solidity

made
but

some yeare ago, and

became yellow
;

found that

in

a few months

it

PEHIODIUE OF MERCURY.

121

]ave

been assured that other essays made since

:

have proved more satisfactory

perhaps the colour

carefully

which had been sent to me had not been

j^repared.
I

have subsequently made a

trial,

which
trifling-

remained for eighteen months with only a

alteration
;

but so short a time

is

insufficient to

prove

its
is

lasting qualities.

In England this pigof scarlet lake,

ment
used

sold under the

name

and

is

chiefly in water-colour painting.

is
:

The

follow-

ing process
this colour

the best

known

to

me

for preparing

Iodine

and zinc (forming iodide of

;

zinc)

are

first to

be combined

for this

purpose

the zinc nuist be finely powdered, either by throwing

it it

into water

when
it

it is

melted, or by levigating

in

a mortar until

loses its cohesion

and can be

easily divided.

The powdered

zinc

must then be put

into a

mattrass with the iodine and

distilled water,
will

and,

by help of a moderate heat, the iodine

com-

bine readily with the zinc, and forms with that

metal an iodide, which

is

then

filtered.
is

Perchloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate)

then dissolved in

distilled

water

the two liquids

are then mixed, and immediately a large quantity

of precipitate

is

formed

this deposit is

washed

first

with distilled water, and afterwards with filtered

122
river water.

THE LAKES.
The working of
this colour
is

of the

greatest consequence, and must be done with pe-

euUar care.

It is probable that the portion of this

colour with which I

made the

first essay,

and which
suffi-

lost its colour so soon,

may not have been

ciently or skilfully worked.

THE LAKES.
This name was originally given to designate

merely the

purplish

colour called crimson,

it

and

when employed
tion to
;

alone

always bears that appellait is

but in

its

more extended sense

applied

all

colours prepared by combining a colouring

is

matter or tincture with a basis which

alumine
:

commonly

hence we have yellow, green, or violet lake.

itself

The term
It is

appears to be of Indian origin.

first

probable that the

India,

lakes used in

Europe

came from
lac so

and were made from the resinous

in that country,

abundant

which yields a

puqjle colouring matter at present very essential in

painting, because in

many

respects

it

takes pre-

cedence of cochineal.
It

was

first

imported into England, where

lac^

it

is

called, in

commerce,

or lac dye.^

The

people

'

See page 51,

the

article

on

gum

lac.

THE LAKKS.
of India collect this resin, bruise
it
it,

12;)

and then

boil

in

water slightly alkaline, which separates the

;

colouring matter

the solution

is

then precipitated

with alum, and

is

formed into cakes and dried.

it is

This

is

the way in which

imported.

The
more

colour of Indian lake has not so

;

much

bril-

liancy as that of cochineal

lasting, if

but

it

appears to be

we may judge from the superior

It
is,

solidity of its tint.

therefore, probable that

the lakes of an inferior brightness, which were used

in

the earlier times of })ainting in

oil,

and which

are so well preserved, were brought from India

though, in very early times, the manufacture of this

colour was well

known

in Italy, of

which we have

evidence in the ancient writers, Cennino Cennini,

Armenini, and Paul Lomazzo.

lished his

Neri,

who pub1612, has

work "

DeW

Arte

Vetraria,'''' in

described the methods used in his time for prejiaring lakes

of Brazil

wood, of kermes, and of

madder.

The

lake of Brazil
I

wood

is

very bright, but

is

not very lasting,

picture of the
draper}' of

am

led to believe that in the

Christ,

Entombing of

by Titian, the

Joseph of Arimathea has been painted

with lake of Brazil

wood

for

we cannot suppose

G 2

124

THE LAKES.

that Titian would have preferred a dull to a brilliant tint,

where the harmony of the picture would

Indeed, the brilliancy of
increased,
if

not have been injured.

that

work would have been

the colour

of that drapery had displayed the brightness of our

finest lake.

The

kermes,

mentioned by Neri amongst the

number of

colouring substances used in the preis

paration of lake,
that attaches
is

a gall insect of a globular form,

to a species of small oak, which

itself

very

common

in the

south of France and in the

central parts of Europe.

Previous to the discovery of America, the kerme^

was used

in

dyeing purple and crimson

and the

oldest pieces of arras tapestry, in which the red

colours

still

retain

much

of their original brightness,

owe that advantage

dye
:

to the durability of the

kermes
lake

hence

it

may be

inferred that a fine

this substance.
I

might be obtained from

tried
it

have

without success, having obtained, by the

;

experiment, only a dull crimson

have not, how-

ever, tried either of Neri's methods.

The second

of them, which consists in dissolving the colouring

matter of kermes

in

weak

spirits of wine, holding

in solution a small quantity of alum,

and then pre-

THE LAKES.

125

cipitating the colour by a strong solution of alum,

ought to produce a very

brilliant

purple

lake.*

Tlie use of cochineal, as a dye-stuff, could not have

The following is Neri's process Take some weak brandy; the first portion which comes over
*
:

in

the distillation

is

to

be preferred
;

put
into
;

it

into a bottle

with a

pound of finely-powdered alum ounce of kermes in powder finely

allow the infusion to
liquid.

this
stir

solution

put
;

one

sifted

them up well

and

remain four days, and then decant the

Next dissolve four ounces of alum in plain water pour this alum water into the vessel containing the tincture of kermes, and then pass it through a filter should the water, after passing
;

through the

filter,

appear tinged with colour,

it

it

must be passed

through a second time, then

will

come away
it

colourless.

Here

follows the original text, as

may be
e in

agreeable to

some

of our readers
Piglia acqua vite di prima passata
libbra
;

un

fiasco di essa metti

vi si disfFaccia

una

di

allume

di

rocca bene polverizzato che

tutto, poi

metti oncia una di Chermesi polverizzato e tamigiato

in
tutto,

come sopra
vite
si

e per tutto, e tutta questa materia

il

sia in

boccia di vetro con collo largo, e agita bene

vaso, che

1'

acqua

colorira maravigliosamente, lassa stare per quattro giorni,

pulita invetriata poi

poi vota questa materia in una catinella

piglia onci6 quattro di allume di rocca e solvilo in acqua

com

mune
una
falla

e questa buttalla soppra la catinella de acqua vite tinta di

la calza,

Chermesi, e questa buttalla sopra

catinella,

che

stia

sospesa sopra

come

si

detto nell' attra Lace con la cimatura,

I'acqua vite colora della calza,

equanda passasse alquanto

;

colorita,
si

passare un' altra volta che passera chiara

questa Lacca

cavi della calza, con mestolini di legno puliti, e

in

si

metta a seccare
in tutto, e

pezze de lino sopra mattoni come

I'altra

Lacca

per

tutto,
e in

che

si

aver^ lacca

di

Chermesino

bellissima, con

poca

fatica

maggior quantity

assai, tutto

provato in Pisa.

Neri

deW Arte

Felraria, chap. cxvi.

G 3

12G

THE

1,AKES.

been known to Europeans until after the conquest

of

Mexico

in

1520; for the invaders at

first

thought

of nothing but exploring the gold mines, regardless of the productions that would be useful
in

pro-

moting the industry and

country.

solid

wealth of their

When,

therefore,

we

see brilliant purple

draperies in pictures of the fifteenth or early in

the sixteenth century,

it

is

reasonable te suppose

that these were produced by

of
all

madder
is

lake, which,

the vegetable colours,

the most durable.

This species of lake was known to the ancients.

Pliny
tells

us that the purpurissimum was prepared

by staining with madder a white earth called crefa

argentaria.

Count Ohaptal having been,

in

1809,

engaged to analyze some colours found at Pompeii,

discovered one of them to be of a fine rose carnation.

He

soon perceived that

it

was a

lake, exactly
;

like the rose tints of our painted muslins

and he

concludes that this antique colour was extracted

from madder.
Methods of preparing
the

Lakes.
this process

The manufacturers commence

preparing that which
lake," which
is

by

is

called " the white

body of

composed of a paste of pure alumine,

or of alumine and chalk, upon which the colouring

THE LAKES.
matter being thrown,
or less durable.
fixes itself in

27

a manner more

To

prepare this paste, a quantity of alum

in

is

to

be dissolved

water

and

this solution

is

then

precipitated by subcarbonate of soda or

in the proportion of three parts of

potass,'

good potass

to five of

alum

it

is

easy to ascertain whether

is

the whole of the alumine

precipitated without
precipitate has fallen

an excess of
to the

alkali

when the
vessel,

bottom of the

some

of the clear liquid

should be dra^^'n off into two glasses; into one of

these
is

thro\Mi

some drops of a

solution of potass,
;

and

into the other a little

is

alum water

if

the pre-

cipitation
\\\\]

perfectly formed, no other subsidence

;

take place in either of the glasses

is

when the
drawn
off,

sediment

fonned, the liquid

is

is

to be

and the deposit

to

be washed with a great

it

quantity of water, until at last

comes

off withfilter

out smell

it

is

then extended upon a

it

of

linen to drain,
soft paste,
it

and when

is

of the consistence of

must be mixed with a warm decoction

it

of cochineal, which colours

more or

less strong,

according to the quantity of colouring matter contained in the decoction

'

it

only

now remains

to

Soda

is

preferable for this purpose.

Four parts and a half

of this material are required to saturate five parts of alum.

4.

128

THE LAKES.

separate the lake from the surplus Hquid, to wash

and

strain
it

it

through a
the shade.

filter,

to put

it

into forms,

and dry

in

As
drawn

it

happens that

in the preparation of caniiine,

is is is

only a small quantity of the colouring matter

off,

and as the decoction from which

is still

it

extracted

full

of colouring matter, there

not any occasion to

make a

decoction of cochineal

expressly for the purpose of

making

lake, as the

residue of that used in the preparation of carmine

will

answer the purpose.

This process

is

founded

upon the particular

affinity in
;

alumine for vegetable

it is

and animal colouring matter

aliun
ti-ade.
is

well knoMTi that

one of the best mordents in the dyer's

Alumine
as
w-ell

also serves as a basis

for other
in

colours

as

crimson
it is

for

instance,

making yellow

lake,

only necessary to fix the

colouring matter of woad, quercitron, Persian berries,

&c.,
is

upon alumine, or on an aluminous base.

It

of the greatest consequence, that in the

preparation of yellow lakes the alum should be

pure

for a very small portion of iron is sufficient

;

to injure the colour

and that metal

exists in the

greater part of the alum of commerce.

As

for the
is

common
not used

lakes from
:

French

berries,
is

pure alumine

the white body of these

little

only fine chalk,

to which a

alum

is

added.

BROWN PIXK.

129

Alum

bv

itself will
:

form a precipitate with the

as, for instance,

vegetable decoctions
precipitate

a very strong

may be

obtained by adding alum water

;

to a decoction of woad

but

it

will also precipitate

the mucilaginous and

gummy

matter, which this

vegetable contains abundantly.

BUOWN PINK.
The drops made from English
Avignon {ramnus
tered,

berries are dis-

solved with a strong decoction of the berries of

infectorius)
is
:

the mixture

is

fil-

and to

it

added a solution of the sub-

carbonate of soda, one-fourth the weight of the

berries
;

the tincture

is

then precipitated with a

solution of alum, in such proportions as that the

alkali

shall

not be more than half-saturated

left

it

must then be
hours
it
;

undisturbed

for

twenty-four
off,

the liquid
contains

must then be drawn

and as

still

much

colouring matter, a snialler

it is

quantity of alkali to be added, and

again pre-

cipitated with a similar proportion of

alum

the

precipitate

is

then washed, to carry off the

it is

salts.

In this process
tial
is

clear that

one of the essenIt

points

is,

that the alkali shall predominate.

owing

to this circumstance that the yellow co-

lour of the

Avignon berries

is

turned to brown.

By

G 5

130

MADDER LAKK.
can be obtained from yellow

this process there

wood

or quercitron bark a brown pink, which will

be more lasting than the former.

To
colour,

the drops mentioned

may be

given a green

by using a solution of copper instead of

alum

and

have observed that the mordents from

In general

copper render the colours more lasting.

yellow lakes have
little

soHdity

this is evident iu

many of the Flemish

pictures,

where the
lake,

foliage

has

become blue from the yellow

with which the

ultra-marine was mixed, having faded.

Rembrandt
:

made much use

ration

of this

brown

sort of pink

the altein
is

made by

time, in the colour

when used
;

full

body, would not be observable

in

and there

some advantage

using vegetable colours in the

shadows, which lose part of their richness by the

action of the
parent,
air,

and

also because they are trans;

and cannot become black by time

and

if

mixed with colours which have a tendency to become

darker by time, they mitigate
it

very much.

MADDER LAKE.
This colour
is

not only the most lasting of

it

all

those obtained from colouring matter, but

affords us the purest retls.
tliat it
I

also

have already stated

it

was known to the ancients, and that

was

in use in the fifteenth century.

To

prepare this

MADDER LAKE.
lake, Neri tells us " to stain, with
fleeces of wool, and,

131

madder, some

when they

are properly satu-

rated, to boil

them

in a lye,

and then to precipitate

the colouring matter with alum."

I

believe

there

must be some error

in

this

description, for the purple colour of the

is

madder
must bo

very

little

soluble by mild alkalies.

It

done

in another

way

that

is,

by dissolving with
tincture,

alum water, the colouring matter of the

and then precipitating
it

^vith

an

alkali.

By

this

means
I

have obtained lake of a very bright colour.

that in employing caustic

am

also of opinion,

potass the fleeces would be dissolved, and with

the colouring matter.'

them

After the introduction of cochineal amongst us,

the cannine,

and the

fine lakes

which were obtained

from

it,

caused the use of madder lake to be abanits

doned, because of

presenting greater difficulties

It

than the former in the manufacturing process.

therefore remained without notice until a.d. 1754,

when Margraaf discovered a

process, which

lie

'

have reason to believe, that

if

the operation of washing

tlie

tinctured wool, was done with the acidulated water, the alkaline lye

would eventually dissolve the colouring matter

with the assistance of heat.

but more readily

G 6

132
published

MADDER LAKE.
some years
in
after,

and which has since

been inserted

the Encyclopcedia.

This method consists in exti'acting, by means

of alum, the colouring matter of the madder, then
pi'ecipitating
it

with sub-carbonate of potass, and with boiling water, to

washing the
separate
it

precipitate

from the tan-coloured

combined, and which

matter with

which

it is

spoils the coloui'.

For the proper washing of the madder, Margraaf

lays
it

down

as an indispensable rule that the water

should be

distilled,

but this would prevent his pro;

cess from being executed on a large scale

but

water slightly alkaline

tilled

may be

used, instead of dis-

water, as

it

will dissolve

the greater portion

of

the

fawn-coloured

matter,
I

without

sensibly
it,

attacking the purple colour.

have tried

and

have succeeded in preparing, by this method of

clearing
1
it,

a very fine lake of a blood colour

it

and
still

am

persuaded that
I

may be

obtained of a

finer quality.

have not followed up this experiI

ment, because, by the following method,

have the

means

of preparing lake of a pure red, which pre-

sents no other difficulty than the neces.sity of using

a very great quantity of water.

This

mode

is

founded upon the degrees of solu-

MADDER LAKE.
bility in the colouring

133

matters, which in the madder

tint,

are united
it

to the purple

and from which

must be detached ere a pure colour can be

obtained.

There are two of those quite distinct

fawn, the other the violet colour.

one

is

the

The

first-,

which

is

the most abundant, dissolves

it

readily in water, especially if

be alkaline water.

The purple colour

is

not sensibly affected, even

sub-carbonates,

when warm, by the

it is

alkaline
:

and

soluble in

alum water

these results point out

the means of separating the pure red from the

fawn colour, by which

it

would be tarnished.
boiled in water strongly
it

When

the

madder

is

impregnated with sub-carbonate of soda,

will

give out a great quantity of colour, of as intense a

brown as a strong decoction of

coffee,

and which

does not appear to contain any purple tincture, for

alumed cotton steeped

dye.
If this
is

in it takes only the

nankeen

passed tlrrough a
;

filter,

the water
it,

still

retains

much colour

by continuing to wash
last,

the

water comes away clear at

but

it

requires a

prodigious quant ity of water before this appearance

takes place.

At

this point, if

warm water be em-

134
ployed,
it

MADDER LAKE.
will still dissolve

a large portion of the

fawn-coloured matter.

In proportion as that substance

is

dissolved,

and

can-ied off by the water, the filter assumes a violet-

coloured appearance as well as the madder.

Water

acidulated with muriatic acid dissolves this colour,

and changes
it

it

to the dull orange tone

it

had before

was washed. The liquor which

it
it

at this time filters

alkali precipitates

from from

is

of a clear yellow,

and

a dull violet colour, similar to that which

cotton takes in a madder vat when a solution of

iron
is

used as a mordent instead of alum.

is

In this precipitate the violet colour

fixed

upon

a calcareous base, derived, no doubt, from water

used

in

washing

it,

and even from the madder.

After two or three repetitions of throwing upon

the
filter

some more acidulated water, the

off will cease to contain

liquor
cal-

which runs

any more

careous matter, and scarcely any precipitate takes

place with

the

alkalies

but

its

yellow

colour
or

becomes changed
less

into crimson, of a tint

more

deep and

brilliant.

Alum throws down

as possible of the

a violet

precipitate.
If,

when

as

much

fawn and

violet-coloured tints have been carried off by wasli-

MADDKIl LAKE.
ing,

135
thrown upon the
the
fil-

warm

solution of

alum
you

is

madder,
tration

in a short time

will perceive

coming away of a bright

scarlet

colour,

from which the alkalies precipitate a rose-coloured

lake,

more or

less

deep in proportion to the alum

employed.
It is

not requisite that the alum water should be

warm

but

if

used cold,

it will

require twenty-four
is

hours at least to dissolve

purple matter.

all

that

soluble of the

The washing
matter
This
is
;

will

not carry off

all

the impure

besides, they are soluble in

alum water.
gives the

the cause

why
;

the

first filtration
if

most

brilliant

lake

and

the

filtrations
off,

are

arranged in succession, as drawn

will

the last one

be the palest, and most affected by the fawn-

coloured matter.

From

this view of the process,

it

would appear
to prepare,
it

that nothing could be

more easy than

lake,

on a large

scale, fine

madder

and that

only

required to set up a

filter of sufficient

dimensions
to be

to admit of a great quantity of fine

madder
it

washed at the same time,

different substances

to separate

from the

by which

its brilliancy

would

otherwise be very

much

diminished.
diffi-

But we should be stopped very soon by a

ISiy

MADDER LAKE.
which
it

eulty, against

is

of importance to be pro-

vided.

Madder

contains such a quantity of

first

gummy
it

and saccharine matter, that the

forms a sort of jelly.
If
it

wash from

be not diluted by agi'eat

quantity of water, the drainage becomes slack in

proportion
as the water cools, and the filtration

finally ceases altogether.

The stoppage may be prevented by throwing

by twisting the cloth hard
squeezed out, the cloth
is

tlie

decoction upon a fine cloth, and expressing the jelly

;

when

this mucilage is

opened, and boiling water

is

thrown upon
manner.
all this

it,

which also
\vashings

wrung out

in the

same
off'

Two

seem

sufficient to cai'ry

impurity, and the

filter will
it

then permit the

liquor to run freely.^

so, that

Besides,

can be arranged
all

the water shall penetrate

pressure,

parts of the

madder under strong

apparatus
size
:

by the following
in

a vat of deal should be prepared,

proportioned to the quantity of madder to be

washed, but rather

broad

in

proportion to

its

depth

at the distance of nearly

two inches from

the bottom an osier hurdle should be placed, and

covered with a

felt,

or cotton cloth

the shape of

'

At

this period,

if

the

madder be diluted
will

in

water acidulated

by muriatic acid, the flowing of the liquid

be accelerated.

MADDER
this

I,AKE.

lo7

basket-work should be exactly fitted to the

sides of the vat.

Upon

this species of

diaphragm

is

to be placed

a couch of madder, which ought not to be more

than seven or eight inches in depth

will

for the

washing

be less

difficult if

the water has only a thin

body to penetrate.

To keep the madder

in

position,

it

must be

co\ered with a second diaphragm, composed as the

first,

and with a border of some

fine stuff,
;

which will
second

allow the water to pass quite free

osier flat

this

must be firmly

fixed

by cross pieces of
;

wood, retained in their places by wooden pegs

is

it

upon

this surface

that

all

the pressure of the

water rests.

At the top should be placed a

the water flow
;

stop-cock, to let

another should be placed at the

bottom of the
draw^n
off",

vessel, to allow of the

water being
is

when the washing of the madder

completed.

The water
the vat, by

is

to be introduced at the bottom of

of a leaden pipe, with a diameter
;

means

of five or six inches

and the aperture at the top,

off,

by which

it

is

drawn

should be in proportion

to the quantity admitted below.

is

The leaden tube

made

to descend from a reservoir, placed as high

].*J8

MADDER LAKE.
and the

a})ove the vat as the localities will admit,

pressure

may
know

require.

We

that the specific gravity of liquid

is

in the ratio of its base multiplied

by the height of
be the diametei*
will

the column

thus whatever

may

of the vat, each grain of

madder

be pressed
in the tube,

by the small column of water contained

with equal force to what
it

would

give,
:

were the
the washin a

tube of the whole diameter of the vessel

ing conducted in this manner,
is

completed

shorter time than the other, and with a smaller

quantity of water.

There must be a small tube

from the bottom of the
above the upper spigot
intended to
let off
;

in this apparatus,

vat,

to extend

upward
is

it

may be

of glass, and
is

the air

when the water

ad-

mitted into the vat.

Observations.

The

sulphuric and muriatic acids,

when

diluted

with water, do
colour of

not sensibly affect

;

the fine red

madder

they therefore

may be emin

ployed to separate the brown colour with which

it is

tarnished.

By

boiling

madder

water tincis

tured with sulphuric acid, the mucilage

into a saccharine

converted
the

substance

this

prevents

MADDER LAKE.
filters

1*39

from being choked up in the operation of

it

washing the colour, but

operation
;

does not shorten the

at

all

times the acids act

upon the

red colour of madder, in a way tkat

to account.

may be turned

Lakes prepared by acid washes ap-

proach much nearer to the scarlet than the crimson

tint,

and therefore are preferable

in

the

carna-

tions.

The process
deal of water

just

described,

requires

a great

and much time.

method,
in

M. Robiquet has
the
Dictionnaire
et

described

another

Technologique^ and in Les Annale& de Physique

de

Chimie

by means of
prepared
in

this process,

a very
;

fine lake

may

be

few hours

the process

consists in steeping the

madder

in four times its

it

weight

of water, and in macerating

it

well for

ten minutes, then submitting

to the action of
is

a powerful press

the

first

wash

set aside, to

enable the operator

afterwards

to

separate

the

colour from the coagulated matter,

in

which forms

a very short time

the mass is then subjected a

second and a third time to the action of the press

these three washings complete that part of the process
;

the madder, however yellow

it

may have

been,
;

has at this period assumed a dark rose colour

in

this state

it

is

exposed to

tJie action of

alum

40

MADDER LAKE.
it

water, for which purpose

is

again steeped in

five or six parts of water, to

which half a part of

mixture
is

pounded alum
gently,
is

is

added

this

heated
it

and macerated

.for

two or three houre;

next poured out upon a fine cloth, then put

;

under the press

then
filtered

the whole of the washings are

through paper, and precipitated by

a weak solution of the crystals of soda, but care

must be taken not

to add so

much

of
it

it,

as to

precipitate all the alumina at once;

would be

well to divide the quantity into three portions,

and

thus obtain three precipitates, each of the two

latter

decreasing
off

in

strength

of tint, the
it

first

drawn

being strong in proportion as

has

been a longer time kept agitated; the precipitate

being complete, nothing more
to
is

to be done but
until the

wash

it,

by merely decanting

it,

water

comes

off"

quite clear.

M. Robiquet

has performed these

operations

before me, and the lake produced, which I saw

made, was of a very

fine quality.

endeavoured

since then to repeat the experiment which I

had

witnessed, but not having a press of great power

to assist me, I did not succeed in disengaging the
fa\\Ti-coloured

matter even after six washings, and

the lake

obtained was not of a pure rose colour.

MADDER
The process
some
of

I.AKE.

141
to require

M. Robiquet appeared
In the
first

modification.
liquid,

place, the

mu-

cilaginous

extracted

by great

pressure,

contains evidently a quantity of fine colour, which

it

would be

difficult to

separate from

it,

while on
I prefer,
;

the contrary the alkaline decoction, which

does not contain any appearance of colour

again, his

then

manner

of washing does not carry off

so

much
I

of the buffy matter, as the repeated ablu-

tions

have used, as appears from

this,

that

if

the whole of the tincture prepared by the alum

water

is

precipitated,

the

lake so produced will

be impure.

But to conjoin both of these modes, would be

I

think an advantage,

and
in

should

commence

by boiling the madder

a solution of the sub-

carbonate of soda, and then by the pressure to

accelerate the
\\

ashings

have succeeded in pre-

paring, in the space of two hours, a small quantity

of very fine lake, by spreading the alkaline decoction

upon a

fine

cloth,

and then twisting

cloth

it

firmly for a

moment, then opening the

and

throwing on the mixture some hot water; after

eight of these washings repeating the pressure, I

have used the cold acidulated water of chloric acid,

and afterwards pure water

some

fine colour

no

142

MADDER LAKE.
this

doubt has escaped through the cloth, but

may

be collected by allowing the water to deposit this

matter.

The same chemist has

which
is

published another method,

foiinded on the principle, that the purple

colour of the

madder cannot be

altered by the

concentrated sulphuric acid, unless at a high temperature

;

the acid carbonizes the brown extractive

it

matter, and renders

insoluble, it only then re-

mains to remove the acid by repeated washings.

The great

difficulties

in

this

process, as

the

author acknowledges, arise from not knowing the

proportion of acid to be used, and this can only

be found by repeated and cautious experiments

of two attempts which I made, neither
cessful
;

was suc-

in the first of

them much of the colouring

;

matter was destroyed

and
I

in

the second, even

with repeated washings,

could not remove the

car-

brown colour which had not been completely

bonized.
I

have substituted the hydrochloric for the

sul-

phuric acid, I only used enough to attack the fibrous

and mucilaginous substances; the ablution required

as

much time

as in the former method, but the

lake produced

was much brighter than that pro;

duced with the sulphuric acid

it

appeared to

me

MADDER LAKE.

143

that the degree of heat sufficient to convert the

soHd matter into a

useful
:

gummy

state could be
justified

made

this conjecture has

been
is

by expe-

rience,

the alkaline decoction

jelly,

no longer transis

formed into

and the washing

no longer

impeded by the

filter

being choked up.

The Qualities of Madder.

The madder known

which
is

in

commerce as "

extra-fine,"

composed only of the woody part of the

from which the best lakes are produced,

root, is that

and

in the greatest quantity.

it

In those districts where

or where
it

grows spontaneously,

is

produced by cultivation, the roots,

great advantage.

when

fresh,

may be used with

After being well washed, they should be sliced up,

and bruised

in

a wooden or marble mortar, and

then boiled in a solution of sub-carbonate of soda,

after

which the washing process

is

carried on as

described.

The waters

to he chosen.

In the choice of water the softest

is

the best

and where

it

happens that one has only at command

salts,

water containing calcareous

cipitated by

these

must be

pre-

little

soda or potass, for the alkaline

12

144;

MADDER LAKE.

carbonates do not dissolve the purple tint of the

madder
which

after this, boiling

water should be

used,

will

carry off a great portion of the buffy

short-

matter.

Of course the operation would be

ened by commencing to wash with boiling water.

Upon
*

the violet-coloured substance,

and

the action

of

the acidulated water.

The

violet-coloured matter

is

the least abundant

of the colouring substances contained in the madder.

It is not soluble even in

warm water
as
it

but as

it

is

soluble in

alum water, and

is

proper to sepa-

rate

it,

this operation can easily

be done by water

lightly acidulated

by hydrochloric acid, which does

visible

not produce
matter.*

any

effect

on

the

purple

The
cloth,

perfect resemblance of this colour to that

which the mordent, "acetate of iron," gives to cotton

may

induce the belief that this

is

owing to

the iron pestle used in pounding the roots of the

madder

but the same violet-coloured scum

is

found

when the

roots are fresh gathered, and bruised in

a mortar of porcelain, without any instrument of

It will

dissolve a part of

it,

and change the

it is

tint of the lake to

an approaching scarlet, which proves that

intended to have a

crimson lake

the acid wash must not be used.

MADDER LAKE.
iron being used.
quantities,
It

145

may be

obtained in sufficient
in

and pure, by steeping the dry roots

water

in

a few days the water, strongly charged

is

with brown extractive matter,

peUicle of a violet colour.

covered with a

This can be easily sepafresh water be added to

:*

rated from the water

if

the madder, a similar appearance soon takes place

continuing this treatment, a sufficient quantity of

this colour will nation.'
It is so liable to the action of acids, that

be collected to allow of exami-

alum
:

changes

it

immediately into a
it

dull

orange red

the

hydrochloric acid turns

to an orange yellow.
is

The
matter

effect of

the acidulated water

not re-

stricted, however, to dissolving the violet-coloured

;

it

also renders

more

soluble in pure water

the other colouring matters contained in madder

for when, after

washing

for

a long time, the

off,

buflFy

matter
after

is

supposed to be can-ied
is

and then,
plain water

the acidulated water

will

used,

be applied, this water

coloured than
if
it

run

off the filter

;

more
and

did before the acid was used

hot water be employed, a great quantity of purple

^

It

may
all

be that this substance

it

is

produced by fermentation,
it

but at

events

must be got

rid of, as

would, in such a case,

have

tiie

same

efTect in tarnisliing the lai<e.

146

MADDER LAKE.
be dissolved
;

fec'doe will
clo'.h

and

if

a piece of cotton

be placed under the

filter, it will

soon be seen have thought

tin-.ed
it

with a bright rose colour.

iiy

duty to mention these particulars, as they

lead
to

may

some useful

result

in

the

art

of

dyting.

On

the 'precipitation

of Lake..

For this purpose, the sub-carbonates of soda or

potass

may be employed

if

the latter,

it it

should be
to absorb
it

exposed to the air long enough to allow

thf!

quantity of carbonic acid with which

its

might

be saturated by
action.
is

contact with the atmospheric

is

When

the caustic alkali

dry,
its
is

used, the lake

very dark

when

and

is

also very hard, re;

sembling enamel in

fracture

finally,

when

re-

duced to powder,
hand,

it

very pale.

On

the other

when the

alkali is

much
or

carbonized, the lake

has not but

much

intensity, is brittle in the fingers,

oil

when ground with

also be

gum

it

becomes much

stronger.

Lake may

precipitated with borate of

soda: this precipitates only a portion of the alu-

mine; and this

is

useful,

particularly

when the
extent.

washing has not been carried on to

I

its full

have obtained by this means very good lake.

MADDKU LAKE.
which had been only two days
washing process
the
;

147
exposed
to

the

had only precipitated one-half

this lake

alumine

solution:

was glossy and

in

nearly black
it

when

dry,

and when ground

;

water

remained pulverulent

combined with

oil, it

had

great intensity.

Whatever kind

of alkali

is

used in precipitating

the purple substance of the

better not to throw

madder,

it

will

be

down the whole

of the colour-

ing matter

the portion of buff colour which has

in

been detached by the alum, remains floating

the liquid, and the precipitate
is

fine in proportion

to the smallness of its quantity.

Thus by

dividing

the precipitates, various sorts of lake are obtained, the intensity and brilliancy of which, after the
first

or second washing, decrease considerably, but which

are very useful in places where the bright reds are

not required.

Although alum has a great

affinity for
it

the roseonly dis-

coloured portion of madder, yet

solve a

will

part

of

it

at

time,

and

have not

succeeded in concentrating, by evaporation, that

solution to give
it

strength sufficient to

make

r"ed

ink

it is

also difficult to produce lake of a

pure

and intense red from madder.

I

The

only

method

know

for this purpose, is to

draw

off the poiiion

h2

148
of alumine which

MADDER LAKE.
is in

excess: caustic soda has the

power of dissolving the alumine wthout touching

the colour;
it

only changes

it

to a cnmson, but that

in ptre water:

tint is destroyed

by washing

with

the washing containing the buffy matter of the

madder, and a very small portion

it

cf

bright colour,

is

easy to prepare brown lake, which

may be

used as the yellow lakes.

These vaters may thus

ir.

be rendered useful, by collecting

alkaline waters,

one vessel the

and the acids

in another, to

which

should be added the residuum of the solutions

obtained by the alum not completely precipitated:
the clear parts of these waters are to be drawn
off,

and one

is

to be precipitated by the other.

They

are then washed until the water comes clear away

this will

cany

off,

along with the

salts,

a portion of

the

gummy

matter remaining in the precipitate.

of Madder^ and the means of

On

the adulteration

detecting the fraud.

We have shown that in the

of lake, the
called

ordinary preparation

method
white

is

to form an aluminous paste

" the

body,"

which

is

afterwards

coloured with the tincture.

This points out a ready way of adulterating the

lake of madder, since only a
little

of the tincture

MADDER LAKE.
is

149

required to give a rich appearance to a sub-

stance, that

on

trial

would be found very weak and

pale

it

is

then to be feared that some manufac-

turers would yield to the temptation of adultera-

ting the lake, were

in the process.
I

it

only to

make up

for

failure

have too
is

much

reason to believe
I

that this apprehension

boiled, in

well founded.

have

pure water, lake bought in England \ the

purity of which I suspected from its intensity and

crimson tint: the water carried

colour,

off part of
;

the

and

plainly discovered the fraud

but had

the trick been better done, this

method would not

have detected

it.

The true
finest

colour of

madder

lake
:

is

that of the

red of our printed cottons

is

if it

look crimson,

there

reason to fear that

;

it

has been mixed with

in separating the
close,

some other substance

buffy matter, there
is

yet

when

employed towards the

some

alkaline water, the lake has a tint of crimson,

even after the washing with acidulated water has

ceased.

When
it is

the purity of madder lake

is still

doubtful,

better to employ such tests as will enable us

I have had samples of lake sent me from Berlin, under the denomination of " carmine madder," and which evidently owed

their brightness to the tinctures of cochineal.

H 3

150
to judge,

RED OCHRES.
whether
it

contains any other colouring

do not dissolve
in

matter.

The alkaUne carbonates

matter
contained

the

colouring
for

the madder
it

roots;

a good reason, they cannot affect

when combined with alumine.

If therefore a small portion of the lake to be

essayed,

is

boiled in a

weak

solution of carbonate
filter

of soda, and then tlirown into a

and well

washed
and
if is

if

after this

it

has lost

its

brightness,

the alkaline water of

filtration is coloured,
that,

there

good reason to suppose

the colour has

been adulterated.

RED OXIDES OF IRON.

RED OCHRES.
The
ajipellation of

brown

red,
is

which has been

quite correct;
it

given to the red oxide of iron,

is

in fact

a red colour somewhat lowered by a tint

of brown.

We
nature
;

often
if

find

this

colour ready formed

is

by

by some means the water

evaporated
iron,

which was in combination with the oxide of

the latter becomes hydrate of iron, and changes to

the red colour.

The

rust of iron offers an example to us of this

:

change of colour

this rust,

which

is

at

first

of a

PURPLE COLOURS.
yellow ochre
air,
tint,

151

turns brown on exposure to the

red.

and

in time

becomes

The greater
ing,
is

part of the bro^vn red used in paintochi'e

made from yellow

calcined

it

is

supposed that on the purity of the ochres depends

the brightness of the red thus obtained.
fine

Very

brown red

is

also

made by

calcining sulphate

of iron.

Commerce has long

is

supplied the arts

with this colour, which

acid,

made from

sulphuric

prepared by the decomposition of sulphate of

:

iron

the residuum

is

a red oxide, more or

fire
is

less

violet

according as the action of the

less prolonged.
its

has
not

been more or

This colour

only valuable for the

fine
:

lasting qualities, but also for

tint

carnation

which
in the

it

produces with

white

and we perceive

works of Titian,

Vandyck, and others, who have approached nearest

to nature, that
it is

very

much employed.

PURPLE COLOURS.
Painters usually mix blue and lake to
colour, but

make
purple

this
it

we

see in the article on lakes that

differently.

may be prepared
cassius, violet tints

From

of

may

be obtained, less brilliant,

but more lasting than those from the lakes.

H 4

lo2

PURPLE OXIDE OF
is

IROJ.

This purple of cassius

oxides of gold and tin
:

a eomMnation of the
it

until lately
;

had been used

it

only in works of enamel

but by combining
in the

with
is

alumine, and calcining

it

same way that

practised with cobalt, a violet coloir will be pro-

duced, which

is

found very useful

in oil.

have

given

it

test,

and found that though exposed a

sun"'s rays,

year to the action of the

no sensible

change took

place.
is

Purple of Cassius

prepared by mixing together

weak

solutions of muriate of gold ani muriate of tin.

is first

The gold

dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid,

to crystallization,

and the solution evaporated almost

to

disengage

it

from the excess

;

of acid,
this saline

which

would discolour the precipitate

is

mass

again dissolved in distilled water, and then mixed

tin.

with a solution of protoxide of

The mixture

is

now a violet

colour,

and remains a long time without

precipitation, but a single drop of the sulphate of

iron causes an instantaneous precipitation.

The

precipitate being well washed,

is

mixed with

alumine in a state of jelly, and then calcined.

TRITOXIDE OR PURPLE OXIDE OF IRON.

Iron at the highest point of
its

oxidation takes

BLUES.
the violet
the colour
dull but

153
permanent,

tint:

is

and except
is

the purple of cassius just described, it

the only purple that can be used in fresco.

BLUES.

COBALT, AESENIATE

AND PHOSPHATE OF COBALT, AND ALUMINE.

and the fading
an object with

The high

price of ultramarine,

nature of the other blues,

artists to obtain a colour

made

it

cheaper than that drawn

lasting.

from

lapis lazuli,

and equally bright and

This important discovery was

in

made by M. Thenard,
attend
the

1802

he had been directed by Count Chaptal,

to

then minister of the interior, to

interests of the artists,
in

and to make such researches

improvement of
colour,

and experiments

for the

as might be required of

him

he succeeded in

obtaining a bright and solid blue, by calcining a

well-combined mixture of alumine, with crystals of

cobalt.

The

arseniate, the

borate, or the phos;

phate of cobalt may be employed

preference, for
it

but the latter in

produces the purest colour.

The
more

arseniate has always a sort of violet tinge,

visible

by lamp-light than by day.

'

These blues
cobalt of

are thus prepared.

^

Take of the mineral

See Thenard's Chemistry.

154
Tunaberg, which
iron,
is
;

BLUES.

composed of
after

<obalt,

arsenic,
it

and sulphur

being pilverized,

is

calcined until the vapours of arsenij are quite dissipated;

it is

then dissolved by an txcess of nitric

is

acid ; the solution

ness,

then evaporatei nearly to dryis

the
;

residuum

then dissoved in
filtered t(

boiling-

water
it

this liquid is

then

separate from
is

a portion of arseniate of iron,

this operation
;

whch
is

deposited

by

the clear liquor

then treated

with a solution of the sub-carbona:e of soda, and

sub-pliosphate of cobalt
is

obtained.
is

The
the

precipitate being well washed,

taken from

filter,

moist, and
its

mixed

as well

is

possible with

eight times

weight of alumine
it

jelly;

that

is

in

the state in which

is

found

wiien after being

precipitated from a solution of alim by an excess

of ammonia,
it is

well

washed with
filter.

^ery pure water,

inti-

and passed through a

mately blended,
is

The mixture
dri<;d
' ;

then to be
it

when hard

enough

to be

broken,

is

put into a crucible,

covered up, and heated by degrees to a cherry red.

leaving
it

in the

same temperature

for half

an

hour

the crucible

may now and

little

then be uncovered
foi- trial

cautiously, to

remove a

of the colour
more

When

dried in the open

stove.

air, it is

brilliant than

when

dried

upon the

EGYPTIAN BLUE.
when the

155
is

pro])er tone is developed, the crucible

:

to be withdrawn

the greatest care must be taken

fall

that not a particle of organic matter shall

into

the mixture, as

it

would carbonize, and combine

If instead of phos-

with a portion of the metal.

phate of cobalt, arseniate was used, the proportion

of alumine

must be doubled, or sixteen parts of

These
crystals

alumine to one of cobalt.

may be
by

equally obtained by treating the mineral cobalt

nitric acid, as

we

shall

show, and by using a solu-

tion of arseniate of potass, instead of that of the

phosphate of soda.

EGYPTIAN BLUE (uSED BY THE ANCIENTs).

This colour, which
is

very brilliant,
in

is

frequently

found on the walls of the temples

Egypt, and also

on the cases enclosing the mummies.

colour
is

The same
edifices

found

in the ruins of
it

some ancient

in Italy,

and even some of

it

has been disco\'ered in

for the

the state

was made bv the manufacturers

painters in those remote times.

Count Chapital analysed some of

it,

found in 1809,

with several cther colours, in a shop at Pompeii.

He

found that

it

was blue ashes, not prepared

like that

in

the moist

mamner,

which the paper-stainers

156
use, but
frit,

EGYPTIAN BLUE.
by calcination.

He

considers

it

a kind of
it

the semi-vitreous nature of which renders

proof against the action of the acids and alkalies at

a moderate temperature.

Some
in Italy

years later, Sir

H. Davy employed

himself

by making researches to ascertain the pre-

parations of the colours used by the Greeks and

Romans
further,

and he obtained similar

results

and

by employing the synthetic method, he ob-

tained a colour similar to that of the ancients, by

exposing to a strong heat, for two hours, a mixture

of fifteen parts carbonate of soda, twenty parts of

powdered

flints, is

and three parts of copper.

He

thinks this

the blue described by Theophrastus,

it

who has

ascribed the discovery of

it

to a king of
at Alexandria.

Egypt, and that

Vitruvius,

was manufactured
calls this blue
it

who

cwruleum, informs

us that the art of making

torius from

was brought by Vesit

Egypt to Puzzuoli, and that

a

was

made by

calcining, in

potter"'s furnace, balls

made

of sand, filings of copper, and flos nitri (carbonate of soda).'

I

am

inclined to believe, that the

Vene-

Arena enim ctim

nitri

flore

conteritur

ade6 subtiliter ut

efficiatur

quemadmodiiin farina

et aeri cyprio limis crassis (ut

pilae

scobis) facto

immixtu conspergitur ut conglomeratur. Deindd

efficiuntur, et iti

manibus versando

coUigantur ut inarescant.

Eae


EGYPTIAN BLUE.
tians,

157

who were

so skilful in enamelling,

knew how

to prepare the Egyptian blue.

Neri, in his treatise

Deir Arte
oxidation
colours,

Vetraria, describes different degrees of

of copper, which
red,

gives these different

viz.

green, and blue, and the color

Arahico
I

detto Turchino.

imagine that Paul Veronese has employed this

sort of blue in
skies have

many

of his pictures in which the

become green.

The

blue ashes, as

we

prepare them, would have experienced this change

in

a few weeks

while the Egyptian blue, which

has remained almost without alteration as employed

in

distemper painting, would not for a long time

affected

become

by the action of

oil.

Had Paul
and would
in-

Veronese employed our blue ashes, he would soon

have discovered their want of
solidity,

not have exposed his works again to similarly

jurious changes.

Although

it

appears to
oil

me

that this colour ought

it is

not to be employed in
to be wished that

painting, yet

much

we could recover
fictili
:

the method of

aridse
\tk

componuntur
aes

in urceo

urceus in fornace ponitur,

ut

et ea

arena, ab ignis vehementia confervendo

cum

coaruerint inter se dando et accipiendo sudores, A proprietatibus

discedunt, suisque rebus per ignis

rediguntur colore.

Vitruvius,

vehementiam confecta cseruleo book vii. chap. ii.

58

BLUE ASHES.
it,

making
it

as in distemper

and deorative painting

would be of great
is,

utility/

One remarkable

effect

of this colour

that by lamp-light t appears someit

what greenish, whilst by day

brightness of azure
:

shiies with all the

tlie

cobalt,

on

contrary, be-

comes

violet

by

artificial light.

BLUE ASHES.
This
is

a precipitate of copper, combined with

:

water (a hydratcd carbonate)

artificial.

it is

-nther natural or

It is only

employed
after

in decorative paint-

ing

and turns green

some time when used

be produced on

in distemper.
it

The same
if

effect will in oil

in

a few days,

ground up

In preparing this colour they b3gin by making

what are

called

"green

ashes,"" ly precipitating,

by carbonate of potass, a
'

solution of sulphate of
the author

In Erdman's Journal de Chimie, Leipsb, 1822,

assures us that he had succeeded in obtainiig the finest blue, by

means of glass coloured by copper green. This substance wa.s reduced to powder, then mixed with nitrate of potass, and then submitting the mixture to a heat not strong enough to melt it; when it has combined intimately, the colour l.as become blue; but
if

fusion

had taken
is

place, the matter

;

would have been green.

One thing
the acids.
blue.

surprising

it

is

that the spungy mass does not

contain any more alkali in a free state, and k hardly touched by

When

it is

finely

ground,

it

produces a brilliant celestial

12

BLUE ASHES.
copper.

159
this is

The manner of doing

:

very im-

portant
cipitate

if

the temperature be too high, the prein

becomes crystaUized

large grains
is

Hke and

sand

if it
;

be too low, the precipitate

pasty,

too pale

and during the operation, should the heat,

from being too elevated, become very low, one part

will

be found lieavy and granular, the other

light.
is

will

be pale and

This carbonate of copper

converted into blue

:

by mixing

it

with lime and sal ammoniac thus

take

twenty-four pounds of this precipitate, well washed

and

filtered,

two pounds of good quick-lime, and

sal

about ten ounces of

ammoniac

the lime

is

then

to be slacked to a milky consistency,

and made very

is

smooth

the sal ammoniac, reduced to powder,

it,

then added to
unite

and they must be well

It
is

stirred, to

them

properly.

allowed to cool as
it

much

as possible previous to mixing with

the carbonate

of copper

for during this operation the

temperature

rises considerably,
five

and should

it

reach to twenty-

degrees the hydrate would be decomposed, and

a black oxide would be formed, instead of a bright

blue.

Either

we should have
The mixture
is is

a grey, or a bluish

grey colour.

allowed to settle fur

twenty-four hours, and

water.

then washed in plenty of

160

PRUSSIAN BLUE.

PRUSSIAN BLUE.
This colour takes wherein
it

its

name from

the country
in

was discovered by accident

1704.

It

happened that a manufacturer named Diesbach was

engaged

in precipitating a solution of alum, to pre-

pare the white body (as the basis of lake) to be

coloured with a decoction of cochineal, employed
for that purpose

some potass which had been given

latter

him by Dippel, and upon which the

several

had
the

times rectified animal

oil

but,

to

astonishment of the operator, the precipitate, which

should have been white,

became

blue.^

Dippel

being made acquainted with the phenomena, applied

himself to examine
all

the circumstances connected

with this strange appearance, and at last he suc-

ceeded

in

reproducing the

new colour

at his pleasure.

The method
search for
1

of preparing the colour,

which was

kept secret by the inventors, was an object of re-

many

years

among

the chemists.

In

724,

Woodward, who was a member

of the Royal

Society of London, published the following process,

*

There

is

facturer on this occasion,

no doubt but that the alum employed by the manuwas like the Liege alums mixed with
:

sulphate of iron
that

and

it

is

to the presence of this metallic salt,

we must

ascribe

the

sudden developement

of

the blue

colour.

PRUSSIAN BLUE.
which has been
use
:

161

for

a long time the only one in

Some

dried ox-blood and potass are mixed to;

gether and calcined

ceased,
it

as soon as the vapours have

red,

and the substance has become of a dark

is

thrown into water and

it

boiled, to hasten the

solution of the salts

clarified

contains.
is

With

this liquid,

by

rest or filtration,

precipitated a solu;

tion of sulphate of iron

is

and alum

the precipitate

then purified by hydrochloric acid and repeated

washings.

At
lye,

the present time, instead of the

it,

Prussian

the crystals drawn from

and

called

prussiat of potass, are used.

This

salt is

a triple
little

combination of Prussic acid, potass, and a

iron
:

the solution being

much more

pure than the

lye in

which

it

crystalhzes, the blue should be,

brilliant.

and

is in fact,

much more
it

If this colour pos-

sessed solidity,
utility
:

would be one of the greatest

it

has intensity, flows freely in the pencil,

;

and

is

a good dryer

but

it

loses its brightness,

becomes greenish and grey when exposed to a

strong light
:

therefore

it

never can be used to

make green

tints of a brilliant

and durable nature.

Prus-

In the article on browns

we

shall show, that

sian blue, exposed to a strong heat,

excellent brown.

becomes an
is

When

Prussian blue

prepared

162

LiLTllAMARIXE.

with proto-sulpiiate of iron, the precipitate

is

first

of a dirty green, and only becomes blue by contact

with the

air.

It

must therefore be
is

well stirred
is

and when the blue

decanting or
potass
is

developed,

it

washed by
sulphate of
is

filtration.

When

the

carried

off

by washing, the colour

soluble in water,

and holds the same quality when

not be the case
iron,
if

dry

but this

will

alum has been

is

added to the sulphate of

in
it.

or

contained

ULTRAMARINE.
This substance, which
colours of the palette,
ing.
It is
is
is

one of the most

brilliant
last-

also

one of the most

produced from

lapis lazuli (lazulite), a

hard species of stone, found in Persia, China, and

Great Bocharia,
colour
;

The stone

is

not uniform in

its
is

it

often has white veins like marble, and

sprinkled with points and veins of a golden lustre.

There are also ferruginous pyrites in

combinations of iron and sulphur.

it

that

is,

Having chosen

portions of this stone most free from veins and pyrites, it is

only requisite to reduce

it

to an impal-

pable powder,

when

it

forms a fine blue colour.

Probably this was the original mode of preparing

it

before the discovery of the process by

means

of

ULTRAMARINE.
which the colour
is

163

separated ffrom other matter

it.

which would taruish

The

lazulitc is first

broken

intto

small pieces, to

give an opportunity for cutting; away, \\ith steel

scissors,

the white veins that

may

be found

all

the parts that are of a fine colouir must then be puj

into a crucible,

and brought to a red heat

is

and

when the matter

into cold water.

in this state, it is to

be thrown

As

the lazulite

will

sustain

a.

red heat without

is

changing colour, the object of the operation

facilitate

to

the trituration of the sitone.

The

pieces

are then taken out of the water,, then pounded in

an iron mortar, passed through

with water upon porphyry or
cious paste
is

ai

sieve,
:

and ground

glaiss

a strong tena-

thus formed

this is dried,
lesis

and pro-

duces a blue powder, more or

tinged with grey,

according to the quality of the sttone. This powder

is

then intimately blended with

an

equal weight of

resinous paste,
pitch,

composed of new wax. Burgundy

gum

mastic, turpentine,

and linseed

oil,

in

such proportions, that when the powder

bined with
it,

is

com-

the paste shall

sitill

continue pliant

and manageable.

This mixture, of course, must be

is

united by heat, and the melted nnass

then thrown

164
into a dish
full

ultra:marine.
of water.
It
is

kneaded at

first

with two spatulas of wood, and with the hands

when it is cold enough

into rolls,

for that purpose.

It is
full

formed

which are put into a vessel

fifteen days,

of water,

where they must remain

water occasionally
tion,
:

renewing the

this process causes a fermenta-

by which the oxide of iron from the decomstill

posed pyrites adheres

mastic, in the

more

closely to

the

same degree that the blue powder of

it.

the lazulite separates from

The paste

is

then

pressed in a close vessel of water, when the ultra-

marine exudes, and colours the water.

The first issue

of the colour

is

the most brilliant

for this reason the products are divided into three

or four different classes, or grades of strength

but

when no more colour can be gained by

cold water,

another issue can be obtained with the aid of

water.

warm
soda

When

at length nothing further can be

little

procured in this way, the addition of a

to the mastic will

draw out what

is

is

called the ashes

of ultramarine, which

a mixture of a small por-

tion of the mass, a little oxide of iron,

and a small

portion of the colour, forming a grey, of a more or

less bluish tint.

The ultramarine
which carries
off

is

then washed
little

in boiling water,

of the

ULTIIAMARINE.
resinous matter mixed with
it,

165
lowei-s

and which

the brightness of

its

tone.

Although

this

colour

can sustain a red heat

it

without losing any colour, yet

may be

destroyed
its

by acids, which give the means of ascertaining

purity in the following manner:

a pinch of this

colour

being put
it,

into

glass,

and some
is

nitre
in

thrown upon

the blue colour

destroyed

a moment, only an earthy matter remaining, of

a yellowish grey colour, and the appearance of jelly.

Neither cobalt nor Prussian blue are changed by

the acids, so that,
Ijy

when ultramarine
the fraud
is

is is

adulterated
easily disco-

one of these

articles,

vered.

A
;

solution of indigo
it it

not bright enough to

tempt any one to use

marine
but should

in the fabrication of ultra-

be attempted to jheighten

the tone of ultramarine by this substance, the sul-

phuric acid will soon discover

it,

as this acid does

not act upon indigo.

It M'as believed for a long time that ultramarine

owed

its

colour to iron

but

MM.

Clement and
lazulite at
purifi-

Desormes, having had a great quantity of

their disposal, have,

by repeated washings and

cations, succeeded in preparing ultramarine quite

free

from

iron,

and have found

it

in

the proportion of

twenty-two parts to one hundred of soda, a circum-

166
stance not at
it

ULTRAMARINE,
all

suspected.

On

the other hand

has occurred, that in demolishing some furnaces

in

employed

making

soda,

by means of decomposing

sulphate of soda,

some of the earth was found im-

pregnated with a light blue, pieces of which earth,

coloured in like manner, were sent to
in 1814.

Vauquelin

He

found, on analysing them, that the

resemblance to ultramarine was so strong, that he

no longer doubted the

possibility of imitating nature

in producing that fine colour.

To

realize these

hopes soon,

it

was only required

to give a stimulus

for in the present

advanced state of science this

discovery could not have been verj' long delayed.

This encouragement has been afforded by the Society for

Promoting Discussions

in Science.

They

offered a

premium

of

6000 francs (500

in

sterling)

to any one
rine,

who should succeed

making ultrama-

by

artificial

means, equal in every respect to

lazulite.

that

made from

completely solved by

The problem has been M. Guimet, formerly a stu-

dent of the polytechnic school, and at present com-

missary of powder and saltpetre to the govern-

ment.
Tlie ultramarine he has

made,
all

is

identically the
qualities

same

in

appearance and

other

as

that manufactured from lapis lazuli.

There are

ULTRAMARINE.
epochs,

[67
it

when

certain discoveries are, as

were,

become
in

ripe for action, so that they are developed

different places at the

same time

such a

cir-

fumstance has happened with respect to the new

ultramarine.

At

the very time that

M. Guimet
professor

found out this

of chemistry at

new method, M. Gmelin,

Tubingen, was engaged in a similar

results.

discovery,

and with very similar

of

The announcemoit
prived
JNI.

M. Guimet's

success de-

Gmelin of that

priority of claim

and

reward, which he had good hopes of obtaining; he

determined to establish his claim to orioinalitv of

invention,

by publishing the following account of

the process.

You must
ing together

begin, says the professor, by preparing

;

hydrate of silex and alumine

the

firet

in melt-

some

well-pulverized quartz, with four

;

times

its

weight of the carbonate of potass

then

dissolving the melted

mass

in water,

and precipi-

tating

it

with muriatic acid.

is

The alumine

made by

precipitating pure

alum

with ammonia, these precipitates should be carefully

washed with boiling water.

After this

is

done, the quantity of dry earth in each of the two

hydrates must be determined, by bringing to a red

heat a certain portion of each of the moist precipi-


168
tates
in

tTLTUAMARINE.
the hydrate of silex which he has employed
parts,

every hundred

contained

fifty-six,

and

that

of alumine three hundred and twenty-four

:

parts of hydrated earth

soda, as

dissolve

warm, in caustic
and
fix
;

much

silex as it will retain,

upon
take
of

the quantity of dissolved earth to be used

twenty-two parts of the

latter,

quantity

hydrate of alumine, which contains seventy parts

of dry alumine
silex,
it
;

this is

added to the solution of

stirring

and the whole evaporated together,

it

constantly until

becomes a dry powder.

silex,

This combination of

alumine, and soda,

is

the basis of ultramarine.

This should now be cois

loured with the sulphuret of sodium, which

as follows
:

made

Into a Hessian crucible, with a close cover,

is

to

be put a mixture containing two parts of sulphur,

and one of carbonate of soda hydrated

heated by degrees until
gree of redness
fusion, this
;

this

is

it

attains a moderate de-

the mass, being in a state of

is

mixture

thrown into

it

by slow de-

grees
is

as the watery vapours cease, another portion

;

added

having kept the crucible in a moderately

it is

red heat for an hour,

allowed to cool
;

taken from the

fire

and

it

now contains

ultramarine, mixed
;

with an excess of sulphuret of sodiimi

the latter

UtTRAMAKIXffi,
separated by water
if

169

is
it

there bte excess of sulphur,

:

can be carried off by a mod(erate heat

should

all

the parts not be equally c;oloured, the finest

of these can be separated fromi the rest by wash-

ing the
dered.

mass

in

water, after

being finely pow-

This process, which

have extracted from the

Annales de CMmie

et

de Physique, tome xxxvii. p.

411, has been repeated by several of our chemists,

and with success

so brilliant as
it

but the coloiur obtained was not

:

ought to be

f(br

the mass of

frit

drawn from the crucible was

noit of

an equal

tint
differ-

some parts being

pale, others imtense

and of

ent shades, some inclining to the greenish, others to

the violet tint.
requires

This process, therefore, decidedly

:

some modification

as the mixture of the

materials

was evidently unequial.

better

Perhaps this
taking the

might be

accomplishedl

after

mixed mass from the

different shades

crucible, then reducing the

of ultramarine) to a fine powder,

it

and subjecting

again to the

action of the fire

in a close vessel.

Whatever imperfection may appear

cess,
it is

in this pro-

my
who

duty to give
not
fail

it

pulblicity, as I

am

per-

suaded that
to those

it will

to afffbrd the best results

it

will

persevere in carrying
I

towards

170
that degree
capable.

GREENS.
of
perfection

of vvhich

think

it

GREENS.
Besides the green tint compostd from the simple

union of yellow and blue, jhere are others

formed either by nature or by ciemical combinations,

such as malachite, oxide

(f

chrome, green

earth, mountain, Scheele's

and Venna green.

MALACHITE, AND M0UNTA;N GREEN.

These two substances are
the
first is

carb')nates of copper

found in solid massei, formed by the

constant dropping of water saturated with carbonic

acid,

and holding
is

in solution the oxide of copper.

The carbonate
a bright green.

thus formed

in

bulbous masses,

the shades are more or less intense, but always of

The
is

hardness, as well as soliditv of the malachite,

sufficiently

demonstrated by the great number of

valuable objects which for ages hive been wTought

in this material,

and which have not

lost

any of

their lustre.

It is

not unlikely, that from the comit

mencement of painting
used as a colour.

has been ground up and

OXIDE OF CHROME.

171
only a car-

Mountain green,

in like

manner,

is

bonate of copper, and being found naturally formed,

in the state

of a fine powder, the artists have

it

always had

ready prepared to their hands, and

it.

no doubt soon took advantage of

the most ancient miniature

We see,

in

pictures, green in a

perfect state of preservation, which evidently are

the natural carbonates of copper.

It is

prepared

artificially,

by precipitating, with

the sub-carbonate of soda or potass, a solution of

copper

the result of this

tint,

is

an opaque
is

colour, of

a greyish or pale
painting.
It is

which

used in decorative

not near so bright as the natural

:

carbonate of copper

but

it is

probable that

it

could

be obtained quite similar to

it, if

the carbonic acid

could be combined with the oxide of copper in any

other way than by the double decomposition of the

carbonic alkalies and the solutions of copper.

OXIDE OF CHROME.
This pigment exists perfectly fonned in a natural
state
;

but hitherto

it

has been found in such small

is

quantities that the supply

not sufficient for the

in

demands of
ing
is

art.

That commonly used

which
is

paint-

an

artificial production,

obtained

from the decomposition of chromate of mercury by

i2

172

OXIDE OF CHROME.

the action of heat.^

is

For

this purpose :he

chromate
is filled

placed in a small graduated retort, vhich

it

with

in the proportion of

from two-tlirds to three;

quarters of the vessel's dimensions

in

liiis

is

placed

a reverberatory furnace, to the n'ck of which

is

a tube
is

attached, and to the outer enl of this tube

fixed a sleeve, or

bag of

linen,

whiih

is

plunged

into water

to facilitate the condenation of the

it volatilizes.
;

mercury as
is
is

By slow degrees the retort

the chroma-e of mercury

brought to a red heat

then decomposed, and changed into oxygen, mer-

cury, and oxide of

itself in

chrome
;

the oxygen disengages

the state of gas

the mercury passes across

;

the linen, and condenses

the oxide cf

chrome

re-

mains

in the receiver

and, after a sirong heat of

three quarters of an hour longer, the operation

may

be considered complete.*

M.
facile

Delasaigne has discovered a process more

and economic than the preceling

fine

for pro-

ducing this oxide of a

uniform intensity.
ing, in

green eobur, and of a

in calcin-

His method consists

a close crucible, and at a red heat, equal

of mercury
is

'

The chromate
tlie

prepared by a double decomposi;

tion simihir to that of the

chromate of lead

tiat

is,

by precipisuch as

tating by

chromate of potass a soluble merctrial

vol.

salt,

the proto-nitrate of mercury.

*

See Tlienard's Chemistry,

ii.

GREEX EARTH.
parts of chromate of potass
to

73

and of sulphur

then

wash with
and

lye the greenish

mass produced, to
and sulphur of

dissolve

arry off the sulphate

:

potass formec by the operation

the oxide of chrome

then precipitates, and

washings.
lb is

is

obtained pure after

many
by

not requisite that the chromate of

it

potass should be crystaUized, to take from

these

means

:he oxide of chrome.

M.

Delasaigne

has succeedei equally well in producing as fine a

colour,

by calcining with the sulphur produced by

the evaporation, given out by the solution of chro-

mate of

iron,

heated with nitre, and which iron he

had previously saturated with the weak sulphuric

acid, to precipitate the silex

and alumine which

are often combined with that metal.'

The oxide
painting.
It

of chrome

is

chiefly

used
oil
;

in

enamel
if

may

be employed in
it

and

this

but seldom happens,

must be attributed to the

it

high price of the colour, and also because

has not

much

brilliancy

yet

it

has more body than any

;

other of the green colours

and

this is

sometimes

an advantage.

GREEN EARTH,
This substance, which
in the vicinity of
'

is

found on Monte Baldo^

Verona,

is

an unctuous earth of a
tome
xiv. p. 301.

See Annales de Physique

et de Chimie,

i3

174
pure green
with
oil.

GREEN EARTH.
tint,

which gi"ows darker when mixed

Klaproth,

who analyzed

i:,

found that

it

contained of
Silex,

53 parts.
iron,

Oxide of

...

28
2

Magnesia,
Potass,

10
6

Water,

99

The green earth

analyzed,
is

of Cyprus, which he has also

of the

composed

same elements,

differ-

ing

little

in their proportions.

There are other

green earths, called by the mineralogists chlorites,

which

differ

from the

latter in this respect,

that

they contain alumine, but no potass.

is

Green earth
or redish
colours

often

mixed with veins of

^vill

bro\ATiish
affect

ochre, which, of course,

the

but there are pieces found of one equal and bright

tint; these, therefore,

have the preference.

Rubens

has availed himself

much

of this colour, not in his

landscapes only, but also in his carnation tints in

his figures of a

dead Christ.

It is evident that
:

much

of the glazing

is

done with terre vert

;

it is,

in fact,

most useful
substance,

in glazing

because, having only a thin

it

can be rendered pale by a small portion

it

of white, but in the end

becomes darker by the

CRYSTALLIZED VERDIGRIS.
concentration of
its

175
see, in

molecules.

We
^

the

greater part of Alexander Veronese's

works, some

demi

tints,

which are too green, and which certainly

;

were not so originally

with great caution.^

it,

therefore,

must be used

CRYSTALLIZED VERDIGRIS, OR ACETATE OF

COPPER.
This substance
is

combined of acetous acid and

oxide of copper, to which the chemists have given

the above appellation.

verdigris
*

It is

prepared by dissolving
it,

in distilled vinegar, evaporating

and

then crystaUizing the solution.

The
'

painters,
instance,

who

lived at the

time when the

Death of Cleo-

As an

we

refer to his picture of the

patra, in the Louvre.

* It

should be ascertained beforehand, whether a mineral colour

time,

will, in

become darker than when

it is

first

laid

on the picture.
oil

To

ascertain the fact,

only requisite to put a drop of

if the
it
it

upon

one of these colours in their natural state; and

gives to
it

tone this

should be more intense than that which

it

acquires by
will attain

being ground up,

to the
its

may

fairly

be concluded that

same degree of strength whenever, having completely dried,

it is

molecules shall have re-united as closely as

terra siena,

possible.

Umber,
'

The

verdigris of

and terra verte, are of this class. commerce is a sub-acetate of copper,

is

that

is,

a salt in which the oxide

in the largest proportion.

It is

pre-

pared by exposing plates of copper to the action of the vapour

exhaled from vinegar. At Montpelier and Grenoble were formerly
the chief manufactoriies of this article.
I


176
scheele's greex.
and

arts were restored in Italy, used this colour

Leonardo da Yinci,

in his Treatise

on Painting,

chap, xcix., advises the application cf varnish to

the surface of that colour as soon as

because, being a soluble
salt, it

it

is

dry

would be carried

off

whenever the picture was washed.

This colour,

when ground
but
its

in oil varnish, is not soluble in water,

is

only use

in glazing.

The

bright greens
glazings of

seen in some old pictures are

verdigris.

made by

Yet

it

is

probable that the ancients

knew

Scheele's green, the arseniate of copper.

scheele"'s green.

The

following process for

its

making
:

this colour

has

been published by

discoverer

Dissolve two pounds of sulphate of copper in

eleven pints of pure (warm) water, in a copper
vessel
;

then melt separately, also

in

warm

water,

two pounds of potass and eleven ounces of white

arsenic pulverized
to be filtered
;

when

dissolved, the liquid is

and changed into another

vessel

the

warm

arsenical solution is then

thrown upon the

little

sulphate of copper, only adding a

stirring
it

at a time,

constantly
is

when

properly combined,
still

the mixture

to be left quite
;

for

some hours,
liquid is then

and the colour is precipitated the clear

scheele's greex.
decanted
upon the residuum some pints of
;

177

warm
;

water are thrown

allowed to
in this
settle,

this is to

be well stirred
;

it is

and

is

then decanted

having

way washed the

precipitate three or four

filter,

times,

it

must be passed through a

it is

and when

sufficiently firm

put into shape and dried

upon unsized

[rnper.

The above
six

quantity should produce one

pound

ounces of dry colour.

this process, however,

By

we are not
;

certain of

obtaining the same shade of colour

because the

potass of commerce does not always contain the

same quantity of
potass and arsenic.

alkali.

In such a case there

would be a waste of either sulphate of copper or of

To make

the results

more

certain,

and not to

lose

any of the materials, the acid of arsenic and the

sulphate of copper must be combined.

For that
^

purpose the arsenic should be reduced to powder

and dissolved
the solution
is

in

sufficient

quantity of water

then to be mixed with a sufficient

'

Arsenic being a very dangerous and active poison, the preit

caution should be used of grinding

in

water, to avoid being

exposed
its

to the

chances of respiring some of the finer particles of

dust.
I

178

scheele''s green.

quantity of the sulphate of coppe-, one part of

arsenic to ten of sulphate
precipitate
;

this will not

make any
is

some carbonate of soda or of potass

;

then dissolved
nicated copper

a very small
is

portion of the arseiito

then to be put

a glass, and

precipitated by one or other of tin two alkalies

the result will show whether the shrde of colour

that required
if
;

is

if it

be too yellow (vhich

jo

it will

be

the proportion of ten of arsenic

one hundred

of sulphate be exceeded), a fresh sdution of pure

sulphate of copper

is

to be
in

added ;

tli;

operation
;

may
the

be carried on either

c old

or warn state
pale ;
if

if

former, the colour will be

more

carried on

to a high temperature, the precipitate will appear like

sand, and

it

then crystallizes

if

ciustic alkali

be
;

used, the colour becomes very dark

it

md

dries hard
is

sometimes happens that this coour

required

to be of the greatest intensity.^

In place of soda or potass, the presipitate

may be

made with lime water

but

it

requiies a very gi'eat

quantity to precipitate completely the arsenicated

solution, but the precipitate will
'

be equally

fine.

Prepared by
is

this

method, Scheele's green las a glassy fracture,

;

and

difficult to

grind

but

if it

be soaked in water and afterair, it vill

wards allowed
pieces,

to

dry gradually in the

it

split into small

and then

can be triturated

much mere

readily.


VIENNA grf:en.
179

VIEXNA GREEN.
For many
brilliant

years past there

has been a very

in

greei

from copper, known

)f

commerce

by the name
green.

Vienna, Brunswick, or Sweinfurth

M.
in

Broconrot, having analyzed

it

it,

has succeeded
:

preparing

in the following

manner

Six parts

of

sulphate of copper are to be dis-

solved in a snail quantity of

boil

warm water
solution

then

six parts of the white oxide of arsenic,

;

and

one part of potass

degrees with the
quite gone off;
it

mix

this

by slow

first,

until the effervescence is

soon forms a yellow precipitate,

;

rather dirty, ^eenish, and very abundant

three

parts of acetous acid are then to be added, so as to allow a trifling excess discoverable by the smell; by

slow degrees the volume of the precipitate diminishes,

and

in a few hours

it

spontaneously forms a deposit

is

at the bottom of the liquor (which

quite disco-

loured) a powder of a fine green colour, and slightly

crystalline
;

the floating liquor

is

is

then decanted,

and the precipitate

Dr. Liebig
lias

carefully washed.

published another process, here

subjoined, which gives the

same

result.

Some

distilled

vinegar
I

is

to be put into a copper

180

VIENNA GREEN.
is

saucepan, and, being heated, one part of verdigris

to be dissolved in
it
;

to this

is

added a watery
;

solu-

tion of one part of white oxide of arsenic

these form

a precipitate of a dirty green

tint,

which, for the

beauty of the colour, must be got rid of; for this

purpose an additional quantity of vinegar must be
added, until the precipitate
is
;

again dissolved

the
is

mixture

is

then to be boiled

a new precipitate

formed

in

granular crystals of a beautiful green

is

colour ; the liquid

carefully washed.

then drawn

off,

and the colour

If the floating liquor should

still

contain an ex;

cess of copper,

some arsenic

is

to be added
;

if

only

arsenic, then acetate of copper

or
\vill

if it

contains

an excess of acetous
solve

acid, this

serve to dis-

more

verdigris.

Instead of dissolving verdigris in vinegar, crystallized verdigris will

do as

well, dissolved in water.

The

colour prepared in this

way has a blueish shade

yellow, the arsenic

if it is

required to be
It

more

must
it

be increased.

might also be desirable that

:

should be of a deeper hue

of potass

for this purpose a

;

pound
this

must be

dissolved in water

add to

ten pounds of the colour obtained as above, and

heat the whole over a moderate

will

fire.

The

colour

soon be observed to grow darker, and take the

BROWNS.
required hue
if

181

boiled too long,

it

comes near the

is

tint of Scheele's green,

in

but always

superior to

it

beauty and brightness.

The

alkaline

liquor

which remains after the operation

preparing Scheele's green.

may be

used in

BROWNS.
Asphaltum, or bitumen,
mineral
oil
is

a species of
is

pitch, or

become

solid.

Bitumen

collected

on

the surface of the lake Asphaltites, (the

Dead

Sea,)

and

is

called " Jews' pitch ;" but the greater part

is

of the asphaltum of conunerce

derived from liquid

asphaltum, which

is

evaporated to dryness.
its

The

bitumen

is

of a fine black tint in

fracture, is
It is

easily pulverized,

and

its

powder

is

brown.

not ground
colour
is

it

is

only melted, and a fine

brown

thus obtained, of the greatest transpait

rency

but

retards the drying of

oils,

and the
as pos-

drying quality must be increased as

sible.

much

There are two modes of preparing bitumen

is
;

a thick varnish
oil

first

made by

dissolving

it

in

of turpentine

this does

not require
dissolve
it

much
cold.

heat,

and even,
is

in time, will

when

This varnish

so thick that

cannot be used
oil

without mixing

it

with the emplastic

:

of Italy,

or mastic varnish

this prevents

its

flowing off


182
the palette.

; ;

BROWNS.
This
is

the manner in which the

bitimen.
in

Enghsh and the ItaUans prepare

It

may
:

also

be

prepared

the

following

manner

Venice

tui'pentine,

.15
60

grains.

Gum

lac,

Asphaltum,

90
i40

Drying

oil,

White wax The gum

adding
fifteen grains at

30
by
to

lac is first dissolved in tie turpentine

a time, and allowing

is

it

melt before the other portion

added; the asphal-

tum

is

then to be mixed in like manner, by degrees

oil,

the linseed
ing point,

having been heated rear to the

boil-

is

also

by degrees mingled with the rest

Before the mixture cools,
it

the

wax

is

then added.

should be thrown upon the stone, and well worked

with the muller and knife.

Thus prepared, the

;

bi-

tumen

will

dry in one day equal to flake white

but

as a skin will form on the surface of the mass, this

must be prevented by putting

vessel,

it

into a tin cylindrical

covered with a disk of the exact diameter of

the interior.

By

pressing this disk, in which

is

smaU
is

hole, the

bitumen oozes out, and then the hole

closed with a

wooden peg, so as to prevent the

in contact with the surface of the

air

from coming

12

liROWK OF PIJUSSIAN BLUE.

183

liquid.

In this ^^ay

it

may

be preserved soft for a

long time.'

A greater
the bitumen

degree of solidity would be given to

if it

were dissolved in amber varnish

sixty grains of
for turpentine.
in the varnish.

tliis

varnish should be substituted

lac will dissolve readily

The gum

BROWN OF PRUSSIAN BLUE.

M.

Bouvier has published a process, by means of

which Prussian blue may be converted into brown,

or black, by intense heat.

This brown has

all

the

transparency of asphaltum, with this advantage,

that
it

dries quickly,

and

is
is,

permanent.
to place
it is

M.
fire
it

Bouvier's process
;

upon a

clear

a large iron spoon

when

red hot, put into

some

pieces of Prussian blue about the size of a

;

small nut
Some

these soon begin to crackle, and throw

years ago, an Englishman proposed the employing of

tin,

syringes

made of

or of copper tinned, to preserve from injury

certain colours,

such as the lakes and Prussian blue, which soon

in

undergo an unfavourable change

"

the

bladders.
of the

And

the

London Society
it is

for the

Encouragement

Arts" rewarded

the proposition with a silver medal and a purse of ten guineas.

Yet

not very probable that

many English

artists

have adopted
&c.

that expedient.

See The Journal of

the Arts, Manufactures,

No. 269,

p.

280.

Oct 1824.

181;

BROW>J OF PRUSSIAN BLUE.

off scales in proportion as

it

grows hot

remove

the spoon, and

let it cool

if

allowed to remain too

long on the
tained
it will
:

fire,

the right colour will not be obcolour

is

when the

crushed small, some of

be found blackish, and the rest of a yetowish

:

brown

this is quite as

it

should be.

M. Bouvier
use.

states that this

pigment can only be

obtained from the genuine Prussian blue in

common
in in

He
it

states, that he " never

is

succeeded

makEng-

ing

with that sort which

manufactured

land."

Thus

it

would appear, that to make the

operation certainly succeed, blue must be employed

in

which there

is

much
is

alumine.

That of English

manufacture, which

darker than ours (in France),

little

consequently contains but

of this substance

when completely

calcined, the English blue

is,

only

produces a sort of orange colour, which

very transparent and intense.

in fact,

Another condition
is,

requisite to the success of the operation

that the

heat ought to be at once carried to the exact point

required.
caution.

This

is

easily

done by using proper

Instead of commencing the process by

heating an iron spoon, the bits of colour

may be

placed on a plate of iron, and the plate laid upon a

quick

fiire

they sometimes give out flame, and

BROWN

PINK.

185

always grow red along with the plate

off the fire, they are left until

when taken

they cease to emit

smoke, and the blue colour has disappeared.

If the blue is calcined in
is

a close crucible, a black

it

formed, which will be found very useful, as

dries well.

BROWN

PINK.
is

This colour, as we have stated at page 143,

made by

precipitating, with alum, a decoction of

infectorius) in such a

French berries (rhamnus

way

as that the alkali shall not be saturated.

lour would be

This co-

more lasting,

if,

instead of the berries,

yellow wood, quercitron, and holly bark, for instance,

were used
nuts,'

and

still

better would be the husks of

colour.

which produce a very lasting brown

in

Mixture may also be made,

tions are

whatever propor-

most agreeable, of woad, madder, and

;

husks of nuts
pitate the

and instead of using alum to

preci-

decoction,

the acetate or sulphate of

copper should be used, which, as we have already

observed,
is

the best mordent for giving stability to

the colours.

Bones, or ivory half calcined, produce

The husks
it

of nuts contain

reason

would not be proper

some portion of starch to employ boiling water

:

for this for the

purpose of extracting the colour.

186

UMBER.
lasting,

very transparent browns, and are

but are

the worst driers possible.

UMBER.

Some

mineralogists have confounted this earth

with that of nocera in umbria, which is bituminous

and inflammable,

like those of Oassel

and Cologne.
It is
in

It resists the action of fire like the )chres.

brought from the

Isle of

Cyprus, anc

is

known

commerce as Turkish
is

or Levant umler.

Its colour

an

olive

brown, which becomes mu'sh darker, and

tone,

of a

warmer

when

it is

calcinec.

It is prin-

cipally

composed of the oxide of maiganese, oxide

This coour has much
it

of iron, silex, and alumine.

body, and dries rapidly, especially after

calcined.
It

has been
is

grows darker by time

it

but this

not

a reason for setting

aside
it

this

disadvantage

may be

obviated by mixing

with colours which

light

grow paler by the action of

brown, pinks, &c.

such as the

Some

painters have painted on grounds primed

it

with umber,* but

has penetrated tlirough the

lighter parts of the work.

There are several of Poussin's pictures painted on umber

grounds.

That

fine series, "

The Seven Sacrtments,"

is

clearly

amongst the number.

BLACK.

187

CASSEL AND COLOGNE EARTHS.

These arc bituminous

is

earths, originating as
;

it

supposed from the decomposition of wood

the

mineralogists have also given

lignites. tity of
it

them the name of

The Cassel

earth has the greater quan-

bitumen, and has a rich tone of colour, but

loses this in
I

some measure by exposure

to have seen a head, the

to the

light.

remember

brown

hair of which

had been painted with a mixture

this

of white,

and

brown

for the light

yet this

part was darker than that part painted solely with

it

unmixed, the white having fixed the colour.

in

Another serious inconvenience

the bituminous

earths, is their retarding the drying of the oils

therefore

when employed, they must be ground

oils
;

with the strongest drying

for their

and to compensate
air,

growing lighter by the action of the

they should be mixed with colours that are per-

manent, such as umber, charcoal black, and oxide

of iron.

BLACK.

The blacks used

in painting, are generally

;

made
black

from animal or vegetable carbon

is

but

fossil

also used.

Ivory black

is

also formed by calcining the parings

BLACK.
of that substance,
is

left

by the workmen^ tools

it

very deep in tone, and transparent.

lone black,
last
;

carefully prepared, differs little

from the

it is

little

warmer
if

in tone,

and may be nade quite

is

brown,
pleted
;

the carbonizing

stopped ere

it

is
it

com-

this

brown

is

very transparent, lut

or
it will

must

be ground in drying

oil,

not dn.

Charcoal black has less intensity thai ivory or

bone, and
is

less

transparent

and
It
is

tie

tints it

produces are rather blueish.

prq^ared

by

calcining in a close vessel, the shells anc husks of

peaches, apricots, nuts, the cuttings of vines, and

other young woods

in

there

is

not

much
;

difference

the tints of these various sorts

is

tiat

which

grinds the finest,

to

be preferred.

In this

respect, the preference is due to the liege charcoal,

which

is easily

ground

whilst charcoal from

peach stones, vines, and most sorts of wood, are

on account of their

elasticity, difficult tc

reduce to

the tenuity of the other colours.

Liege black
crucible,

is

prepared by calcining
it

il

in a close

and then washing

in boiling- water, to
it

carry off the soluble salts which

contains.

In a similar way

is

prepared the cofee black,

its

from the husks of coffee ;

the
last, it is

properties are similar to

strongly

recommended by M. Bouvier

in his "

Manuel de

Peinture.''''

INDIAN INK.
It

189

has been said that black of smoke, or lamp

produces injurious effects in
it,

black,

oil.

have

not experienced
black,

but I

am

certain

that this

when

well

calcined

and washed, may be

employed without danger, yet we should be aware

that
all

the blacks
effect,

from smoke do not produce

for
is

the

same
;

they

differ

very

much

in

quality
lightest

lamp black
;

the most intense, and the

is

that from coal sfhoke

;

much

heavier

and coarser
monia.

it

contains a large quantity of am-

Smoke, or lamp
ink,

black,

is

the basis of Indian

and though

it

belongs exclusively to water

it

colours, yet perhaps

would be acceptable,
it

if I

should describe a method of preparing

of a very

good quality.

INDIAN INK.

The

best

of this
its

manufacture, has a shining

black fracture;

body

is

finely

compact, and
;

homogeneous when rubbed with water

the least appearance of particles, and
in

there

is

not

when

diluted

much water,

there

is

not any precipitate formed

when

dry, its surface

is
;

covered with a pellicle of

a metallic appearance
will

when dry on the

it

paper,

it

not

yield to

the action of water, yet

will give

190

INDIAN INK.
action,

way at once to that

when

it

has been used

and dried on marble or ivory, wHch proves that

the

alummed paper forms a

stroig

combination

with the ink.

Nothing
prepai'ing

is
it,

positively

known
The

of the

method of

except what Duhaldehas told us in

his ''History

of Chinay

receipt

which he

M.

Julien, assistant librarian at the Instiute of France, has,

with much diligence and care, examined the Clinese Encyclopediae,

yet he has not been able to discover any recent given in so
detail as that

much
made

published by Father Duhalde.

I

He

has, however,

found several useful papers, which,

think ought to be

known.

From

these documents
;

the most esteemed

this country,

we learn, that the nk of Nan- King is and amongst the differen sorts imported into
of the
;

we

find those

finest quility are

made with

oil of Sesame with which an combined camphor and the juice of a plant called Houng hoa (Uhiscus rosa sinerisis),

lamp black of the

to give

it

brightness of tone.
is

This lamp black

obtained by means of one hundred lamps,

is

over which a large plate of thin iron

suspaided, to collect the

ths plate the

smoke, and prevent

its

dispersion.

From

smoke

is

removed by sweeping
iii. p.

it

with a feather brush

" Thim-hung-haTve," Vol.

In another Encyclopedia, entitled

44,
is

we find that one-tenth part of the nk manufactured in made with lamp black, prepared witl oil of the Toung tree, pure oil, or.the fat of pork. The remainde* is made with lamp
China
black from the red pine or the
fir

deal.

One

active careful person can collect the olack from two hun;

dred lamps

but

if it

be collected slowly,

it

tecomes burnt.

The common ink manner

:

is

made

with black prejared in the following

After having extracted the resinous

mater from the pine

or

INDIAN INK.
has given, as taken from a chinese book,
follows
:

191
as

is

The makers
hohiang
tsao-ko,

of this ink take

some of the plants

of
tchu-yia-

and

kansang,

the

cloves
;

and the juice of ginger

these are to be

boiled in water, the decoction clarified,

and then

evaporated to a thick consistency

ten ounces of

deal trees, there remains only the lighter parts.

The ink made

with the lamp black of this wood loads the pencil, does not flow
readily on paper, nor
is it

perfectly soluble.

When
a hole
is

it

is

intended to extract the resinous sap from the pine,

at the foot of the tree
to this
;

dug
;

an incision
;

is

then

made

in

the stem

near

a lamp

is

placed

the

wood grows warm by

tree flows out

degrees

and

in a short time all the juice of the

through the incision.

The
small,

pieces of pine to be burned for lamp black ought to be

and about half a yard

is

in length;

the apparatus for collect-

ing the soot

a long cage

made

of trellised bamboo, similar to the

;

roof or awning put

up by

the sailors as a shelter from the sun

it

should be sixty cubits in length (thirty yards), both the interior and
exterior are covered with large paper
;

when

it

is

prepared they
allowed

up smoke
set
to

several partitions, leaving an opening for the passage of the

;

the floor

is

laid with earth

and bricks

the

fire is

burn for several days, and when a certain quantity of the

to collect

wood has been consumed, they go into the bamboo cabin

the soot.

As soon
first

as the fire is lighted, the

;

partition to the last

the

smoke soon penetrates from the smoke which fixes on the ceilings of
and
softest black

the two most remote divisions gives the lightest

that of the centre
is

chamber

is

heavier and inferior in quality,

it

used in making

common

ink

whilst that which forms in the

is

first
it is

and second from the entrance

sold to printers, warnishers,

too coarse for ink-making,

and house-painters.

192

INDIAN INK.
mixed with four ounces of
parchment
;

this electuary is then

size,

made from
is

asses' skin

this mix-

ture

then incorporated with ten ounces of smoke

black,
paste,

and then the whole

which
is

is

wrought into a
;

fine

put into moulds

these are covered

up

in the

ashes, where they remain a longer or

shorter time according to the season.

P. Duhalde, being aware that

all

the plants men-

tioned in this process, except the ginger, are un-

known
means
of our

to

our botanists,

saw

at

once that his

receipt would be useless, unless he could give

some

of substituting, for the Chinese plants, those

own country which

are

most analogous

to

them.

He

therefore,

on this subject, made

dili-

gent inquiries, the result of which he has published

we

learn

from the author, that the pods

called

tchu-yia-tsao-ko are

produced by a bush or shrub,

and resemble those of the caroub bean, except that

they are smaller, and nearly round.
plants inclose cells of a pungent
filled

The Chinese

with a pulpy substance,

flavour.

and unpleasant
is,

Ho

hiang

according to the Chinese dictionary,

plant, to

an aromatic medicinal
buted the same

which are

attri;

qualities, as

belong to the sou ho

is

another plant from which

similar to liquid storax.

extracted a balm

IXDIAX IXK.
Finally, the

93

Kan-sung

is

a plant used
is

in the

composition of perfumes, and

taste.

pleasing to the

The

processes used in the arts, are always

;

diffi-

cult to describe

yet, even

though we should he

in

possession of the plants employed by the Chinese,

it

may

be doubted whether we should quite succeed

ink on the
first

in imitating their

attempt.
to

The pods which resemble the caroub, appear

me

to belong to the mimosa.'

is

The harshness

of

their scent

a sufficient indication that they contain

:

much

of the astringent principle

how

is it,

then,
?

that their decoction does not precipitate gelatine

have not these vegetable juices need of a new

fying process
?

clari-

P. Duhalde speaks of the alkaline properties of

the ink
;

how then

shall

we

reconcile that with the

gallic acid,

contained in juices of the astringent

plants

There must therefore be some omission,

or at

for the alkaline principle could not exist,

least

no one has

yet,

by any known means, been

able to saturate the acid contained in the vege' This, probably, is the mimosa indica ; the pods of which are used in the process of dyeing, and have been for some years

imported into Europe.

In France they are known under the

name o(babla;

their decoction gives only

one precipitation, not

very abundant in the solution of gelatine.

194
table decoction

INDIAK INK.
;

and,

it

may be

added, that this

Chinese ink

may be

dissolved in vinegar, without

forming any precipitate.

However imperfect

this description

may

be,

it

nevertheless points out the

way

to us, by informing
size in

us that the Chinese do not use any pure

the

manufacture of their ink, but that they add some

vegetable juices, which give the ink greater brilliancy,

and

fix it

more firmly on paper.

lamp black be intimately combined
it

In

fact, if fine

with pure gelatine,

black tint
;

produces an ink of a
it will

fine

but in
it

its

fracture

not be glossy,
like the

neither will

be indelible on paper,

good
af-

Chinese ink, with the disadvantage of being

fected by the frost in winter.

Here then we have obtained two important

points
:

namely, that

it

is

indispensable, that the

ink shall be fluid in winter as well as

also that
it

summer

and

shall resist

being washed off the paper.

The

first

of these qualities can be easily obtained.

alteration in

For the purpose of making such an

the gelatine, as will ensure
of

its fluidity to

equal that

gum

it

only requires that the ebullition should

be carried on to an elevated temperature; but as

the caloric would in this action form an ammoniacal soap,

which attracts the moisture of the atmo-

IXDIAX IXK.
sphere
;

195

it

would be preferable to employ a process.

by which the starch or gelatine may be changed

into a

gummy and

saccharine substance.

This

method

consists in boiling this starchy matter in

water, acidulated by sulphuric acid, and afterwards

saturating the acid with chalk.

To render
quisite to

the ink insoluble on paper,

size

it

is

re-

mix with the animal

vegetables, so

some

juices of

astringent

carefully

combined,

as

not to occasion any precipitate.

The

infusion of nut galls into a solution of gela-

tine, will

cause an abundant precipitation, which

will unite in

a resinous,

elastic,
is

and

brilliant

mass.

This compound, which

insoluble in water, can

in a

be dissolved by ammonia (hartshorn), and

greater
solution

quantity of gelatine.
of this
;

The ammoniacal
very brown, but

precipitate

is

transparent
water.

and when dry

it will

not dissolve in

The resinous matter

soluble in water after
dissolves

dissolved in gelatine,
it

is still
it

has been dried, but

It

much

slower than pure gelatine.

is

therefore to the action of the tannin principle on

the animal gluten, that

ness of Indian ink

we must
K 2

ascribe the fixed-

upon paper.

196

IKDIAN IKK.
size

The
skin
is

prepared from parchment made of asses'

it

considered the best, though

first

is

not evi-

dent at

sight on

what account
;

it

should have

the preference so decidedly

and

must

state,

that having tried, by

asses' skin into size,
I

way

of experiment, to convert
it

by passing

through lime,
it,

have only at last succeeded in dissolving

it

by

steeping

for several days in lime water.

The Chinese

attribute

to

this

animal gluten

some peculiar medicinal

that this idea influences
particular care.
I

qualities,

and

it

may be
it

them

in preparing

with

have seen some of this size

I

which was very transparent, but

have not been

it

able to procure a portion, to compare

with that

made from The

in

offal

of oxen, &c.
is

best size

that sort, which,

when steeped
;

water,

only

swells

without dissolving

this

species is very rarely found for sale, but in place

of it, the Flanders size

is

the next best.

After having steeped this substance for several

hours in water, about

tlu-ee

times

its

weight, which

has been acidulated by a tenth part of sulphuric acid

that part of the water
is

to be drawn off which conis

tains the portion of size

which

too soluble, and this

must be replaced by an equal quantity of water,

INDIAN IKK.
slightly aciclurated.

197
then to be boiled
it

The

size is

for

an hour or two, and the ebullition brings

it will

to

such a condition, that

to a state of
jelly.

not when cold return

The

acid should then be saturated with powdered

it is

chalk, with which

vnitil

combined by a

little

at a time,

the resistance of paper shows that the satuis

ration

sufficient.
it

The mixture

is

then

filtered

through paper, and

passes quite transparent.

of this size
is

About one quarter

away, and upon
it

then to be taken

should be thrown a solution of the

;

concentrated essence of nut galls

precipitates,

the gelatine then

and becomes the

;

elastic resin-like sub-

stance already mentioned

this

matter

is

then to be

washed
size
;

in

warm
again

water, and dissolved in clarified

it is

filtered,

and

it is

allowed to draw
in-

near to the proper state, for the purpose of

corporating
it

with the lamp black, that too

lost,

much

time

may

not be

in waiting until the paste

its

has acquired the proper consistence requisite for

being moulded.

The astringent
juices, will not

principle contained in vegetable

form a gelatine precipitate, when

it

the acid contained in

galls,

has been saturated.

Nut
of

or any other vegetable containing

much

the astringent principle,

may

then be boiled with

K 3


1.98

INDIAN INK.
' ;

magnesia, or lime

and then mixed with the

fil-

tered decoction of the size, there will not be any

precipitation
;

and the

size

thus prepared

will

be so

much

less soluble
it

when

dry, in proportion to the

quantity

may

contain of the astringent matter.

It is only

by cautiously proceeding, that we can

ascertain the

most just proportion of the

astrin-

gent matter, which ought to be combined with

the
size.

By whatever mode
for being

the excipient

is

prepared,
it

mixed with the black pigment,

clarified,

must
of

be equally well
water, until
it

by washing
;

it

in plenty

leaves no sediment
is

whenever this

takes place, there

nothing more required, than to

concentrate
consistency,
It is also

its

substance to the proper degree of

by evaporation. by proceeding cautiously, that we can

ascertain the relative proportions of black

since that size

and
:

size,

may be more

or less strong

but

we

shall

succeed in this object without

trials
:

difficulty,

by making the two following

With
a
slab

a pencil, apply a light wash of ink upon

of porcelain,

and with a pen put some

'

believe this ink would be very good

but

it

has not that

property of the China ink, of dissolving in vinegar.

INDIAN INK.
writing on paper
shines, this
it
; ;

199 on the porcelain

size in

if

the

ink
it

is

a proof that
it is

has sufficient
it

and

if,

after

dry on the paper,

it

cannot be

washed
too

off

by water,

is

clear that there is not

much

size in

the composition.
to form their

The Chinese use wooden moulds

ink paste, but these moulds
of potter s clay, baked
;

may be made
they
will

very well

and when they have not

fire,

been half
tongue.

vitrified

by the

adhere to the

In this state they absorb a portion of the

moisture in the paste, and this facilitates the dis-

charge of the moulded ink, in a short time after

having been compressed in the mould

the sticks

of ink are afterwards covered up in the ashes, to

prevent their becoming

the moulds

split

in

the dicing

and

may be

dried in the sun, or on a stove;

and

if

the pores of the latter, after a long service,

should cease to absorb the humidity, they should

be boiled in a wash of caustic

lye,

and then dried

as usual, or exposed to a red heat.

The

quality of the

lamp black has a

gi-eat in-

fluence upon the quality of the ink'.

We

have

seen in a note at the beginning of this article, that.

The
pellicle skin of metallic

'

appearance which forms on the

is

surface of Indian ink,

when

drying,

chiefly

owing

to the

lamp

black in

its

composition.

K 4

200

INDIAN INK.
is
;

the black of which the "Imperial Ink"

consists

made,
in

of extremely light

lamp-black
is

the

preparation of which great care

this

taken.

For

purpose, a metal stove

may be employed;

into this stove, a

lamp with many burners must be

placed,

and surmounted with a large plate of iron

the opening of the stove should be so arranged, as

to allow the combustion of the

lamp to produce as
for this purjjose,

much smoke

as possible

and

various oils and fatty substances are tried, to ascertain which will best suit this purpose.

In China, the finest lamp black

the
oil

is

prepared from
is

oil

of girgelin, which

we

are assured

the

of sesame.

M.

Proust, in the analysis which he

finest quality,

made of
found two
is

some Chinese ink of the

per cent, of camphor in

it.

This substance

also

pointed out in a receipt, to be found in the Chinese

Encyclopedise.
little

From

this information, I

mixed a
I

camphor

in the ink

which

made, and

soon found the good of this addition.

ink in which
sti-ong
it

When

the

was mixed, was

in a state of paste
I

enough to be moulded,

have pressed
oil,

it
it

with the fingers slightly touched with

and

did not adhere in the slightest degree;

state, it

in this
seal,

took perfectly the impression of the

WHITE LEAD.
and
this facility of

201

moulding,

I attribute entirely to

the camphor.

WHITE LEAD.
The only white now used
in oil painting,
is

combination of prot-oxide of lead

acid
;

and

carbonic

it is

called in chemistry " the sub-carbonate

of lead."
it,

From

the various modes of preparing

;

arises

a very great diversity in the qualities

these are
white,

known by the names

of ceruse,

flake

krems white, and

in

silver white.

The ceruse made

Holland has long had the

reputation of being the best in that class of whites.

It is not a very clear white,
chiefly in

and

is

therefore used

house painting, and in priming cloths for

it

pictures

is

often

mixed with

chalk.

The Ger-

man

ceruse contains a large proportion of the sulfirst

phate of barytes, but the Dutch ceruse pf the

quality
is

pure.'
is

Flake white

brighter than ceruse

if

it

would

even equal that of krems,

ployed in
its

proper care was em-

fabrication.

It

has the great advan:

tage of not being liable to adulteration

it is

called

by the colourmen " common white."

'

These ceruses also contain acetate of lead, metallic

lead,

and

ammonia.

K 5

202

WHITE LEAD.

These two species of white are prepared by exposing plates of lead to the action of vinegar steam

and carbonic
sels, either

acid.

For

this purjjose, earthen ves;

glazed or hard baked, are employed

laid across these,
is

slips of

wood are

and the lead

in

plates, or spiral forms,

placed upon them, so as

fills

not to touch the liquid which

the vessels.

the bottoms of
in lines,

These pots arc then ranged

close together,

upon a bed of

stable dung.

Other

lead being placed as tiles upon those pots,

some

planks are laid over them;

on these are placed

another layer of dung, and on this another range of

pots
is placed,
it

covered with lead in like manner

is

and thus

proceeds until the pile

six or eight

feet high, as the localities

may

permit.

To prevent

the heat from becoming too powerful, openings are

reserved in the layers, at proper distances, through
the mass.

These are usually

closed, but
:

opened

occasionally to

examine the temperature

is

when

that

is

too high, a current of air

is

allowed to pass

through, until the heat

brought down to the

standard required, which should not exceed thirtyfive

or forty degrees at the most, unless

it
it

may be
is^

towards the close of the operation, when

required to dry

only

the carbonate which has been

formed.

WHITE LEAD.

203

In about six weeks the pots are removed, and

the lamine which cover
flakes,

them have become hard

is

which, without further preparation,

the

flake white of

commerce.

The

spirals are unrolled,

brittle nature are

and

flakes of a smaller

and more

drawn from them. These are ground

horizontal grinders
;

in water,

under

the produce
;

is

then washed,
off",

and allowed to

settle

the water

is

drained

until
it is

the deposit has acquired a thick consistency

then put into conical pots, and dried for use. This
is

the way in which the Hollanders prepare

Its

their ceruse.

want of brightness

arises

from a

small portion of the metal not being thoroughly

oxidized,

and

also

from the use of

litter,
is

which

throws out vapours, by which the oxide

as
it is

darkened

formed.

This disadvantage

may

be obviated

by using moistened straw, or common

couches
:

tan, for the

brilliant

the flakes

will

then

have a

whiteness\

The

following experiment,

made

in

my

presence,

several years since, will

show how the operations

It proves, that vinegar,

are conducted in Holland.

of
itself,

will

not convert the lead into carbonate,

it.

and that the carbonic acid must be combined with

'

To

facilitate the

fermentation of the straw,

it

must be wetted

with

warm

water.

K 6

204f

WHITE LEAD.
vessel of
;

common

vinegar

is

placed under a

glass bell

plates of lead are then laid over the

vinegar, in such a

way as

to allow the vapour of the

its

vinegar to have free access to every part of

face
;

sur-

the bell
it

is

then carefully luted to the surface

on which

stands.

A similar
ble,

apparatus was then prepared, but to

the vinegar were added some bits of calcareous marwhich, in decomposing, produced carbonic acid

gas.

The two

bells

were thus exposed to the same

temperature of thirty or thirty-five degrees for a

month

at the end of that time, the leaden plates

inclosed under

the glass with the pure vinegar

were covered with a crystalline and transparent

couch of acetate of lead, without a particle of the
carbonate
;

whilst,

under the other

glass, the plates

were found covered with a couch of various thickness

;

the upper plates, placed horizontally, were

half converted into carbonate of lead
:

more than
it

was

soft,

because the moisture could not evapois

rate.
state,

There
it

no doubt, that

if it

had dried
flakes,

in this

would have formed compact

such as

are sold in the shops.

We

collected

the whole

upon paper, and

finest

it

did not yield in brightness to the

krems white.
it

Thus

would appear, that

in the operation just

KllEMS WHITE.

205

described the carbonic acid

Utter.

is

furnished by the stable

The
is,

carbonate,

when
it

just formed,

is soft

and

it

no doubt, to dry

completely, that the pots are

left

so long in the dung-heap.

KREMS WHITE.
The
acid
is

addition of a substance to furnish carbonic

quite requisite in this preparation
is
;
.

but the

heat of a stove

substituted for that of stable

plates are exposed in this pro-

dung.

The leaden

cess to the united vapours of vinegar

and carbonic

acid gas in deal boxes, the bottoms of which are

made

secure from leakage by varnish, or

liquid.

some resinous

The

leaves of lead are about the thickness

of a line,' are arranged, in the form of chevrons,

upon

lath,

supported by a stronger piece of wood

placed across the interior of the box.

The

leaves

are isolated from each other, and distant from the

surface of the vinegar about tliree inches.

To produce the carbonic

is

acid, the lead,

union of which

requisite in

making white

a certain propor-

tion of the lees of wine, or tartaric acid, is

added to

the vinqgar.

The same

effect

may be produced by

marble, as already stated.

^

One-twelfth of an inch.

206

KREMS WHITE.
closed,

The boxes are then

square tube containing

and placed upon a

This
is

warm

air.

carried

around the workshop, and brings the temperature

up

to thirty degrees,

but must not go beyond this

point, otherwise the vinegar

rapidly,

would evaporate too

lost.

and much of

it

would be

In about fifteen days the boxes

may be

opened,

and

if

the process has been well conducted, a quan-

tity of

carbonate should be collected equal to the

quantity of metal employed.^

But as the white lead obtained by

this operation

has not the hardness of that obtained by the Dutch

method,

it

need not be ground, and

is

made

exis

tremely fine by a very simple apparatus.

This

composed of a large box, divided into nine compartments, decreasing in depth

;

the flakes are put into

the highest division, being separated from the metal

that has not been attacked
;

water

is

then turned

on from a reservoir placed above the case, and the

mass

is

well stirred with a stick.

The water soon

division, then

flows over,

and runs into the second

into the third,

It is
off" })y

and so on to the ninth.

supposed that the particles of white drawn

the water are finer in proportion to ihe disof lead contains very nearly 16 per cent, ot

The carbonate

carbonic acid.

KREMS WHITE.

207

tance they have been carried ; therefore the deposits

in

the lowest divisions are of the

divisions are then
;

best quality.

The
and,

emptied of their contents

little

into large vats

the white subsides in a

of
its liquid,
is

time,

when drained

put into porous

it

earthen vases, the square shape of which

retains

when

dry.

This drying takes place in the same

stove where the metal was converted into white

lead.

Krems white
in oil
:

is

the brightest white that

less

is

used

it

has rather

body than flake white,

because the particles are

much

finer

an equal

weight of krems

will

cover a

much

greater space
it

than flake white.

When

newly prepared,

gives

out a strong smell of vinegar.

The Society
(in France,)

for
its

Encouraging National Industry,

formation, offered a prize for the

on

most complete mode of making the ceruses.

conditions were, that
it

The

should be economic, and

that

it

should produce a white equal to the best

white of commerce.

After eight years of experiments, the prize was

gained by

MM.

Brechoz and Le Sueur, who were

then established at Pontoise.

The samples they

krems white, and

produced were equal to the

finest

the commissioners charg-ed with their examination

208

KREMS WHITE.
it

were of opinion that

manner.

was prepared

in

a similar
they were

The

result has proved that

corrtct in this opinion, as

MM.

Cadet de Gassicourt
fol-

and Marcel de Serves have communicated the

lowiiig

process,

which

is

used in the Austrian

factories.^

The process thus discovered by the

Soci(!ty,

aid of the

has been

much improved

in a large esta-

blishment formed at Clichy.

The mode of making the white

in this process

is

quite different

from what
is

it is

in the

methods just

descHbed.

The ceruse

prepared very quickly,

in

by forming a precipitate, with carbonic gas,

supersaturated solution of prot-oxide of lead.
solution
litharge
is

This

prepared by agitating, in a cold state,

distilled

and

vinegar
it

when
is

this mixture is

sufficiently

concentrated,

passed through a

current of carbonic acid gas, which unites with the

greater portion of the dissolved oxide of lead
precipitate
is
;

the

collected,

washed

carefully,

and then
is

dried for use.

vinegar,
still

The

liquor floating on the top

holding in solution some prot-oxide of

lead, which, being

charged with more litharge, gives

lost

a similar precipitate, having

nothing of

its

'

See the bulletin Be

la Societe d' Encouragement

(eighth year).

KREMS WHITE,
power.

209
is

The carbonic

acid employed
it is

drawn from
it

ignited coals, and, ere

is

used in the solution,

washed
it

in a large quantity of water,

by which

means
and

deposits completely a quantity of ashes

oily

hydrogen gas along with

it,

which would

blacken the ceruse.

The ingenious apparatus con-

trived to produce the precipitate are the sole pro-

perty of the inventors,

who

only have a right to

it

make them

public.

Besides,

would be very

diffi-

cult to give a clear notion of this

machinery without
;

going at a great length into detail

but as aiiists

may happen
possible

to be in places

where

it

would be imperhaps
a
it

to

procure fine white lead,

offer

would be useful to
days, they

a mode by which, in

few

may produce a quantity sufficient for their

will ha\'e at

purposes,
their

supposing always that they

vinegar,

command,

and

litharge, or

even lead.

The operator must,

gar
;

in the first place, distil the vineit

afterwards supersaturate
it

with oxide of lead,

the litharge be bad,

by combining

with litharge
it will

if

or contains copper,'

then be better to convert

is easily

the lead into massicot, which

cining
it

done by

cal-

in

an iron

vessel.

The

saturation should

'

will
its

metallic state by

But the copper, not being precipitated by the carbonic acid, remain in the solution from which it may be precipitated in means of iron.
;

210
be made in a

KREMS WHITE.
little

barrel of white wood, with an

;

axis through its centre

to this a handle

is fixed.

By

turning this apparatus for a short time, a superis

saturated solution and,

vase.

obtained
it

this is decanted,

when

cleared by rest,

is

put into a deep

To form

the precipitate caused by the combinais

tion of the carbonic acid, this acid

to be disen-

gaged from the chalk by sulphuric

acid.

For
by

this

purpose some chalk must be prepared

washing,

and a deep vessel about

;

quarter
if

filled

with

it

this should

have two tubes, but

these

may not be

had, a vessel

may

be used with

a wide neck, large enough to admit a large cork

pierced with two
holes
is
;

into

one of these the

;

beak of a tunnel

introduced

to the other

is

adapted a crooked tube of glass, the other extre-

mity

is

to be plunged to the
full

bottom of a flagon
;

containing

three parts of water

this flagon is

closed, like the first,

with a large bung, pierced

with two holes

passes
;

through one of these the tube

is

another curved tube

fixed to the other

aperture,

and descends to the bottom

;

of the vessel

containing the solution

this is called "

Waulfs
is

apparatus

;"

the intermediate flagon of water

it

intended to wash the gas, and to disengage

from

KREMS WHITE,
any sulphuric acid which
it

211
the tubes

may

contain

and the tunnel should be so

gas

closely luted, that the

;

may

not escape but by the tubes

will

flour paste

and paper

be sufficient luting.
prepared, some sul;

The apparatus being thus

phuric acid
acid
is

then passed through the tunnel

the
its

must be mixed with ten or twelve times

;

weight of water

and when the gas begins to

escape by the mouth of the tunnel, this must be

closed by a sort of piston, formed by folding linen

or cotton round a glass or

wooden cylinder

the

tunnel

may

then be

filled

with weak acid, and easing

it

the piston occasionally, some of

may

be

let fall,

and the tunnel again closed

itself,
it

the gas soon disengages

passes across the water of the flagon, whence

purified,

becomes

thence

it

enters the vase con-

taining the saturated acetate of lead, and forms a

fine

white precipitate, which

;

is

the carbonate of

lead

the liquor

is

then shaken to accelerate the

is

combination, and this

continued until the car-

bonic acid ceases to form any

is

more

precipitate
is

it

left

to settle, the floating liquid

poured off

this is vinegar still

holding in solution a great

quantity of oxide of lead, which

saturated,

may

again

be

and a new precipitate obtained; the prebe washed in a large quantity of water,

ci})itate is to

212

KREMS WHITE.
;

and allowed to make a deposit

dried for use.
eight days.

this

is

collected

and

All this

may be

properly done in

White
then
it

lead

is

used only in
;

oil

painting, and even

at length
if it

becomes blackish

and would

return to the colour of

its dull

metallic state,

were not preserved by a couch of varnish from the

action of hydro-sulphureous vapours, which float
constantly,

more or

less, in

the atmosphere.

White lead should,

therefore, never be used in disis

temper painting. There

a signal instance of that

kind of alteration of which I have just spoken, in

the ancient collections of design retouched with
white, in the lights
in those drawings
;

these parts have become black

where lead has been used. Luckily

out a method of restoring

M. Thenard has found

them

to their original whiteness,

though darkened

by contact with hydro-sulphureous vapours.

That

eminent chemist was consulted some years ago upon

the means of restoring to their original whiteness
the black spots which had formed upon a valuable

drawing, by the changing of the white lead.

He

had

just

terminated

his

experiments upon the

oxygenated water, of which he was the discoverer. Among the various uses of that water, he had
ascertained
its

power of instantly converting the


KREMS WHITE.
213
is

sulphuret of lead into sulphate of lead, which

white.

He

soon applied

it

practically

and touched

upon the black spots of the drawing with a pencil

dipped in weakly oxygenated water, ^ and immediately restored
it

to

its

primitive state, without in

the least altering the brownish tint of the paper.^

'

Water, which in
itself in

its

natural state contains a volume of oxygen

equal to
that
'

bulk,

may

be made
to
et

to.

contain as

much more,

is,

two volumes of oxygen

one of water.

See the Annales de Chimie

de Physique, vol. xiv. page 221.

CHAPTER

V.

ON THE PREPARATION AND GROUNDS OF PANELS,

CANVASSES AND WALLS.

From
Italy

the time that the restoration of the arts in

commenced, down to the days of

Raffael,

panels were always used for painting on, except

when the works were

place.

to be fixed to a particular

Canvasses united the advantages of cheap-

ness

and easy removal.

a
preference
;

The

latter,

therefore,

gained

and

after

RaffaeFs

time

they no longer painted large pictures on wood in

Italy.

In the

Low

Countries the use of panels continued

much

longer.

Even

in the

time of Rubens there

was, at Antwerp, a celebrated manufactory, where

the panels were prepared of great dimensions

but

after the death of the chief artist of the Flemish

PREPARATION AND GROUNDS, &C.

215

school, the artists painted only easel pictures on

wood.

The
pose.

Italians preferred poplar

wood
;

for this purit is

In Flanders oak was used

injured by worms.
is

as

very

sel-

dom
It

natural to suppose, that panels composed

of several pieces glued together,

united,

might become

dis-

by the changes arising from dryness or

moisture, to which pictures are always more or

less subject.

To prevent

these accidents, very

earlier

great care was taken in the

latterly these precautions

times, but
;

were neglected
joining,

bands

of linen were glued

upon the

and even

occasionally they covered the entire surface of the

panel with black tanned leather

of linen bands,
ritone,
is

the glueing on

attributed by Vasari to Margheit

who

lived in the twelfth century, but

is

was

known
in

before his time, for the practice

described
;

Theophilus'' treatise,

De

arte

Pingendi

it

was

probably brought into Italy by the Greeks.

Theophilus informs us, that the planks or boards

of which the panels were composed, were prepared

by a tool used by vat makers, probably the rabet

plane
;

these planks were then cemented at their

edges, by a glue
of

made from

cheese, the
;

manner
us,

making which he describes

and he assures


216
that

PREPARATION AND GROUNDS OF

thus united, neither

moisture nor dryness

could separate the joints.

This remarkable fact

has been verified by

experience,

which clearly

shows the superiority of this method of glueing,'

and may be useful to
following
artists.

It is

done

in the

manner

Take some
milk," triturate
all

fresh cheese

made with
in

rich

creamy

and wash
is

it

warm

water, until

the soluble part

carried off by the water

this

may be
rid

operated in a sieve or a linen cloth,

is

through which the cheese

get
of the

afterwards pressed to
quite

water

when
;

drained,

it

crumbles

like stale

bread

it

is

then dried upon

'

To prove

the

fact,

to the alternations

of rain and sunshine for

some prepared boards have been exposed some weeks one

;

portion was jointed with the ordinary glue, and the other with the

glue of cheese.

The

first-mentioned gave way in the joints after

the rain and sun had acted

quite firm and undisturbed.
*

upon them

but the latter remained

Here

follows the original text of Tlieophilus

mortariolo

" Caseus mollis de vacca minutatim incidatur et aqua calida in cum pila tamdiu lavetur, donee aqua multoties infusa

Deinde idem caseus attenuatus manu mittatur indurescat. Post hoc teratur minutissim(> super ligneam tabulam sequalem cum altero ligno, sicque rursum mittatur in mortariolum, et cum pila diligenter tundatur
puru ind6 exeat.
in frigidam

aquam donee

addita aqua
"

cum

viva calce mixta donee sic spissum factum

sit

ut sunt feces.

Hoc

glutinae tabulae compaginatae,

postquam siccantur

ita

sibi inhaerunt, ut

nee humore nee calore disjungi possint.

12

PANELS, CANVASSES,

AND WALLS.

217

unsized paper, and in that state will keep fresh a

very long time.

This material, which

is

cameum^ mixed witi a

is

small proportion of butter,

not soluble in water, ex-

cept by the addition of quick-lime ; but by triturating

this mixture,
it

becomes transformed into a very

viscous sort of cream, which can be diluted vith

water to the consistency required for the work.

It

dries

quickly,

and when quite dry

;

it

cannot

again be dissolved

therefore,

no more should be
This
is

prepared than can be immediately used. probably the cause

why
all

the use of

it

has bc^en
is

abandoned

but at

times a solid advantage

worth the trouble and

difficulties of its

preparation

and use

besides, those difficulties

would be greatly

diminished by keeping, in a well-closed vessel, some

powdered quick-lime to mix with the causeum at the

moment

of trituration

little

use of the

muUer

will

be sufficient for that purpose.

It

would be still better

to soften the causeum in v\arm water,

pedition' sake, the
in a close vessel,

and

for ex-

two substances should be kept

being previously mixed dry in the

there

'

the

In England (says M. Meriniee) name of " Vancouver's cement."

in

is

an article sold under

It is a whitish
is

powder made
finely pul-

up

small

parcels.

This cement

nothing more than fine

lime and causeum, or else the white of e^g dried

verized.

and

;;;

218

PREPARATION AND GROUNDS OF

and reduced
to a fine

right proportion,

powder

this will give great facility to the trituration.

The
which

panels were anciently primed with chalk, dis;

solved in animal size

is still

it

is

the

same preparation

used by the wood gilders in preparing

their frames

and other work.

Plaister ground is
iiigessare

preferable to chalk,

and the term

is

" to

cover with plaister,"

used by the Italian authors,

to describe the application of distemper grounds to

panels.
I

have had occasion to analyse a portion of the

ground of a picture by Titian, painted on wood

this

ground was composed of

plaister of Paris, with

size, flour

starch,

and paste, but no glue or

paste be-

ing used instead of gelatine. There has also lately a

curious fact been discovered, namely, that a couch of

distemper, which covered the envelope of a

mummy,
glue.

was composed of

plaister

mixed with animal

In the commencement of the art the canvasses were prepared like the panels with distemper grounds

and

it

has already been stated, that generally the

pictures of Paul Veronese were painted upon such

primed

cloths.

The

practice

now

is,

to prime the cloth with

oil

colour, changing the

is

mode according

as the canvass

of a closer or

more open

texture.

When

the

PANELS, CAXVASSES, AND WALLS.

canvass
it

219

is

very open, and lets the colour through,

size

must be saturated with

laid

made

of glove

parings,

on with a large palette knife or

trowel, the edge of which should be blunt,

and as

straight as a rule, that the couch of size

laid as evenly as possible
;

may be
is

when the priming

quite dry,

it

must be rubbed with pumice

from lumps
is
;

stone, to

make

it

free

then with the knife, a

;

couch of ceruse

applied

when dry
is

this is also

pumiced

a second couch
third,

then put on,

and
even

sometimes a
surface.

to

obtain

perfectly

Formerly, the
red,

first

priming was made with dark

;

mixed with umber, or with pure umber

sixty years since,
it

and

some

was supposed that the

drying of this colour would be quickened by mixingit

with litharge

but

it

has been discovered that

pictures painted on these sorts of preparations, in a few years have their surfaces covered with a

multitude

of

little

grains

like

sand

and thus

proving that the litharge was badly prepared.'

At
in

the present day, the artists are more careful

;

such essential matters

and the colourmen,

'

Had

the litharge been very finely ground, that evil effect

rould not have occurred.

L 2

220
for their

PREPARATION AXD GROUNDS OF

own

sakes, are excited to prepare their

canvasses with

more

attention,

for

any

negli-

gence in these essential matters would ruin their

trade.

Cloth for priming without sizing, ought to be of a

closer
is is

and more even texture

;

in this respect ticking

peculiarly advantageous

for

though at present

it

not to be had of a
;

much

greater v^idth than two

yards
it,

yet

if

the manufacturers found a

demand

for

they, no doubt, would

make

it

up to any reasonnot sized,

it

able dimensions.

If the cloth

is

will

require three or four couches of colour to ensure an

even surface

and before a new couch

is

applied,

time must be allowed, for the former to dry hard

enough to be rubbed with pumice

reason

this

is

the

why

cloth requires, in preparation,

two or

three months in summer, and five or six in the

winter season.

The time required

for priming,

may be

short-

ened very much, by making the

couches with distemper
quite dry,
;

first

and second

and

as soon as they are

surface, let

and pumiced into an even

oil,
;

the last couch be merely

which has become

this will penetrate

viscous by exposure to the air

the distemper, and render it quite pliant.

By the

for-

mer method, much time

is

required to dry the cloth.

PANELS, (;axvasses, axd walls.

221

But by this mode,

as soon as the

oil is

absorbed, they

may

be rolled up like waxed cloths, with perfect

'

safety.

As
.

the pliancy of these cloths depends

oil

upon the complete union of the

with the dis-

temper, the absorjjtion would be greatly facilitated

by using a very weak

size,

mixed with a

little

oil,

and a good quantity of mucilage of linseed meal,

or the latter mucilage alone will do
if well boiled.

This species of ground

five days,

may be made

in four or

which

will

economise the time consider-

ably.

It is

even pretended that a picture

may be
will

commenced immediately upon one

when
fresh prepared,
less
;

of these grounds

and that the colours

change much
dried ground

than they do when used on a well

is

but such

not

my

opinion

for the

viscous

oil

used in the ground, and to which the

cloth owes its pliancy, dries but slowly.

Hence the

colours, being left too long exposed to the chemical

action of the
I

oil,

are likely to undergo a change.

if

would therefore advise, that

artists

circumstances

compel

to

paint on such a ground

when

fresh, they

would do well to apply a strong couch

the
first

'

M. Rey
;

is

of our colourmen

who has adopted

this

method.
canvasses
years.

He

gave to his primed cloths the name of absorbent

for several
(fiftli

and they liave preserved their pliancy

la

See Le Bulletin de

Societe

d' Encouragement,

year).

l3

222

PREPARATION OF
it,

of white chalk with a httle size in

to absorb the

excess of
still

oil

but

it

would, in such a case, be

better to paint on a distemper ground.

PREPARING A GROUND ON TAFFETY,

^Vhen
under
cloth.

pictures on this substance are to be placed

glass, its surface

must be prepared as waxed

For

this purpose,
oil,

some

fine ceruse

must be

ground

in fat

with which a little pure wax should

be incorporated.

Two

couches of this mixture

;

will

be a sufficient preparation
serve
its

and the

taffety will pre-

pliancy for

many

years.

Painting on copper has been given up for some

years.

The preparation of
finely

it

is

not

difficult

it

must be

pumiced to make the priming adhere

;

to the surface

and to make

it

more permanent,

it

should be covered with copal varnish.

PREPARING GROUNDS ON WALLS.

Walls are
fine
is

rarely built with stone of a texture

enough to admit of being painted upon.

This

the chief reason

why

the cupolas and other paints

of buildings

must be covered with a couch of plaister,

or cement, to prepare

them

for paintings in fresco.

When

the ceiling

is

perfectly dry, several primings

of boiling linseed

oil

are to be laid on in succession

GKOUXDS ON WALLS.
after these a course

22o
colour
;

of ceruse,

or other

suitable to the purpose, completes the

ground

the

usual coating
it

is

quick lime and sand, or brick dust

if

is

as durable as stone,

well prepared, but if

the
will

workmen

are not careful, the best materials

oily

produce but indifferent mortar, an

;

cement

would, of course, be preferable

this can

be made

by quick lime and

it is

fat linseed

oil,

cemse, and sand

for

of no importance
is

what the cement may be

mosaic, which

composed of powdered marble,

oil
;

quick lime, and linseed

the

oil

and lime form a

paste extremely glutinous,

freely, unless

and which flows too

the

oil

is

very viscous, and then the

cement

will

be sufficiently firm and manageable, but

it

however
it will

freely

may

flow about, yet in a few days

;

become quite

fixed

and

it is all
-

the better

for having

been mixed for some time.

oil,

Instead of boiling
I

for saturating the mortar,

oil

should prefer using a mixture of drying

and
St.

wax, such as was employed in the cupola of

Genevieve.

Having heated the wall by a heater armed with

a
reflector,

the composition should then be applied

it

warm, and to make

penetrate deeper the heat

must be keptiip,
the
oil.

until the

ground ceases to absorb

l4

224

DEAD COLOUKIXG
this preparation there
is

With

no danger of the
injured

colours being absorbed, or of being

by

humidity ; and
it

it is

equally good for the plaister, as

prevents the formation of saltpetre. *

AN EXPEDITIOUS METHOD

OF DEAD COLOURIXG UPON GROUND PREPARED IN DISTEMPER.

I shall

now give a detailed account of the rapid mode

on distemper grounds, as
it

of laying in a picture

was

practised by P. Veronese, and by other eminent

painters previous to his time.

At

that era,
oil

when

the artists began to leave distemper, for

this

painting,

mixed process may be considered as the passage

pictorial art.

from the old to the new state of

The

cloth or panel being properly prepared for distemper

painting, the dead colour

is

to be laid on with water

colour and a

little

size
oil,

to which

may

be added a

small portion of

or the emulsion of nuts, or

poppy seeds
should

neither white
;

nor opaque colours

now be used
;

it

is

better to employ water

in

colours only

alterations

the

design can be
in the

'

MM.

D'Arcet and Thenard, who directed the works

(laid

cupola of St. Genevieve, have composed the couch

plaister) with

over the
oil,

one part of wax and three parts of boiled

weight of litharge.

with

one-tenth of

its

See the

Memoir on

the

Em-

ployment of Oily Substances, published

et

in the Annales de

Chimie

de Physique, Vol. xxxii. page 24.

; ;

0\'

DISTEMPER GROUNDS.

225

made with a wet

be disturbed
;

sponge, but the ground must not

therefore, to prevent this, the

ground

should be mixed with a size which, when dry, could

not be disturbed

causeum should, therefore, be em-

ployed in preference, mixed with a very small portion of

oil

or oily emulsion, that the gi'ound

may

the more readily absorb the oil/

Those who have painted

in distemper well

know

how

freely this species of colour flows in the pencil

is,

the laying in of the subject

therefore, completed
oil

with more

facility

than

it

can possibly be in

and

it is

equally manageable in

making

corrections,
;

in careful execution,

and management

and

it

is

easy to

make any

alterations that

may be thought

requisite.

Should

oil

colours be afterwards used in the finish-

ing, the oil will be

will

immediately absorbed, so that

it

be

difficult to

extend the colours. To prevent this

oil

inconvenience, a couch of white drying

should be

passed over the work

absorbed, but
it will

this,

of course, will soon be

be sufficient to prevent a new

absorption, and the colours will then flow freely.

Prepared plaister of Paris does not allow of being finely tem;

pered with water

therefore, in such cases

it

would be better

to

brush over the back of the canvass with a couch of ground chalk

and weak

size.

L 5

226

DEAD COLOURING, &C.

Afterwards, further absorption

may be

prevented
it

by passing a strong varnish over any part that

may

be desirable to repaint.
offers

This method

not only the advantages of

greatly economising the time, both in the preparation of the canvass

ture, but
it

and

in the laying in of

the pic-

renders the coloui-s more

brilliant,

and
the

less subject to

change

for cloths
oil

primed

in

ordinary way retain the

of the colours between

the ground and the last couches of paint, and thus

remain a long time without drying, and

unfavourably on the colours
;

finally react

whilst on distemper

grounds the superfluous

oil is

carried into the back

of the canvass, or the interior of the

wood

if

the

ground has been

laid

on a panel.

CHAPTER

VI.

ON THE PRESERVATION OF PICTURES, AND THE

METHODS USED FOR RESTORING THEM.

I

HAVE
air

already mentioned the influence that Hght

and

have upon colours,

oils,

and varnishes.
not be greatly

There are very few colours that

will

changed by the direct and continued action of light

therefore pictures

must not be exposed, except

sun*'s rays.

for

a short time, to the action of the

It is equally true that the oils

and

fatty sub-

stances take a yellowish tone,

more or

less

dense in

proportion as they are placed in the shade, and in

situations

where the

air is bad.

Hence

it is

obvious,

that the best situations for preserving pictures are

well ventilated halls, lighted

from a northern aspect.

The varnish

also with

which such works are

covered, assumes a yellowish tone,

and

loses its

transparency in a longer or shorter period.

When

l6

228

PRESERVATION AND

this goes so far as to injure instead of serving the

picture,

it
it,

must be removed, and another

substi-

tuted for

an operation of
oil

httle difficulty if the

varnish

is

of the ordinary kind, composed of mastic of turpentine.

dissoh'ed in

But some

artists hav-

ing employed oily varnish, such as copal for instance,

it

becomes a

difficulty to

remove

it is

yet in every

case,

even where the softer varnish

to be removed,

great caution must be used to prevent injury to the

glazing.

The common method of removing the varnish

by rubbing the surface with the ends of the
previously dipped in

is

fingers,

some resinous powder.

By

continuing this rubbing for some time, the \'aniish

will give

way, and

may soon

be completely removed.

To prevent
employed.

the epidermis of the fingers from being

is

carried off by this process, fine fish skin

much

In either case the dust ought to be

off,

frequently wiped
is

to ascertain that the picture

not receivmg any damage.

The other way of removing the varnish

and

is

by

applying a mixture of alcohol, spirit of turpentine,

oil,

in the following

manner

take a
is

little

bag

of cotton in each
in the

hand

one of these
in

to bo dipped
oil.

above mixture, the other

is

pure

The
oil

operation

to be

commenced by rubbing with

RESTOUATIOX OF PICTURES.
the part to be deprived of its varnish

221)

the spirituous

mixture
rapidly
:

is

then apphed, and the varnish dissolves

for this reason the

rubbing must be con-

tinued only for a few seconds, and then the action

should be stopped by the application of the

oil.

Without

this precaution, there

would be a danger of
;

disturbing a part of the colour

and the bag hold-

ing the dissolving liquid should also be looked at

every moment, to observe whether

it

has attacked
dis-

more than the varnish

and as the power of

solving the varnish depends alcohol employed,

little
it

upon the quantity of

would be better to use too

it

of

it

at

first,

rather than, by making

strong,

endanger the painting.

To

restore pictures to their original freshness

difficulties

does not present any great

when they

only suffer from the varnish having become dark by

time

but when, after a long course of years, they

have been exposed carelessly to the action of unfavourable circumstances,

or half-rotten,

when
fall

the canvass

is

rent

when the joints of the panels are open,

is

and the colour

touch,
all
it

ready to

off

by the slightest

would seem as

if

they were then past

cure.

Yet, however great and imminent their

destruction

may appear,

there

is

a method of saving
its

them, by taking the picture off

ground, and

230
laying
it

PRESERVATION AXD
on a new canvass
:

this is called " lining

the picture."
It is requisite to

put a new cloth to the back of

is

the picture when the latter

cut or torn, or even

as that they will

when the edges

such cases

are so

much worn

not bear to be again nailed on the stretcher.

it

In

is

probable that the picture

;

may
be

adhere firmly to the canvass

quite sufficient to glue the

of course,

it will

new

cloth to the

back

of

it.

In each case the operation

is

commenced by
and some-

pasting some paper on the surface of the picture,

that
it

may

be handled without danger

times
tissue,

it is

requisite to paste several sheets of thin

If the old cloth
is

one above another.

it

to be

removed,

is

of the first

importance that the

;

paper should adhere closely to the surface

fore gauze paper
lets
is

therethis
is

first

to be pasted on,

and

the air through so easily, that then there

complete adhesion.

Should the picture be very dry,

it will
oil,

be proper

to apply beneath, several couches of

mixed with

little

spirits

of tui-pentine

this will penetrate

the dry mass,

and secure the parts which are

but as the paste
it will

ready to drop

off;

will

not adhere

to a greasy surface,

be requisite, after having

RESTORATION OF PICTURES.
well

281
solution of

washed the

picture, to apply a

weak

soda or potass, to remove the greasiness.

paste which
is

The best

employed

in this operation is

made
of
is

with equal parts of Flanders paste and fine barley

meal.

This mixture
flour, as it

is

preferred to that

made

wheaten

keeps

much

longer soft, and

not so liable to crack.

thin,
in
it.

The paper should be

very

and also very even and smooth, with

little, size

Having thus securely

fixed

the picture,

the
;

operators next proceed to remove the old canvass

this will not be difficult, should
it

have been preIt will

pared with paste previous to the priming.

be

sufficient,
;

in

that case, to moisten

it

with a

wet sponge

the paste will soon dissolve, and the

cloth can be easily removed.

But

if

there

is

nt)

paste under the priming, then the cloth

must be

removed by pumice stone or a

fine

file.

For the

re-lining, the usual

method

is

to strain a

new and strong

stretcher, to rub

cloth of
it
it

an even surface upon the

stone,

down smooth with pumice

and then to give

couch
is

an even couch of paste, a similar

then to be applied to the back of the picit

ture after
is

has been freed from

all

inequalities

it

then to be placed carefully upon the cloth, taking

press
it

cai*e to

so gradually as to expel the air

232

PRESERVATION' AND

that would otherwise remain, and render the surface

uneven

the pressure should be from the centre to

the edges;

when

the paste

is

nearly dry, a smooth;

ing iron should be passed over the surface

it

must

not be hot enough to endanger the picture, but

sufficiently

warm
it

to melt the gelatine

will

contained
all

in the paste,
fissures,

which

thus be driven into

the

and

securely binds the parts that are

likely to scale off.

The advantage of this operation

;

is

to render the surface of the picture even

the iron

must therefore be passed over

several times, begin-

ning always at the edge, where the moisture remains

longer on account of the frame impeding the action
of the air
;

the picture

is

then to be placed in a dry

room

for

some

days, and nothing

more

is

required

than to detach the paper which had been pasted on

the front of the picture
;

this

must be done with

wet sponge.
In this operation, care must be taken that the

dampness

shall

not raise the edges of the painting

this disadvantage

would be obviated, by

first

pasting

upon the edges of the frame some bands of paper,

which would extend a
the picture.
It frequently happens, that
little

way on the surface

of

when the paper

is

removed, some impressions of the margins of the

RESTORATION OF PICTURES.

2S'S

paper remain on the surface of the picture, especially if

the paper employed was of a strong kind

it

to get rid of these marks,

is

requisite to paste
fine texture,

some fresh paper, of a very thin and

over the picture, taking care that the

shall

new

sheets

be so laid on, that the middle part shall

;

cover the old traces

and, in passing the iron over

them,

it

should only be used above the part to be

rendered smooth.
If the canvass be but slightly injured,
it

may be
of

repaired without relining the picture, by fixing to

the back of the injured part several

gauze, to

stripes

be

placed

one above another, with a

strong cement composed of ceruse, and very fat

oil
;

then place upon the part, a piece of marble or

it

board, with a weight to keep

it

even,

and allow

to remain so for a day or two.

Should the picture happen to be on a panel,

the same process of cartooning the surface with

gauze and paper must be employed

quite dry, the picture
is

when

this

is

to

be

laid flat

upon a very

smooth

table,

and by means of a tenon saw proits

is

perly mounted, to prevent

to the picture, the panel
little

edge from penetrating

then to be sawed into

squares,
;

which are

easily

removed with a
is

chisel

in

this

way the

picture

gradually ap-

234

PRESEJIVATION AND

proached without clanger; and, then by the use

of a fine plane and
files,

the wood can be reduced

it

to so thin a state, that by moistening

with a

sponge,

it

can be easily removed, and the original

is

distemper ground

thus uncovered
it is

this
full

ground

is

also to be removed, as

commonly

of cracks

the re-lining
described.

is

then to be completed as already

But when a panel

places, if the
partially in
ries

is

only

damaged

in

some
is

wood be sound, and the painting

off,

danger of scaling

these local inju-

may be

remedied, without taking off the pic-

ture,

by merely spreading over the

glue,

bad parts

some hot strong

which

will

penetrate through
;

the cracks, and under the scales

when the

size
is

has

set, all that

remains of
is

it

on the surface

to be removed, and paper

to be pasted on the
iron
is

part with thin paste,

when dry a warm

pressed over

it

this softens the size evenly

under

the loose parts, and makes them adhere solidly to

the ground
;

with the glue an eighth part of white

;

drying

oil

should be combined

this

would render

the parts less accessible to humidity.

'

It

must appear rather extraordinary that the

size,

oil

should com-

bine with the

yet experience constantly proves that this

this

combination does take place, and that

mixture gives a better

resistance to both the alternatives of dryness and moisture.

; ;

RESTORATION OF PICTURES.

235

When
deal
;

a panel

is split
it

or warped, the

remedy

is

to glue at the back of

this
is

a sort of gi-ating,

made

of

only glued in those parts which are in

;

the direction of the grain of the panel

the cross

bars are kept in their places by grooves

their thickness
;

made

in

these are not glued on the panel,

it
;

for they could not solidly adhere to

but they

serve by their pressure to sustain the surface, so

as
to prevent any further tendency to depression

or warping.

The removal
attended
\vith

of a picture from a wall,

is

not
it

greater

difficulties,

except that

cannot be approached at the back as in other

eases.

When

the front of the picture

is

is

properly-

cartooned, a groove

to be

made

in the surface of

the wall around the picture, large enough to allow

of a chisel being admitted, to detach the cement

on which the picture

this plaister is not

is

painted from the wall

more than from two to three

;

inches in thickness
wall,

it is

easily separated

from the

and adheres

closely to the picture.

As
ture

the cement separates from the wall, the picis

rolled

on a large cylinder, to be removed

is is

the cement adhering to the picture,

can-ied off by the help of a chisel,
tion requiring

then to be

and

an opera-

much

patience and great

skill.

236

PRES^ERVATION AND

Should the picture have been painted upon the

stone, without the intervention of

mortar/

it still

may be taken

off in

the same way that trees are

barked, with the aid of a chisel indented like a

saw, and whetted in such a

way

that

its

edges

will

slowly penetrate the edge of the wall.

When

a rehned picture

is

to

be placed in a
oily

situation exposed to dampness,

an

mordent

must be used, instead of our compound of paste

and
size
;

it is

similar to that used

by the

gilders.

Several pictures in the

Musee (Louvre) have been

;

thus relined successfully

the adhesive matter

oil,

is

composed of thick
the
fire,

linseed

slowly simmered over

and ground with ceruse, and a small por-

tion of minium, very finely incorporated together

then with a firm brush or the knife, an even couch

is

to be spread over the lining,

;

and over the back of

the picture

in

a short time the paste sets, and this

moment

is

the proper time to lay the picture on the

canvass, and by careful pressure to unite their surfaces.

The taking
it

off,

and relaying the picture

to clean
it

being completed,

now remains

up,

and to retouch the parts that have been injured.

^

The

cieling of St. Genevieve's

is

Church

is

painted upon the

oil

stone,

which

prepared merely with a couch of

See the
article,

combined with

resin

and wax.

Priming on Walls.

RESTORATION OF PICTURES.
For the
first

237
is

of these purposes, which

a very

deHcate operation, various means are employed,

which succeed in the

artist,

hands

of an

experienced

but are ratlier dangerous when attempted

to

be used by the ignorant persons, who too often

undertake this nice work.

It

would be quite an error to suppose that the

alkali

and soaps can be

safely

employed

in this

operation, even

though their strength may be very

nuich attenuated with water.

in
its
:

Even the

latter,

used

simplest form, does

much

mischief to pic-

tures

when very

dry,

it

can dissolve certain coit

lour, and, penetrating through the cracks,

aug-

ments the aridity of the paint, and tends to detach

it

from the ground.

The

better

way

to begin

is

by
;

impregnating the picture with

oil

unto saturation

and

for this pui*pose the

oil is

Flemings use poppy

oil,

but nut

equally good on these occasions, or

even linseed
others

oil,

as

it

bleaches equally as well as the

to the action of light.
laid over

when exposed
oil

The

surplus of the

which has been

the picto the

ture penetrates the dry colour,

and adhering

canvass, firmly secures the parts which are scaling

oft'.'

'

For

this

purpose

oil

thickened by exposure to the

with a
little

air has

been used with success,

pentine.

when tempered

oil

of tur-

12

2*38

PRESERVATION AND
las

Ater ths
be wished

been done, the picture may safely

I

vilh

the alkaline solution.

have seen

even the

lla<k

soap used with success on these

it is

occa-sons, dtlough

very corrosive

but

it

was

neutialized b; being

mixed with a proper quantity

its

of

oi,

whith prevented
.0

acting on the colours.

remain for some days on the picture, but p'otuces no other effect than by merely
It is illowd

softeiing tie old soiled crust of varnish

this is

then to be wished off with a sponge, and the picture s thei found to be almost completely cleaned.

This procejs

is

always dangerous when attempted

by

igioran, ;)ersons.
vil

The
off,

alkaline solution,

and

even ^oap,

carry

in a great degree, the old

varniUies, particularly
rancil,

when they have

become

as they will

then unite with those sub-

stances.

When tie crust has not been thus removed from the follows and marks of the canvass, care
must be
taten not to rub the part

much with
it

either

brusl or syoDge, because that

would endanger the

;

remoral of iome of the colours near

fish akin mis:

but the

tine

be used with great

caiition.

A tooth-

pick

vill

sometimes serve very well for this purpose,

or sonetimes a finely pointed steel blade.

In the commencement of this art icle

it

has been

llESrORATION OF PICTURES.

239

^shown that

the varnish

can be remo-ec by a nixThis

tture of alcohol, spirits of turpentine, aicoil.

\will also serve io clean

the picture

hitthe cloice

(of the material should be determined bUhe a.'tual

(condition of tie picture

for instance
this

shoud

it

Ihave been done with white of egg,

an ony be
such as
to

iremoved by witer
ccopal,

but
it

if

oily variisi,

has beei used,

it.

will

be veiy
it

difficult

n-emove

For this purpose,

spirit,

mist be rubbed
ol,

(over with

of turpentine and

or ewin at
little

ttimes with weai alcohol, holding in sduion a

jpotass
:

the

fish

skin will then remove

is

r.

When
>which
it

the picture
r,o

cleaned comjlttely, b will

repai? Ihe in;uries

tthen be time

examine and

may
filled

have sustained.

The
size,

hdes,

if

any,

nnust be

up with ^lue, or

ani vhite (halk,

siuch as the gilders use.

li)rought

This stoppiig must be

tie
this

even with the surface of

in parts,

picture.

Should the canvass be bare

nnust be laid on
it

subscance

thinly,
it,

and a
give

bit of amilar canit

it.

wass pressed upon

sjimilar to that p)arts are settled,

to
is

the impression

which

under

Vhen
it

these
is

the retouching with olour

the the
or

niext

consideration.

For

this

purpsB

is

p)ractice of
'"

the greater portion of the

restorers,

picture cleaners," as they are sometimes called,

240
to apply
viously.

PRESERVATION AXl)
a thin couch of varnish to the picture preThis
is

done to bring out the original

tone of the picture, as a guide to the

new

tints

hence
off at
it will

it

must happen, that

in

taking the varnish

lies

a future time, the repainting which

also be removed.
I

over
is

think a better

mode

to prepare for retouching by rubbing a

little oil

on

those parts. This Avill equally bring out the colour of

the picture.

The

oil is

then to be wiped clear away

the colours become duller, but are bright enough to

guide the operator

are not varnished.

they seem paler, because they

This

is

not a disadvantage,

because

oil

colours deepen in tone

when dry

there-

fore the tints

ought to be kept lighter than those of

the original painting, that

to the

when dry they may come

Besides, as
it

same tone

exactly.

is

most

difficult to imitate

the tints of the old pictures, exis

cept by glazing,

it

decisive that the repainting

should be kept brighter.

But of

all

the accidents to be

met with

in the

process of restoring pictures, to remedy the cracks

presents the greatest difficulty, and the restoration
is

not often practicable when the cracks take place

in very old pictures.

The parts
:

so separated can-

not be brought together

colour
is all

filling
;

up the spaces with

but
if

that can be done

the picture

RESTORATION OF PICTURES.
lias

241

only been painted a few years, and not thoit is

roughly dry,

possible to bring the separated

parts together.
cient to

For

this purpose

it

will

be

suffi-

remove the varnish

:

entirely,

and
will

lay the
dilate,

pi(!ture quite flat

in

time the parts

and

finally unite so well that

the cracks will totally

disappear.

it is

From
a
))ieture

the above

pretty clear, that

it is

run-

ning a great risk for any one to attempt cleaning

who has not had good

experience of the

proper methods to be used.

It would,

no doubt,

be better that a clever painter should perform these

operations with care, since he would best under-

stand the merit and value of the work

but pre-

viously to undertaking such a task, he should

trials
it

make

upon a sort of

pictures, that
;

if

he spoiled them

would not be regretted

and whatever success he

believe, that

might have, he should not

succeed in
all

he could

cases

for those

who have occupied

th<>mselves for

many

years in such restorations

should not flatter themselves with the notion that

th('y

have overcome

all

the

difficulties.

They should

always cautiously proceed to try some of the unimportant parts of the picture, and adopt that process
of cleaning

which they

find

most

desirable.

242

CHAPTER

VII.

THEORY OF THE PRINCIPLES OF HARMONY IX

COLOURING.

The

greater part of the wTiters

felt,

who have

treated
their

on this subject have

readers

that to

inspire

mth

confidence, their precepts ought not

to be fixed arbitrarily, but merely deduced as conse-

quences of the natural arrangement of colours.

Paul Lomazzo, the most ancient of these authors

with

chapter "

whom we are acquainted, commences his On Colours'" by stating his ideas as to

and the manner
is

their physical properties,

in

which

they are generated

but his theory

not calculated

to support the doctrine which he has deduced from

it.'

" Tliere are," says

Lomazzo, " seven colours

of these the two

extremes (the black and white) seem

rators of the series.

to be as the parents or

geneil

The

five central ones (i cinque mezzani sono,

THEORY OF THE PRINCIPLES, &.

Rubens
is

24')

said to have written

an essay
et

in the

Latin language, entitled

De Lumine

Colore.

This

manuscript was,
the library of

it

appears, about fifty years ago in

M. Von

Parys, a canon of Antwerp,

of that great painter/
it, I

who was a descendant

do

not know what has become of

or

why
The

it

remains

unpublished to the present day.

properties

which llubens attributes to colour are not exactly

conformable to sound
should he have laid
there-

physical

principles
rules of

but

down some

harmony,

can be no doubt that they would be deduced

from accurate observations.

Gtrard de Lairesse has, in his essay on painting,

gone very much into

colours
;

detail

on the harmony of

but his views of the subject are too

empirical.

Mf^ngs,

who has with more

harmony

clearness explained

the jjrinciples of
his views

in painting, establishes

upon the true physical

purpurea,
e il

principles

but as
five

pallida,

il

rosso, il

verde).

Thus he has announced

colours, and he has enumerated only four, leaving out of his reckoning Loth blue and yellow for we cannot suppose that by pallido he means yellow; and what he has added upon the generating of
;

colouri
'

is

quite absurd.
I

It

was from the Canon Van Parys himself, that

;

heard of

this treatise

to

and he promised me that I should see it. I have repnach myself for not having urged the Canon to keep his
'

promise.

244

THEOUY OF THE
all

PIIINCIPLES, &C.

he supposed that
has
neglected
to

painters understood this, he

his

elucidate

theory by any

demonstrations.

That theory
ing
is

is

now

established, so far as paint-

concerned, under the term colorization, or

the combination of colours.

Although the greater number of

regard
it

scientific

persons

as a demonstration, that the colours which

are produced by the decomposition of the rays of

light are not reducible to three,

and that each

co-

loured ray, as

it

proceeds from the prism, presents

of the

H simple indecomposible colour, they are

same opinion with painters as

to the results derived

as, for instance,

from the mingling of these rays,

by

uniting a blueish portion of one spectrum with a red

portion of another spectrum, aviolet colour

(

is

formed.

)range and green are formed by other binary mix-

tures, but they

have not explained how

it

is

that a

compound colour should produce upon the organs

of vision the
lour.

same sensation as one simple

this

co-

However

may

be,

and regarding them

merely as to the sensations which they produce

ui)on

the

eye,

and without reference

I

to

their

physical properties,

do not find

my

opinions

opposed to those of men of science

of colouring.

in this theory

THEORY OF COLOUIUXG.

24."

THEORY OF COLOURING.
Although painters usually have arranged on
palettes a good
their

many pigments

of various deno-

minations, yet they do not always seem to know,

that thi'ee simple colours (yellow, red, and blue)

can, by proper combination, be

made

to produce

that great variety of tones and colours that we find

in nature.

United

in pairs, these

three primitive colours

give birth to three other colours, as distinct and as

brilliant as their originals
;

as thus, the yellow,

;

mixed with
violet
;

red, gives the orange

is

the red and blue,

and the green

obtained by mixing blue

and

yellow, and, according to the preponderance of

in the mixture, will the tint
;

one or other colour

incline towards that colour

and as these propor-

tions are graduated,

we

pass progressively from one

colour to another,
begin,

and from whatever point we

it.

we return

to

This being the case, we ought to consider the

chromatic scale as a circular zone, upon which, at
equal distances, should be placed the three primitive

colours,

the

intervals

between these

being-

occupied by the colours formed from their unions,

softly gliding into

each other, so as to leave their

246

THEORY OF COLOURINCx.
if

point of junction scarcely,

at

all visible.

It

Is

not easy to determine with certainty what number

of tints

may

be produced in this manner.

is

The

more the eye

more
tions

accustomed to these exercises, the

it

easily will
;

discover the divisions or gradalittle

but even those who have

experience
violet,

do not mistake orange for red, or blue for

&c.
;

but they may, and do confound, under the

generic term red, both crimson and scarlet, althougli

there
is

as

much difference between them as between

red and orange, the yellow and green, or any two

of the six colours.
It is clear, then, that the

chromatic scale

is

com-

posed of six distinct divisions, namely,

orange, red, violet, blue, and green.

yellow,

These may be subdivided into an almost endless

variety of tints, according as the will of the artist

may

direct the

predominance of one or other of the

primitive colours in his tints.

He makes

therii in-

cline to the yellow, red, or blueish hue,

all

which gives

the varieties of the orange, violet, and green.

Ne^vton was,
circular

I beheve,

the

first

who observed the

scale,

arrangement of the chromatic

from

certain affinities which are

known

to exist between

musical sounds and colours.

similitude extended

He conceived that

the

much

farther, and,

by analogy,

he divided the scale of colours into seven parts or

THKOllY OF COLOURING.
spates, similar to tlic
distinct

247

gamut

but finding only six

terms in the language that he could appro-

priate to this purpose, he

was obliged

to

denominate

as " indigo" the intermediate colour between blue

and

violet.

This arrangement of the colours gave rise to an

important circumstance in painting, which was, that

by mixing together the primitive and secondary colours a complete discoloration is effected.

In fact, so long as the combination of the primitive colours

is

restricted to only

two of them, the

product
it is

is

then as brilliant as the colours of which

;

composed
is

but the instant that the third

colour
dark,

combined with them, the mixture becomes

in case that neither of the three colours
will

and

predominate, the tint produced

be a neutral

gray, and, of course, will be quite colourless

and

more or

less dark, according to the intensity of the

colours employed.

But
is

in

the chromatic

circle

the arrangement

such, that the colours diametrically opposed to

each other always offer the union

primitive colours,
if

of the three
is

one be simple, the other

compound of two, they are always

complementary.
by purple, which

reciprocally
is

As, for instance, yellow

is

opposed
;

compounded of red and blue

M 4

248

THEORY OF COLOURING.
gi*een,

opposed to red we have

a mixture of blue
yel-

and yellow
low,
is

and orange, composed of red and

the opposite to blue.

in the

Nature points out to us these oppositions

various
as, for

phenomena of the decomposition

example, in the coloured

of light

circles, naturalists

have observed that the colours reflected, and those

directly transmitted,

are complementary to

each

other,

and discoloration takes place the moment

In
the variety of colours

they become united.^

presented by the polarized light, the ordinary and

extraordinary images are exactly in complementary
opposition
'

to

each other."

Each colour

is

not

If a glass,

glass,

pearance of various coloured circles in the

those substances.

which is slightly convex, be placed against a flat and both are pressed together, the pressure causes the apair confined between

These

tints

have their

common

centre in the

point of contact; and in proportion to the strength of the pressure

will

the

number

of circles increase.

But they grow weaker

as

they recede from the centre, until they gradually disappear.

In examining these circles by looking through the glass, they

still

preserve their colours

different,

but the colours on each side are and are the complements of the preceding circles.
:

As, for instance, those of the

in the following order
:

first ring,

viewed by reflection, are

blue,

white, yellow,

and red orange

whilst the

same

ring,

viewed by transmission, produces the red

orange, black, violet, and blue.

2

When we
we

look at a luminous point, through a double reflectperceive that one of the two images which preis

ing crystal,

sent themselves

same

place, this

moveable and on turning the crystal in the image follows the motion, and turns round the
;

THEORY OF COLOURING.
only susceptible of a degradation of tint in
bining with another colour, but
lighter or darker.
its

249

com-

may

also be

made

This modification of brightness,

the degradation or lowering of
''scuro.

or intensity,

is called

tone, or of the chiaro

For

in proportion as

the colours become brighter, they approximate to

other image. To this moving figure has been given the epithet of " extraordinary," as opposed to that which is fixed, and which

obeys the ordinary laws of refraction.

With regard

to the polarization of light,

is

it

is

a natural and

peculiar quality with which that body

endowed, under certain

be sufficient to

circumstances and conditions, either by reflection or refraction.

To

give an explanation of this phenomenon,

it

will

remark, that any ray of light which is reflected upon a crystal, and forms with it an angle of 35 25', does not comport with a direct

luminous ray

for

it

does

not give any reflection

it,

when

it

falls

upon

a crystal properly placed for

its

and

it

does not further

divide in

passage through a double reflecting crystal, in a

certain position.

This ray
it

is

polarized

and the

qualities described
light.

niay serve to distinguish

from a natural ray of

Those peculiar properties are not the only ones that develop
polarized raya
;

for they

can further display very lively colours

and numerous shades of difference, which the natural rays never show. These colours develop themselves more especially when a
polarized ray traverses thin plates of certain crystals, such as mica,

sulphate of lime, rock crystal, &c.

To

ascertain this fact by experiment,

it will

be sufficient to place

a thin plate of

a polarized ray,

any one of these substances, across the direction of and then to look at it with an achromatized prism
;

of Iceland spar, both the images will then be coloured

their various shades that are always

and

it

is

complementals
is

for in suin

perposing them, a complete absence of colour

parts thus treated, at the
still

perceived
close to

the

same time that the rays

them

retain their colours.

250
white
;

THEORY OF COLOUUIXG.
and as
their intensity

augments they

ap-

proach to black.

Therefore, in the arrangement

of the chromatic scale,

we may place white

zone,

in die

centre

of the

circular

and black on

che

exterior line,

and then lower the tones from the

brightest to the most intense shades.*

Both black and white are

tial

for painters very essen-

materials in colouring, as with

them

all

the co-

lours are gradated, being either raised or lowered

in tint, to express the effects of light
all

or shade in

their gradations.

But considered

in

an abstract
;

sense, these

two pigments are not true coloure

is,

the proof of this

that

if

m the purest mass or

;

surface of white, the eye can discover the ver}'

slightest indication of colour

then the white

is

no

longer pure.
finest of

We

should also observe, that the

will

our whites

appear grey when opposed

to the briUiant light reflected from a bright co-

loured substance

such, for instance, as burnished

gold which
metals.
l)lue

is

yellow, or chains of other coloured

if

But

we could obtain

red, yellow, and

ott

as luminous, as these reflections thrown

must, however, be observed, that
all tlie
is

It

colours cannot be
therefore, only

so lowered
are also

down;

the yellow, for example,

essentially bright; as
is,

tlie

orange, red orange, &c.

There

a part of the chromatic scale that can be brought

down

to the

black shade.

THEOKY OF COLOURING.
l)y

251

those brilliant coloured bodies,

we should be

onibled to compose a white, that in vividness would

cjute surpass the
let:es.

most

brilliant

whites of our pa-

As

to the black, every

it

young pupil
of
all

in painting

kn)ws how to produce

^ian blue, lake,

grades, with prus-

and brown pink.

But

if

a pure
priif

bkck may be obtained, by means of the three

mbive colours of the greatest intensity
in
;

and

mixing these colours of the lightest

it

tints,

the

e.oiipound resulting from

wlite,

should approach to
in

we then have an argument

proof that

bkck and white are not true

colours, although
;

they are essential materials for colouring

and we

mi^ht

fairly assert,

that in fact the mixtures were

cleai',

only greys, one of tliem being extremely

the other extremely dark.

and

The

cliromatic scale includes only the brilliant

hues of colour.
toie, are

These of a lower and imperfect

still

much more numerous, though

;

go-

verned by the same laws

istood,

but,

it

must be

luider-

that the distinct resemblances grow weaker,

in proportion, as the

emctly
ar}

changes

in the colours

made

stronger.

To

explain this

more

cleai'ly,

suppose

we

place a chromatic scale at the entrance

252

THEORY OF COLOURING.
move
it

of a dark recess, and gradually

into the

shade,

it

will

be seen that the distinctions between

the colours, become more feeble as they approach

obscurity.

With

respect to what has been stated, as to the

of the
primitive

binary mixtures

colours being

equally brilliant, as the original elements of which

they are compounded

that

is

only the case, as

regards the combinations formed by nature, not in

the combinations of our pigments
;

as, for instance,

the orange, minium, and some of the natural green

tints, are

much more

brilliant

than any combination

blue,

which we can produce with green and

yellow and red.

or

Or,

if

we combine two luminous

them on the same
point,

coloured rays, and throw

we

shall

then produce a colour as bright as the

it

elements from which

may be formed.
colouring, as
;

Having thus stated the theory of

founded upon the natural properties of colour

shall

now endeavour

to deduce from

it

the princi;

ples of

harmony, as applicable to painting

and by

this means, fix

them upon
its

their true foundation.

Harmony, as

etymology implies, awakens in

our minds the ideas of relationship, union, and

accordance
;

this

term may therefore be

api)lied

THEORY OF COLOURING.
to every portion of the art
;

253

but in this instance

we are only

to treat of

harmony, as connected with

colour and clair obscure.

In a picture, the harmony of always attended by that of

latter, it is true,
its

its

colouring
''scuro
;

is

chiaro

the

can exist independent of colour, as

drawings, engravings,
;

we see
&c.,

in seppia or chalk

which are pictures without colour

to

it is

pro-

per, therefore,

examine separately these two

species of

harmony.
is

Musical harmony
observance

founded upon the

intervals, fixed

strict

of certain

by nature

between sounds, and so unchangeable, that the

slightest infringement of this law, will offend a truly

musical ear.
In painting, although the combination
colours
is

of

its

governed by positive laws, yet harmony

does not result from certain fixed spaces between

the tints, neither does a shade higher or lower

between them, injure the harmony of a picture.

Indeed,
like
if

this

were the

case, a picture

would be

some

sort of musical instruments, reduced to

a state of discord very soon, on account of the

alterations

which inevitably take place in the tones

of the colours.

picture

is

said to be " harmonious,"'''

when

it

2')4i

THEOllY OF COLOURING.

presents to our senses an arrangement of light,

shade, and colours agreeable to the eye
is
it
;

and

it

pronounced " discordant," when in some parts

offends the sight by strong ill-judged opposi-

tions.

But as we judge

definitively

of

harmony

according to our sensations,

we must

recollect that

these depend not only upon our peculiar organization, but still

more upon the

state of these organs

at the

moment
is

of receiving the impression.

Thus

the light

painful to us, as

we meet

it

on coming
agreeable,

out of a deeply obscured place ; but

it is

and we bear
to
its

it

very well,

when we are exposed

:

increase by slow degrees

precisely in the
brilliant co-

same degree would the opposition of

lours offend the eye,
if

there was not at hand

some

vacant space or quiet colours, whereon the sight

could repose
;

and then the brightest and richest

if

colours would convey agreeable sensations,

they
eye.s

were gradually unfolded to our sight

our

regard with pleasure the golden and the purple

clouds,

which often accompany the rising and the

;

setting sun

and yet there

is

no comparison

will

hold between the brightness of these splendid tints,

and the

terrestrial materials of our pallettes.

After having shown that the colours must not

offend the eye, and that the intervals between the

12

THF.OllY OF COLOUIIINC.

255
these will not

tints,

and the tones are correct,

still

be sufficient in themselves to produce harmony;

and the great object of the

art,

which

is

to give
if

pleasure to the mind, will not be attained

artist is

the

content with giving merely a tame unof-

fending subject, dehcately handled, and in placing

before the public a

monotonous gradation of

light,

shade, and colour.

Harmony
ati

in painting

is

therefore the result of

tints,

arrangement of positive colours and

which

attract the eye,

and

fix

its

attention hy

a judiciously

managed

succession of repose

and

opposition.

Powerful oppositions are so far from injuring

the harmony of the composition

when

judiciously
;

managed, that they give to

it

great animation

but

when the

colours are very powerful, the eye re-

quires ample quiet spaces near

them

to

repose

upon, and obtain relief from the strong impressions

made upon

it.

According as the colours are more or

liant,

less bril-

and the

intervals

between them are greater

or less, and also according to the

management

of

the chiaro
its

''scuro, will

the harmony of the work take

character,

and be distinguished by the terms

soft

or mellow, powerful, dark, or brilliant, &:c.

of the greatest difficulties of the art,
is

One

to

256

THEORY

OB'

COLOURING.

make

the harmony of colour in the picture accord

;

exactly with the subject

in this point

some, even
failed,

of the great
for
it

painters,

have

occasionally

is

so natural to feel preferences for certain

colours,

and certain modes of opposition, that un-

known

to himself, the artist reproduces

them

in his

works, whatever

may

be the nature of the subject.

placed

Rubens

for

instance, has

the

same

bril-

liant draperies in the pictures of

"the adoration

of the magi," and of "the crucifixion."

it

Would
such

not have produced a grander

effect, if in

gloomy scenes he had used colours of a graver

character, such as
Italian school
1

we

see in the great

works of the

In nature we are presented with examples of every

species of harmony, and

many

also of discord

but

the latter are most frequently the work of

hands, as

human

we

see in the choice of colours for clothing,

which are often of the most discordant hues and

fantastic combinations
soldiery,
;

and

especially those of the

which are probably calculated to be seen

;

at a distance

or looking at a

number of persons

in motley dresses of

gaudy colours strongly opposed

to each other, reflecting the light which falls uni-

formly upon them.

of harmony
;

This spectacle offers no point

but should the same mass become

TIIEOKY OF COLOURIXG.

257

harmonious by a particular disposition of the Hght

and shade, the harmony so produced would not,
in

that case, arise either from the choice of subject,

or the
tirely

arrangement of colours

it

must be en-

attributed to the light and shadow, which

have the marvellous power of rendering harmonious and reducing to order the most discordant
colours.

Our eyes

are affected in a different

manner by

each of the colours.

Yellow, which
is

the brightest of them, reminds

us of some effects of the sun.

Red produces a
organs of vision
;

very lively impression upon the

as also do in different degrees the

it

various tints in which

milion or scarlet
is

predominates.

The
it

ver-

the most attractive, as

unites

to the Hveliness of the red a little of the brightness

of the yellow.

Blue, the most intense of

all

the colours on the

chromatic scale,
vivacity
;

possesses neither lightness nor

it

is

the coldest of the three original

brilliant colours.

Green, which holds a middle station between the

light

and the dark, produces a refreshing

eye,

effect

upon the
lighter

which increases when

it

is

made

by the addition of more yellow.

258

THEORY OF COLOITKING.
find,

Thus we

by analysing the chromatic

it is

scale,

that one portion of

colours,

composed of

clear

and

vivid

and another part contains those

tints that

are of a cold and grave colour.

However, the character of each colour changes

in proportion as it

happens to be used of a darker

Light blue or violet are
lively

or lighter tone.

colours, but are quite different

when

of a dark hue.

The
still

addition of black would carry the alteration

lower by rendering them of a gloomy cast.

it is

In lowering the tones of colours,

the

always in

medium
;

tones that
it is

they have the greatest

lustre

and

not by the addition of white that

:

the colours can be rendered more brilliant

this

produces upon bright clear colours the same

that black does upon dark ones.

effect

In some pictures, even of those by the great

masters,

we

not

unfrequently

see

draperies
in

of

which the lights appear tarnished

with the half tints in the picture.

comparison
give
th(.'

To

harmony of

nature, the artists ought to have kept

down the tones

of the half tints

and shadows, as

they found that they could not obtain any additional brilliancy
in

the brightest parts of their

works.

And

this is the practice of the colourists.

Some

authors, in expounding the principles of

THEORY OF COLOUllING.
harmony

259

in colouring, have described several of the

opposition tints
lours.

by the name of antagonist co-

If

by

this

term

it

had only been intended

colours with

to

say,

that by mixing these

the

others that operation would destroy the brightness

of the latter, and produce merely a gray tint, they

would only have stated a fact that could not have

escaped the notice of even those

who were

the

first

that attempted the mixing of colours.

But these

authors pretend to say, that such colours cannot

be placed close to each other, without producing a

discordant
effect.

In this assertion, however, they

;

have gravely deceived themselves

for the colours

which destroy each other by admixture, and only

produce by this process a grayish
tint,

always pre-

sent the union of three colours, and produce, no

doubt, the strongest opposition which can

exist

amongst these colours.

sition

But

this species of

oppoit

does not destroy harmony, except when

;

is

not properly and judiciously arranged

and when

so opposed, the colours have the effect of attracting

and interesting the spectator.

Amongst

the class of antagonist colours these

writers have placed the blue and the orange.

These

two colours do
tion in the

in fact afford the strongest opposicircle,

whole of the chromatic

because

260

THEORY OF COLOURING.
between a primary

in that situation they are placed

colour the most intense, and a binary

compound

of

the brightest description.

Paul Lomazzo^

and, long after his time, Gerard

de Lairesse, looked upon, and properly described

the yellow and the violet colours, as harmonising

well together,

and these authors did as decidedly

declaim against the placing of green and red near

together, because, as they stated, these

two

co-

lours formed a most discordant opposition to each

other.

The

opposition of yellow and violet

is

certainly

the least powerful of any of the extremes, because

in themselves they are the least brilliant
;

yet as

they are directly opposed to each other upon the

chromatic scale, and the mixture of them presents

a union of the three colours, or gray, their opposition to each other

must of course be

considerable.
is cer-

But the opposition between red and green

tainly stronger than that last mentioned, because

red
is

is

the most brilliant of

all

the colours

but this
for

an opposition to which we are accustomed,

it

nature constantly presents

flowers, fruits,

to our eyes in the

plumage of

birds,

mother of

pearl,

&c. &c.
I consider
it

as a part of

my duty to

notice these

THEORY OF COLOURIXG,

261

errors of authors of celebrity, to show, that although

it

is

by our eyes that we

in painting, as

definitively

judge of

harmony

by our ears we judge of

musical concords, we should not place too implicit a

rehance upon these organs at

all

times, because

they are sometimes imperfect or incorrect, through

various habitudes or prejudices,

when

these are

opposed to known principles

and we should only

admit the testimony of our senses when we are sure

that they are conformable to the laws of nature, and

founded upon long experience, which cannot lead to

error.
I

am

quite satisfied that

it is

not by the assist-

ance of an exact system of colouring that the great

men

of the Venetian and Flemish schools have dis-

covered and adopted the most proper oppositions,

by which colours might be so

give

managed as
;

to

the highest value to each other

but the

artists

have not

all

been equally aware of the re;

sources of their palette

and whenever

it

shall

be

within the power of an artist to succeed, by his

own

exertions, in truly ascertaining the

it is

relative

value of colours to each other,

evident that he
essays

may

save his young pupil from

in the

many barren

by making him,
chromatic
scale,

commencement, compose a
will

which

only cost

him a few

262

THEORY OF COLOURING.
and thus to give him

minutes'' time to complete,

some

ideas

upon the harmony of colouring more

useful than

true and

more

any that he could acdark recesses of

quire by long

groping in the

theoretic speculation.^

Besides this,

it is

important to observe, that the

objects which attract our sight have such an influ-

ence upon the visual organs that they can vitiate

them very

soon.

It should be pointed out to the

pupil, that, in painting

from the same model, he

:

may
will

finish

a suite of studies

in

each of these he

exaggerate, involuntarily, one particular colour

all

in

such a way, that when

the studies done within

it will

a short space of time are collected together,

be seen that he has exaggerated every colour of the

scale.

To
him

prove this fact

it

would be

sufficient to set

at work, for five or six days in succession,

upon

drapery of a brilliant colour, and immediately after

this set

him to paint from the

it will

living

model

for

one

day

and

be seen that he has exaggerated

The formation
still

of a chromatic scale, carefully composed, would

teach a pupil, not only the natural relationship of colours to each

other, but

more, the solidity of each of them.

tiie

They would

also indicate

hiatuses which should be filled up to complete

the scale

so that all the colours of

which

it

might be composed

should be brilliant in an equal degree.

THEORY OF COLOURING.
all

'263

the tints of the model which approached the co-

lour of the stuff which he had been painting, because

his eye had been dazzled,

and had imbibed the im-

pression of that colour.

But

in case of

the organs of vision being so

prejudiced by a particular colour, this fault

much may be

corrected in time in those

who have a

natural ten-

dency to exaggerate

tints generally,

and simply by

exercising the eye upon the colour opposed to that

which has been exaggerated.

These observations are called for to oppose a prejudice which
is

very

common, namely, " that by

dint

of hard and close application to painting, a person

may become

a good draughtsman
is

but that the

science of colouring

the gift of nature, and cannot

be acquired by study."

little

reflection,
is

however,

will
if

soon discover

that this idea

very ill-founded,
in

we

closely ex-

amine the points

which painters, not remarkable

often deceive themselves with

for fine colouring,

respect to colours

and

if

we would
it

observe, that

in the " schools of colour,"

is

always by that

special quality of these schools, that their ablest

pupils are distinguished

we must then come

to

the conclusion, that

if

mere study could produce

equall}'

an able designer, the same process might

264

THEORY OF COLOURIKG.
There
is

well produce a fine colourist.

letter of

Poussin's from Venice, which contains this appropriate sentence

this place, as
:

"

it is

quite time that

I should

leave

I feel
now

that

I shall

become a

colourist.''''

We
tages

shall

ascertain what practical advanideas,

may be
I

derived from the following

offer

which

now

upon the physical properties of

colours.
I shall, for

example, take one of the brightest

difficult to

colours,

and most
:

render harmonious,
it

light blue

and we

will

suppose that

should be

made

to appear in its highest state of brilliancy.

if

Now,

we examine

the

chromatic

scale,

we

shall perceive that the

orange colour
is

is its
;

direct

opponent, but the orange

also brilliant

and as

they are equal in brightness of tone, they are equally

objects of our attention
;

but supposing that we

should attend particularly to the blue, in such case

you must employ orange of the gravest tone, or

will

it it

be impure, for

it

is

naturally bright

but

will still

be composed of red and yellow, giving the

colour opposed to blue, and the opposition will rather

be increased, because

it will

exist not only as to the

colour, but also in the increased depth of tone.

A painter is not always sufficiently master to choose,

according to his

own

taste, the colour of the various

THEORY OF COLOURING.

265

objects that enter into the composition of his picture,

and even when he has

it will

this

choice

in

his

hands, perhaps

not allow such an arrange;

ment of
whence
which
It

effect

as he would have adopted

from

will result

a union of objects the colours of

will
is

not be modified by light and shade.

should he adopt colours fiercely

clear, that

o}>posed to each other, they will appear at

distance, as if cut

some

up

like

the colours upon our

court cards;
case where

it

will therefore

be judicious,

in a

the

colours

cannot be modified by

shade, or by toning down, not to employ those

that have a strong opposition to each other, either

in tint or tone.

Under circumstances the most

must be of parin a very
is

unfavourable, in which the colours

ticular

hues

and when they contrast

discordant manner, of course

harmony

out of

the question, except in restraining the opposition

as

much

as possible, by restricting the light by an

intelligent

arrangement, and judicious execution

of the work.

From
that as

these facts,

we may draw
light

this inference,

by the masses of
all

and shadow, we are

enabled to avoid
it

the discordances of colouring

follows that particularly chiaro ''scuro should be

studied by those

who

aspire to

become

colourists.

266

THEORY OF COLOURING.
a great advantage, that we shonlcl
composition, to
distri-

It is certainly

be enabled

in

a pictorial

bute the lights and shadows with a degree of

art,

by

which the discordancies of colour may be avoided,

and that only requires the

artist to

add a happy

choice of colour, to a harmonious disposition of

light

and shade.
''scuro

Chiaro
as
it

exists independently of colour, but

it

always accompanies

in nature,

and as

co-

loured objects are always subject to a lowering of

the hght,

its effects

therefore are so combined with

those of colour, that they appear to justify to a

certain point, the idea of their inseparable nature
in fact,

a familiar expression in the

arts,

when
is

examining an engraving or an original design,

" that reminds us of colour."
art, to

It is therefore an

design or compose in such a manner as

to give

them
;

full

value to objects, by well

managed

opposition
ists still

and that art distinguishes the colour

their tints.

more than the correctness of

the reason,
in

This

is

why

Raffael

is

never cited as

an authority

colouring;

although we find

several of his pictures, tints

and colouring as true

as the art can produce.

The

pictures of

Carmaggio and Gmrchhio,

the lighter

oftt'n

display charming tints in

parts but

12

THEORY OF COLOURING.
th( colour of the flesh
is

267

unnatural, from the too

It is true,

great strength of the shadows.

thi;

that

extreme force contributes much to the grand

effects

which they generally display

but

that

vigorous executive power, would have been

much

mo-e agreeable,
of Jupporting
'^o
it.

if

bestowed upon objects capable

this

mode

of

managing

cJiiaro ''scuro,

we

shall

op}ose that system adopted by the colourists.

set with

We

what discernment they have placed the

;

string shadows
tha:

they evidently were not ignorant,

brilliancy cannot be obtained
;

clearness

and

witiout the vigour of strong opposition

ha(

but they

the judgment

and

skill,

so to dispose the

chiiro ''scuro, that its

power was never carried over

it

the interesting parts of the picture, because

would

ha\e deteriorated the purity of the colouring.

fact,

let

us suppose that the

in

figure

of a

wonan has been painted

groind,
th
it is

shadow, upon a bright

evident that though she might be of

colour, yet that

most dazzling brightness of

the brilliancy of the flesh tints

conpletely, that she
thai a negress
pla-e
;

would disappear so

would not be of a higher tone

but change the opposition, and in

;

of a light gi'ound, substitute a dark one

an(, further, let

the figure have

its

proper

reflec-

N 2

268
tions.

THEORY OF COLOURING,
Then we
shall find that,
will

although

it is iin

shadow, the carnations

based in tone.

not appear at

all

die-

Titian has painted a great

in

number

of pictureas,

which

it

appeal's, that

he intended principally lto

display one of the qualities of female beauty, thiat

is,

the brilliancy and richness of the flesh tints

it

is

worthy of remark, that to obtain his

object, Ihe
;

made use
it

of light and shade in opposition

in faict

did not signify to him, that the skin

was of a

brilliant light

tone

he would also express, thiat

full activity, :as

the circulation of the blood was in the poets never

fail

to mingle the carnations

of

the rose, with the snowy whiteness of the

lilly.

The

opposition of a powerful back ground, becomies

quite essential, to throw forward the brightness

of

the skin
peries
is

and then the opposition of white

brought
in,

drra-

and agreeably arranged

to

bring out the

warm

tones of the flesh.

;at

Paul Veronese does not seem to have had,

least in the greater

number of
particular

his pictures,

amy

intention of giving
flesh tints
;

brightness

to hiis

he seems only to have aimed at givimg

the effect that was most usually presented to hiis

observation, in which the objects detached therniselves boldly

from the back ground by their

loc3al

THEORY OF COLOURING.
colour
;

269

and this

is in fact,

one of the most powerful

methods of separating the objects from the back

ground of the picture.

At
ment

the

first

view,

we do not
we

perceive that this

painter has employed any artifice in the arrangeof his colours, and are tempted to believe,

that he placed

them
;

as they presented themselves

to his imagination

but upon a closer observation,

we
to

plainly perceive that

he has not
in

left

any thing

chance.

For example,

one of his finest

works, (the Marriage at Cana,) the greatest number

of the persons present, and especially those

placed at the sides of the table in perspective, are

detached from each other, alternating and opposing a strong coloured drapery to a light one, the
latter being again

opposed by one of a darker tone.

less ardent,

Rubens, who was born under a sky

in

a country where

brilliant flesh tints are

by no

means uncommon, was not slow

Veronese's system of effect
;

in adopting

Paul

his object

was to

arrange the most brilliant colours together harmoniously, and he succeeded in so doing
;

but pro-

bably, being struck with the changes of tone that

many

of Titian's pictures
it

had even then under-

gone, he thought

advisable to exaggerate the

brightness of the carnation tints, in the hope that

N 3

270

THEORY OF COLOURING.

time would soften them down to the true tone of

nature.

No

one understood better than

Rubens, the

principle of unity ascribed to Titian, of consider-

ing the whole subject

of his

composition as a

bunch of grapes

his

most powerful shadows, his

principal lights are never in detached parts, but

are constantly united in those situations, which

are best adapted for giving to his groups a grand
relief,

and much of

it

flashing out

upon the

details

of the work.

In his pictures, the various parts of which they

are composed, as well as the arrangement of the
chiaro
''scuro,

are more

systematically contrived,
;

than those

of

Paul Veronese
but

the artifice

may
it

be more
less

easily discovered,

still

we do not the
mind, that

admire them, when we

call to

was by these means the

artist

had arrived with

greater certainty at the end he proposed to attain.

CHAPTER

VIII.

ON FRESCO.
Fresco
is

the art of painting in size colour upon a

fresh plaister ground.

The name

is

derived from
con-

the Itahans,

who

call it dipingere in fresco, in

tradistinction to the dipingere insecco.^

It is well

known

that lime mixed with sand in

certain proportions acquires a solidity from expo-

sure to the

air,

and a hardness equal to stone.

is

If a couch of finely-prepared colour

laid
it

upon
unites

the fresh surface of this composition,

with these materials, and becomes as hard as the

cement.

The great

dm^ability of this species of painting

has been somewhat exaggerated.

*

In proof of
;"

its

The

first

means "

to paint

on the fresh plaister

the other,

" to paint on dry surfaces."

N 4

272
great durableness,

ON FRESCO.

many

frescos are pointed out,

;

which have been painted many centuries

there are others of
liave

but

much more

recent date, that

not equally well resisted the causes of de-

terioration.

Besides,

we are not

quite certain that the frescos

discovered amongst the ruins of ancient

Rome

have

been produced by the same means as those produced

since the revival of the arts in Italy.

The Egyptian
good preservacolours

paintings, which have been executed long anterior

to those discovered in Italy, are in as

tion as the

Roman, and are only distemper

size.

prepared with animal

No

doubt the preservais

tion of these specimens of ancient art

owing to
;

the great dryness of the Egyptian climate

this is not

and

more surprising than that the miniatures

of the twelfth century, which were preserved with care in the libraries, safe from the effects of at-

mospheric influences, are equal in permanence of

colour to the most ancient paintings.

In

many
it

respects fresco has advantages which

render

particularly fitted for the decoration of

It does not

public edifices.

display. the glossy

brilliancy of oil painting,

which has the disadvan-

tage of not allowing more than some portion of the

picture to be seen at once,

and that from certain

ox

I'RKSCO.

273

points out of the influence of light reflected from

other objects.

From
it

whatever point the spectator

is

may view
same
;

a fresco, the effect upon the eye

the

because

does not receive any dazzling

light to interrupt the visual ray.

The

colours used in fresco, with the exception of

blue, are

not of a brilliant order

but they prequite dry after

serve the tone which they give

when

completion.

But

in

our climate, where buildings

are in a few years darkened by the smoke, this art

would not suit for the exterior

but

it

might be

employed with great advantage

our
edifices,

in the interiors of

wherein these paintings would preserve

their tints, without

any

visible alteration,

even in

places where white marble takes a yellowish tinge.

There
racter

is

a good specimen of the permanent chathe

paintings

of fresco in

of Romanelli^
halls
still

which decorate some of the lower

Louvre.

at

the

The

tints of ultramarine

display a

surprising brilliancy of tone, which unites in har-

mony

to the pictures.
pallette cannot display, either

Although the fresco

in extent or brilliancy,

an equality with that of

oil

painting, nevertheless there are, in Italy,

some

fres-

cos remarkable for their colours ; such an effect might

be the result of strong opposition, which are the

274

ON FRESCO.
colourists.

most powerful means of the great

adhere
still,

They

as I hope to be able to show, to the

following process in the application of the colours.

It is

now time

to enter into certain details in the

operations of fresco.

As

the duration of the paintit

ing

is

dependent upon the plaister which

covers,
is

of course the

mode

of preparing this plaister

of

too
to

much importance not

by the
artist.

to be carefully attended

Fortunately the composition of

is

durable mortars, like those of the ancients,

difficult to

not

be understood or attained, as there are

some

excellent

works on that

subject,

which we

may

take as our guides.^

if

Now,
painted
stones,

the wall upon which a fresco was to be

did

happen to be composed of smooth

of a fine grain, like marble, this circum;

stance would be unfavourable

as the artist should

then have to begin by roughing the surface, so as to

allow the
to
it,

first

couch of

plaister to

adhere firmly

that the

work

laid

upon

it

might not detach

itself

from the wall.

this

The mortar of

ground should be composed

of the best slacked lime with puzzolana, or granite

sand, coarse enough to produce a granular surface,

Delafaye, Fleuret, Vicat, Raucourt de Charleville.

ON FRESCO.
capable of firmly holding the second coating

275
but

the

latter,

which should be smooth, must have the

sieve.

sand passed through a

In the vicinity of manufactories of Dutch ware or

porcelain,
biscuit,
it
;

is

easy to procure the refuse of the

&c.

these materials,

when

gi-ound,

form

with lime a white and excellent mortar, upon which

the colours
will

appear more

brilliant,

because of

its

greater transparency.

We

are told that the lime used in this prepara-

tion should have been slacked a year, or, at least,

several months, to prevent the cracks that would

otherwise inevitably take place,

if

the lime should

I

be used in

its native strength.'

if

But

am

strongly

of opinion that, even

lime recently slacked were

used, the recurrence of these gashes might be pre-

vented, either by adding in moderate quantities

carbonate of lime, or by keeping the mortar closely

covered up from
all

contact with the external air

'

There

is

not any difference between lime which has been

slacked only a month, and lime which

years
;

may have been

;

slacked ten

for the

carbonic acid of the atmospheric air only combines

it

with the mere surface of the mass of lime

further.

does not penetrate

Therefore, the great body of the lime beneath this crust

its

preserves
pletely
fit

strength for a great

number of

years,

and

is

com-

for use.

N 6

276
for several days,

ON FKESCO.
and at the moment of using
it,

to

beat

it

up

well,

but without adding any more water.

The
is

principal cause of these cracks in the plaister

owing to an excess of water being used.

M.

Vicat directs that the lime should be slacked with

as small a quantity as possible of water, and that

only sufficient to prepare so

much
lime

as

may be used
be employed

on the next day.

this
skilful

According to the advice of

the
to

engineer,
lime,

must be stone
placed
in
is

of the

finest quality,
;

and
the

a basin not porous

to

upon

this

water

be sprinkled by slow degrees, and

it

in such

a way that

may

readily circulate in
;

the spaces between the stones

this will

allow

the pieces to absorb the exact quantity requisite

to resolve

them

into one strong

compact mass of
it

a pasty consistence, but by no means to allow

to run into a fluid state
;

neither

must

it

be worked

up and beat about by the hoe and

rake, as

we

sometimes see so improperly done, with respect to

the

common

lime mixtures.

In about twenty-four hours after the heat of the

operation shall have subsided, this paste will have

acquired so firm a consistence that

it

cannot be

detached from

its

basin without the aid of a pick.

ON FRESCO,
It is

277
by a vigorous
is

then rendered

soft

and

plastic
;

beating up, but without water

this

done by

means of heavy

iron mallets with

wooden handles,
it
;

which are struck perpendicularly upon

one hundred parts of
this tenacious
is

then to

and very subin the pro-

stantial lime paste, sand

to be

added

portion

of from

one hundred and

;

fifty

to

one

hundred and eighty parts

these materials are to

be well kneaded together by means of a heavy

pestle
;

but

if,

in

defiance of the

most vigorous
it

efforts,
is

and

this always requires great exertions,

found impossible to unite these materials

suffi-

ciently,

then a

little

water
;

may be
for
it

added, but very

hardly be bethat a single

gradually and with care

lieved

will
it,

by those who have not seen

pint too

much

of water will spoil a square foot

of this mortar.

The

plaister

employed in the frescos of the fouris

teenth century, like those of Cennino Cennini,

composed of two parts of coarse sand, and one part

of powdered lime slacked by the action of the air
;

both of which were passed through a fine sieve.

this

Of

mortar so much was prepared as would be

sufficient for

two or

tlu'ee

weeks' work,

first

taking

the precaution of letting

it

remain undisturbed for

it.

some days before commencing to use

Cennini

278
adds,*

ON FRESCO.
when you
are preparing to give the
first

coating, begin by washing the wall well,

it

and leave

damp, but not too wet

it

then take the mortar,

having tempered

to a proper consistence with

it

the trowel, and apply the surface

is
is

in a
;

couch or two, until

this

perfectly even

and when

ground

about to receive another couch, care must be

is

taken that the face of it

shall rather

not smooth, but that

it

have a rasped surface.

first

When

the

layer of plaister
is

is

diy, then the

design of the picture

to be traced

upon

it is

for

this purpose charcoal is used,

and the outline

then

fixed with the pencil

for the laying

this outline serves as a guide

is

on of the second coating, which

only to be laid on partially, and as the artist ad-

vances the work, he only prepares as

at once as he can finish in the
*

much ground
;

same day

this

Quando vuoi

lavorare in

muro

prima abbi calcina e

I'altra.

sabbione, stamigiata, o stacciata, ben I'una e

se le cal-

cina 6 ben grassa e fresca, richiede le due parti sabbione, la terza

parti cilcina.

E
:

intridi

bene insieme con acqua e tanto ni

intridi.

che che

ti

duri 15 di o 20
il

fasciala riposare qualche di, tanto

lo'
il

che

n'esca

fuoco

ch6 quando 6 cosi focosa, scoppia poi

se'

ntonaco

fai.

Quando

per ismaltare, spazza bene prima

;

muro, e

bagna lo bene, che non puo esser troppo bagnato e togli la calcina tua ben rimenata a cozzuola e smalta prima una volta o due Poi quando tanto che vegna piano lo' ntonaco sopra il muro. voi lavorare abbi prima a mente di fare questo sraalto bene arri: ;

eiato e

un poco rosposo.

Cennino Cennini, chap.

Ivii.

COLOURS USED IN FRESCO PAINTING.

second coating ought not to be laid on thick,
few instants
it

279
in

a
a

becomes firm enough to

;

resist

hght pressure of the finger

apply the charcoal, and
part to be painted.
outline
is

this is the

time to

mark the

outline of the

In the ancient frescos the

?

cut into the ground

this

would indicate
of his car-

that the artist, having chalked so

much

toon

'

with a transparent paper, as he wished to

applied the

transfer,

chalk to the
;

surface,

and

cut in the outline with a point there

is

by such a mode

no danger of losing the sketch during the

operation of painting.

COLOURS USED IN FRESCO PAINTING.

These are but few
those that lime will
will

in

number

being confined to

not

deteriorate,

and which

not be altered by the action of the

is

light.

From

these causes the painter

brilliant colours,

deprived of the most

such

as orpiment, chromate of

lead,

the lakes, cinnabar, and the greens

made

from copper.^
^

Cartone, as the Italians spell

it,

means a

large strong paper,

first

or pasteboard, formerly

much used by

the artists for their

sketches or designs.
'

Some

of the greens, from preparations of copper, are

still

used

in imitation of the ancient masters; the

moderns

also

employ

cinnabar.

280

COLOURS USED IN FRESCO PAINTING.

are the ochres

The yellows employed

yellow

Naples

may

also be used.

The ochres

calcined pro-

duce the reds, not very

but,

brilliant for the draperies,

mixed with white, they produce very true

Cinnabar may be used, by steeping
in lime

flesh

tints.

it

for

some days
of

water

it,

however, loses some

richer than the ochre

its brilliancy,

but

still it is

reds, or the oxides of iron.

These oxides, which are of

oxidation,

different degrees of
tints,

produce a variety of red

violet.

from

orange to
of iron,
is

The

latter,
tint,

made
but

of the tritoxide
it

rather a dull

can be made

brighter by mixing the Cassius purple with alumine,

and calcining them

like cobalt blue.^

:

The blue

is

the only brilliant colour in fresco

the ancient painters were not acquainted with either

the cobalt or ultramarine of the modern frescos.

They were confined

to a blue preparation

from

copper, of which Vitruvius has described the

mode
of

of manufactm'e.*

The greens were composed

of terra verte

Verona, and some preparations from copper.

The

green oxide of chrome appears to have been in use.

See the

article
article

on the

violet colours.

See the

on Egyptian blue.

COLOURS USED IN FRESCO PAINTING.

281

Of

blacks, the variety

was abundant

the black

earth coifimonly

known

as our " soft black chalk"

was very much used, and the charcoal blacks were

employed with equal advantage.

The lamp black

is

the most intense, and also the most permanent of

this class.

For the whites they used chalk and

had

lime, to

which were restored the carbonic acid which they

lost in their calcination.

This white, which

is

styled

San Giovanni by Cennino, and without which,

us,
it

he assures

would be impossible to produce any

:

fine tints, is

prepared in the following manner

is

Some
vessel,
in

very white lime

put into an earthen

air
;

and covered from the

it is

then washed
it

a good quantity of water, and when

has subis

sided in the bottom of the vessel, the water

off,

poured

and renewed several times during about eight

;

days

afterwards the deposit

is

ground, and formed

:

into shapes,

which are dried

in the air

the longer

they are exposed to this action the finer will be the tone of the white.

This long operation can be made, however, with

more quickness.
the air
is

The exposure

of the substance to
it

for the purpose of restoring to

its

the car-

bonic acid lost in

calcination

but that restitu-

282

COLOURS USED IN FRESCO PAINTING.

moments, either by

tion can be effected in a few

passing through the lime wash a cmrent of carbonic

acid gas, or in moistening
tity of
it

with a sufficient quan-

water saturated with this acid.

article " Fresco," in the Encyclopaedia,' in-

The
forms

us, that the colours

used in fresco painting

;

are only to be tempered with pure water

is

but that
is

not the fact exclusively, for a sizy substance

in the

added

mixing and applying those colours

which, like blue, are so arid that they would separate quickly from plain water.
liquid
it

With

only this

would not be possible to lay a good ground,

Cen-

or lay on the colours in a good smooth body.

nini always points out the colours

which are used

In speaking of

with water without gelatinous aid.

the white called San Giovanni, he particularly states

that
it

is

used

\N'ithout size
it

and of the charcoal

black he says, that

requires the addition of size

in fresco, as well as in
It

distemper painting.
earth,

was thought that an argillaceous

such

as terra verte, the red and yellow ochres, which

retain water a long time, need not be combined

with any viscous substance

but

all

the colours

'

That

article is

abridged from P. Pozzo's work.

COLOURS USED IN FIIESCO PAINTING.

which, hke sand, do not
rc^tain

288

water, cannot be

worked
serve

readily without a portion of gelatine to prein a liquid state.

them

The
purpose

size
is

which Cennini recommends for this

a mixture of the whites and yolks of
It is only the

eggs when well beaten up together.

albumen that can be employed, or the serum of the

blood, which
is

a similar substance, or even the

blood

itself,

for the

brown

colours.

Any

of these

substances form, with the lime, a size that,

dry, is insoluble.

when

Some
lours

paintei's

mix a

little

nulk with those cosoft state

:

which they require to remain in a

the

cameum
when

of the milk forms, with the lime, a size

is

that,

dry,

also insoluble

but

it

would be

better to prepare the size from cheese, prepared in

the proper manner.*

Azure, ultramarine, and black, are the only colours which

it is

recommended to use with

size.

It
all

would, in fact, be a better plan, to direct that

colours which do not unite well with water should

be tempered with

size.

This addition

will

also

render the execution of the work more easy, with-

See the

article

on causeum, page 217.


284

COLOURS USED IN FRESCO PAINTING.

its solidity,

out diminishing

since

we know

that the

vehicles used become,

when

dry, insoluble.
article,

Having, at the commencement of this

stated a hope that I should be enabled to demonstrate, that the superiority of

some

frescos, in their

colouring,

is

owing to the process by which these

it is

colours are applied,

on the authority of Cennini

After he has

that I support

my

demonstration.

given directions for preparing a head, by commencing with the shadows, and then the half tints and
lights in succession,

he adds

" There are some painters who, when they have

thus prepared a head, take a
little

of the

San

Gio-

vanni white, diluted with pure water, and give with

it

a few touches, to mark the

lights
;

relief of

the most pro-

minent points of the

they next applied a

;

rosey hue to the lips and cheeks

after this they

(flesh colour,)

passed over

it all

a wash of acquarelle^

very liquid, and the head was then coloured, nothing

more being

requisite than to give

;

some touches

of

white upon the high lights

this is

a good method.

Others apply, at
flesh colour,

first,

to the face a general tint of

in their sliadows

and afterwards put

with a mixture of that colour, and of green brown,

(verdaccio,) and finish with a few touches of flesh

'

COLOURS USED IN FRESCO PAINTING.

colour.

285

This method

is

that of persons not ac-

quainted with the resources of their art."

Nothing can be clearer than

glazing,

this description of

which produced

tints very different

from

those used by the paste method, and

brilliant.

much more
last thing

These glazings should be the

all

done, after
solid
laid

the painting has been finished in the

opaque vehicle.

The

first

couches of colour,

on the fresh mortar, are absorbed, but, after

satu-

some hours' work, when the picture becomes

rated, the water, which rendered the colour
able, also

manage-

becomes absorbed, and fresh couches of

colour do not unite with the preceding ones, and the

artist

must confine himself to operating with

co-

loured waters.

The cracks which we

find in

some

of the frescos

by Raffael, Dominichino, and others, are the actual

glazings,

which united to the colours beneath,

Alcuni maestri sono che, stando

il

viso

in

quella forma,

tolgono un poco de bianco sangiovanni stemprato con acqua i

vanno cercando
dine
zina
:
:

le

somite e relievi del detto volto bene per orne' labri

e nelle gotte cottale

poi

danno una rosetta

melued 6

poi vanno sopra con un poco d'acquarella, cio6 incarnazione,

bene liquida e rimane colorito.

Toccando poi sopra

rilievi,

buon modo.
rimane
arte.
fatto.

poi vanno ritrovando con

Alcuno campeggia il volto 6 incarnazione prima un poco di verdaccio 6 incarnazione 6 Questo d un modo di quelli che sanno poco dell'

286

COLOURS USED IN rRESCO PAINTING.

on in a

from their not being

laid

sufficiently full

body/

The

application of this
it
;

glazing requires

some

caution to keep

from rubbing up, or attacking

the colour beneath

and Cennini advises the use of

brushes of a fine grain, the points of which are very

soft.

Besides, this glazing should not be attempted

until the colour to

be gone over has become quite

firm by the absorption of the greater portion of

M'ater
I
it

contained

when

laid on.

am

convinced, that to the

employment of glaz-

ing

we must

attribute the remarkable difference

that exists between the ancient frescos and" those of our days.
latter,

It

has been objected to some of the

;

that they resemble paintings in body colours

but, in fact, there cannot be

any difference
:

in tJie
if

appearance of these two species of painting

the

colours employed in each are tempered with paste,

they must be equally opaque.

I

do not think

it

necessary to state the precau-

tions which are to be taken in the

management of the

work, that the terminations of the parts, as they proceed,

may not interfere with the execution of the other

The effects of the glazings may be seen in the valuable fragment of a painting by Ltiini, which is in the collection of Count
'

Sommariva.

COLOUES USED IN FRESCO PAIXTING.

parts.

287

Neither

is

there occasion to say any thing

more

relative to the

method of preparing the

work.

tints,

and proving their

fitness for the

Even sup-

posing that I had, for that purpose, entered into

the most minute details, yet this would not

make

up

for the

want of experience, which no theories

can supply, and which can only be acquired by great

practice.

And

am

quite convinced, that those

in fresco, or, at least,

who never have painted

who

have not seen practically the operation of painting

in that style, never will succeed

on their

first

at-

tempt

in this species of painting.

JillVJlOXX

^lil.-Jl

Red

Or*^en

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS

THE

RISE

AND PROGRESS OF THE FINE ARTS

ENGLAND,

IN

METHODS EMPLOYED
FROM

IN PAINTING,

THE EARLIEST AUTHENTIC EVIDENCES OF THEIR

EXISTENCE TO THE PRESENT TIME.
WITH

THE ENGLISH CHROMATIC SCALE, AND THE PRINCIPLES

OF

HARMONY

IN COLOURING.

INTRODUCTION.

The

ingenious

and

intelligent

Author

of

the

preceding chapters, having incidentally, but with

great

candour and propriety, pointed

causes,

out

the

principal

which have hitherto prevented

of

the

French

School

painting

from attaining
it is

that high character in the arts, which

possible the genius of the
attain,

quite

French people might

principles

had

the

sound

and rational

of art been introduced into their country, at the

commencement

of their School of

Painting;

it

appeared to me, that a sketch of the origin and

progress of the fine arts amongst ourselves, showing the
difficulties

and discouragements which

for

some centuries opposed the advance of English

o2

292
art,

INTRODUCTION,
would not only be interesting to most of our

readers, but

might be made to convey useful

in-

struction to the junior aspirants for pictorial fame,

as well as to place the entire case in a

dious, but clear

compen-

manner before the

British public,
arts

and

to point out the

modes by which the

which

adorn high

civilization

were carried to the utmost

elevation of which, perhaps, they are capable, in

States, not at all remarkable either for great wealth

or extent of territorial dominion.

Having formed
opinions of

this idea in
friends,
is,

my mind,

sought the

some

gentlemen whose judg-

ment

in

such matters

like their affection for the

Arts, of the highest order.

In every instance of

my

application, the opinion given

;

was favourable to

the plan

and having already

collected

much

infor-

mation upon this interesting subject, the following

sketch
is

now

respectfully offered to the public.

W.

B.

Sarsfield Taylor.

CHAPTER

I.

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIOXS ON THE ENGLISH SCHOOL

OF PAINTING.

All

persons who are well acquainted with the earof pictorial art in England, must be
suffiit

lier history

ciently

aware of the very slow progress which

in this country, even at

had made

an epoch when

the great continental schools of art had gradually

attained nearly to their meridian splendour.

To
the

those
will

who may be unacquainted with the

appear
scarcely
credible,

facts, it

that

during

memorable period which the people of

proudly termed
il cinqiie cento^

Italy have

which extended from

the middle of the fifteenth to nearly the end of the

sixteenth century, the art of painting was scarcely

known

in

England, and had not obtained many

society.
it,

marks of favour from any portion of

During
this time,

and even previously to

the art

o3

:294

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

of painting had attained in

Germany and the Low

;

Countries a considerable degree of eminence

and

we

find that the artists

and their works were looked

upon with great favour 'by both princes and people.

The

discovery

of

oil

painting,

for instance,

had

been generally attributed, as we have seen, to the

brothers

Van Eyck,

so early as a.d. 1410

and

about seventy years afterwards, the celebrated Ger-

man artist,

Albert Burer, painted pictures of great

merit, which

we

still

admire for the tone of colour,

of expression
in his

correct drawing, and naturalness

and which Mr. Fuseli has declared, were,

opinion, " far in advance of that age,"
over,

and more-

" that in his easel pictures the colom'ing as far

excelled the oil colouring of Raffael, as the latter excelled Albert in the higher qualities of the art."
It is true,

however, that we

find, in

the collec-

tions

of our

antiquarian writers, some accounts

of the works

which Henry

III.

caused

to

be

executed at his palace in Westminster, in architecture,

painting,

and sculpture

(1216

1262).
"on
the

Amongst these he ordered

walls of the

the history of the cru-

sades to be painted at the Tower, and

Antioch chamber," believed by some to

called the painted chamber.
is
still

be that

now

In the

Jerusalem chamber there

a full-length por-

en(;t.ish

school of

i'AiNTiX(i.

295

trait of

Richard

II,,
it is

and from the mention made of it

believed to have been painted

centuries back,

from that monarch.

is,

There was, and perhaps

still

another portrait of the same prince at

;

Hampton
and there
II.

Court Palace, with one of Henry IV.

is

another very curious portrait of Ilichard

is

at

Wilton, in which the king

represented with his

crown on

his head,

and

all

the insignia of royalty

lately, firmly
it

about him.

This picture was, until

oil

believed to be painted in

colours, but I have

is

from unquestionable authority, that such

fact
:

not the

it

is

painted, as the portraits of that day

were, in water colours prepared with size, or what

are

now denominated
pencil,

" body colours," laid on, with

full

upon a gold ground, and then highly

varnished with hard varnish.

for that

The drawing
commenced

is

good

age

it

is

marked

at the back 1377, the

his reign.

year in which this sovereign

The ornaments are

ground
is left in

carefully painted,

and the gold

some

places, to aid their effect.

This picture has been brought forward as one

of the evidences in support of

an opinion that has

existed

for

more than a century, namely, that

oil

painting in
to the

was known

in this

country previous

time the

Van Eycks
o 4

are said to have dis;

covered or invented that process

but

it

appears

296

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

is

certain that this picture

painted in sized colours,

and coated with hard varnish/

'

There are some other specimens

is

in the

Abbey
is

of

Westminster

one of these
that saint, to
this is

an altar-piece in

St. Blaise's

Chapel, representing
offering

up prayers; painted on the clean surface of the stone wall, and the
a priest on his knees
;

whom

colours are tolerably well preserved

figures of

there are also the whole length

in the

Edward

the Confessor

and Sibert

Abbey

and

in

the Office of Records, which was the Chapter House of the Abbey,
there are two pictures, single figures,
still
ill

quite visible, but not

together, they are females, the heads not

drawn

the character

of each

is

mild

they are painted evidently on a gold ground,

;

which

is

left

uncovered to form a glory round each head

is still
;

the

golden surface
still

bright,

and the draperies and outlines are

they are evidently painted

quite distinct

the faces do not appear to have suffered from

;

damp
upon

at all, or the scaling of the colour

the plain stone face of the wall, without any underlay of

artificial

preparation.

of

In the same way were the walls of the splendid Royal Chapel St. Stephen's painted, with divers histories, mostly scriptural.
others was the Transfiguration, under the great west the altar-piece at the east end, represented the Adora-

Amongst window
;

tion of the Shepherds and the wise

men
is

offering

the miracles

of the Apostles, &c. &c.

In fact

it

was quite a splendid picture

it

gallery of scriptural history.

And,

most worthy of remark,

that

all

those subjects, and likewise the single figures of Kings,

Queens, and Saints, were painted on a ground of red lead and oil, which was laid on the plain surface of the wall this was of
:

purbeck marble, tooled very

Lee, who was

fine,

but not polished.

Mr.

Adam

many

years clerk of the works here, under the

Board of works, and is still in that capacity to the Horse Guards, &c., had a great number of them copied, with the whole of the
architectural arrangements in this splendid chapel, the painted

Chamber,

tlie

old

of John signing

Magna

House of Lords, in which was a large picture Charta, and the other Chambers. Mr.
drawings in perspective,

Lee

also

had the

i^hole arranged in large

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

297

In what material the apostles were painted, which

Edward

of Westminster

was ordered, by writ the

S4th of Henry III. to paint on the walls of St.

Stephen's
Chapel,

we have no

information,'

and

and exhibited

the effect was the most complete optical delusion

that could be, for looking through the lens, the pictures

appeared

quite like realities.

Mr. Lee has them

still

at his

house in

New

Palace-yard.

In Smith's antiquities of Westminster, that author states his

opinion positively as to the pictures being painted in

oil

and

varnish, for he had the colours analyzed, and found that they were
all

mineral colours, but no animal gluten mixed with them.

The

above Chapel was eighteen years building, and was finished by

Edward III., 1348. The late Sir John Soane, and Mr. L. N. Cottingham, also examined some of the apartments of the ancient Palace twenty years ago, and saw many ancient paintings on the walls, which
they were strongly of opinion must have been painted with oils

and varnishes.

Mr. Lee has

one

also four very ancient pictures

is

on

panel (I think walnut):

a Seraphim; the others are the

Prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Jonah.

They

are firmly painted*

still

and adhere strongly

to

their ground;

the colours are

good

though not bright, and are unimpaired, except where lime wash
has gone over the edges of the panels
are laid,
is
;

the vehicle in which they

if not, it

probably a mixture of
to

oil

and hard varnish,

Hen.
III.

would be desirable
'

know what
:

it

can be.
"

Close Rolls, Walpole, Vol.

treasurer and chamberlain

The King to his pay from our treasures to Odo the

I., 2.3,

Goldsmith, and Edward his Son, one hundred and seventeen

shillings,

and ten pence, for oil, varnish, and colours bought by them, and for pictures made in tlie Queen's chamber at Westto

minstei-,

the octave of the

Holy

Trinity,

(May

25,)

in the

23rd year of our reign,

in the

to the feast of St.

Barnabas, (June 11,)

same year, namely,

for fifteen days."

o 5

298

ORIGINAL OBSEllVATIOXS ON THE

destroyed by

unfortunately they have long been

fire.

In Walpole's anecdotes of painting, &c. mention

is

made

of

some other specimens, one of which

is

(m panel, and was an altar piece at Sheen.

oil,

It is in

and represents Henry V.,

his queen, attendants,

&c., and St. George combating in the air with a

terrible looking dragon.

This piece

is

in

oil,

but

he believes
Henr}'

it

to have been painted in the reign of

VL

or VII.

In Henry the Sixth's reign (13771399) there

is

a loss barren prospect of the arts before us.

this

There are several portraits of

monarch

at the

old palaces, King's College Chapel,

and other places.

been the only

But heraldry painting seems

sort in demand, and
it

to have

was

chiefly confined to the

use of the nobility, for the purposes of vanity or

devotion.
Missals, armorial bearings, the

windows

of churches, and the images of their saints, were the

only objects that then employed the industry of the

painter.

Even

portraits were not in fashion except

with the blood royal.

Under Edward IV. (14611483) we

few traces of the arts.

find but

This king's picture was at

;

Kensington, (now at
at St. James's,

Hampton Court)
his

another

is

and that of

queen at the Ash-

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

molean

299
College,

Museum, Oxford, and Queen's

Cambridge.

There

is

also another portrait of this reign at

Eton

it is

a likeness of the celebrated but unfor-

tunate " Jane Shore."" It certainly does not satisfy

the ideas

we have

of her personal attractions, but

to do than nature had, in this

possibly art has

more

disappointment.

At

this period,

" the wars of the

roses,""

and

other political struggles, produced their usual fatal

influence in repelling the natural progress of the

national intellect in the useful as well as in the

elegant arts.

Henry VII. (1485

economist to give
art,

1509)

was too much of an

much

attention to this branch of

though there are two or three portraits of him

at the royal palaces.

rious king,

" That
it

Walpole says of
he never
laid

this penu-

out any

money
his

so wilHngly as on that he could not enjoy,

tomb

but he was comforted probably with the

thought that
his death.

would not be paid

for until after

liberal,

Being neither ostentatious nor

:

genius had no favour with him

he reigned as an

attorney would have reigned, and he would have

preferred a conveyancer to Praxiteles."

On

the Continent painting had attained nearly to o G

800
its

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

highest splendour during this reign, in which
first

period the

two painters are mentioned,

;

viz.

John de Mabeuse, from Hainault

the other was

named Holbein
Wells, but
merit,

not Hanswho
known.

lived

and died

at

little

Mabeuse"'s pictures have

and are found

in various collections.
difficult,

Having traced the obscure,

and barren

path of the art of painting, for a space of one hundred and eighty years, during which time
that the art was barely kept alive
;

it is

clear

we now come

to

a period, from whence

may be

dated the second

:

appearance of modern art in England

there are evidences in
edifices,

although

some

of our really fine gothic

both ecclesiastical and baronial,

as already

stated at page 296,

of ornamental
;

paintings on

the walls and the windows, in which the subjects

are taken from scripture history

and these paint-

ings often display correctness of expression, and

propriety of action, though generally hard in the

outline,

and not showing much

art.

skill

in

the me-

chanism of

It is therefore

with the reign of Henry VIII.,

first

(1509

1547) that the

establishment of paint-

ing took place in England.

his father''s

This monarch,
left

whom

parsimony had

with great wealth,

seems to have had,

in his earlier stage of

monarchy,

ENGLISH SCHOOL OV PAINTING.

a taste
for

801

what was grand and

court,
;

liberal.

He

soon

found at

his

Hans Holbein,

Sir

Antonio

More, and Zucchero

and he invited Raffael, Titian,

;

and other great artists to England

the three former

liberality

were treated with great attention and

by

the King,' but the latter excused themselves, on

'

One

incident will explain sufficiently the decided partiality

which

this

king

felt for the fine arts, whilst

it

conveys

to

our minds

a picture of the rough state of manners at that time, proving also

what a different class of persons our present race of nobility is composed of, as compared with those of that age. There are two or three versions of this fact, as there are of every These, however, do not differ fact with which I am acquainted.
materially in the principal points.
It

appears that Holbein was

engaged on a day pain ting

his studio, in the palace,

a portrait of one of the queen's ladies in

when

a nobleman,

who wished

to see

how

he painted, came
the Serjeant
;

to his door,

and would not take any denial from

but was about to force his way into Holbein's apart*

ment.

The

latter

came

to see

what was going on

and the Lord

then attempted

to

push into the room, which Holbein resisted,

and

in the scuffle his Lordship

hurt.

The

painter, on seeing this mishap,

;

was tumbled down the stairs and was equally prompt in

he retired and made his
;

conceiving what his next step should be

way

privately to the king, whose pardon he craved

to his prayer,

acceded

provided he told him the truth

and the king this Hol:

bein did most correctly.

In a few minutes more the noble anta-

gonist of the artist was announced.

He

had come

to

demand
;

that

Holbein's head should be the

forfeit for this insult to his

dignity.
in doing

Henry
this,

told him to give a true statement of the facts

however, he suppressed a material one with which the king

his majesty merely told

was acquainted, and

lord's

Holbein

to

ask the

pardon

but his lordship would not be satisfied with so

trifling a

punishment, but demanded the execution of the painter.

;

This excited the king

who

told

him

that, as

he had suppressed a

302

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

account of the immense number and extent of their

engagements

in their

own

country, but he pur-

chased some of their works, with which to adorn

his palaces.

Henry had ample means, and a great

splendour
;

love of

his

good

feeling for the arts might,

no

doubt, have been founded more upon a love of

barbaric grandeur, than upon the sound principles
of good taste; and "the
field

of cloth of gold,"
is

amongst other gorgeous pageants,

given as the

foremost amongst the proofs of the want of refine-

ment

in the

King

it

might be more

just, perhaps,

to say, " the age" in which he lived.

But, however

that

may be

decided,

it is

quite evident, that

when

a monarch has magnificent ideas, whether directed

by good taste or
he, in
said,

not,

and with

sufficient

opulence

fact,

and

"

with me.

consequence, was not entitled to any satisfaction, My lord, you have not now to do with Holbein, but Whatever punishment you may contrive against him
shall
1

by way of revenge,

And remember,
lords."

that

can,

most assuredly be inflicted on yourself. whenever I please, make seven lords

of seven ploughmen, but I cannot

make one Holbein

out of seven

Holbein appears
this

to

have continued in favour at court during

the remainder of Henry's reign, which lasted

incident.

many

years after

He

was

also

employed by young Edward, and

finally died of the

plague in London, in 1554,

the year of Queen

according to

Mary's accession.

He must

have been,

at that time,

Charles Paten's reckoning, in the fifty-ninth year of his age.

KXGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

to

303

cany

his ideas into practice

man's ingenuity

and industry are

quently

called into active service, conse-

much good must

arise to society justly

and, as

the Hon.

marks,

" on

Horace Walpole,

and

wittily re-

such occasions, even Tmrit stands a

Besides the artists
in his service

chance of getting bread."

already mentioned,

Henry had

John

of Treviso, Totto, Penni,

and Hombard of Ghent.

are
still

Some

of the works of these artists

at

Hampton

Court.
in

Holbein had an apartment assigned him

the

Palace, by the King, with a pension of two hun-

dred florins per annum, besides being paid for the

pictures which he painted for Henry.

Holbein

painted the great picture

in the Surgeons' Hall,

representing

Henry VHI., granting

;

to that society

the charter of incorporation

also the large pic-

ture at Bridewell Hall, (Blackfriars,) of

Edward

VI., delivering the charter of

Sir

its

incorporation to

George Barnes, the lord mayor.

in distemper colours,

Holbein also painted

two

very large pictures, one of " riches," the other of

"poverty,"

at

the

Easterlings'
;

hall.

Steel-yard,

Lower Thames Street

but the company having

been suppressed for monopohzing the corn which

304

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

they imported, these pictures were earned to the

continent.

A
to be

great

number of Holbein's pictures are

in the best collections.

still

met with

Torregiano was brought over from Florence, to

complete the tomb of Henry

VH.,

for Avhich

he

received one thousand pounds.

This great sculp-

tor unfortunately

left

England, and went to Spain;

he was at

first

well employed, but being suspected

of opinions not according with those of the inquisition,

he was thrown into prison, and either died

naturally, or of starvation in one of their dungeons.

Sir Antonio

More had one hundred pounds per

King and Queen. King's
executed by London

quarter, as painter to the

College Chapel was finished in this reign, and the

three great windows were

workmen.
During the reigns of Edward VI. (1547

1553)

and Mary (1553

1558), the unsettled

artists

state of reli-

gious and political principles, were not favourable to

the fine arts, although they appear to have taken root

in the soil
still
;

and the

under the
artist

late reign

were

employed.

One English
whose

appeared at this

time, N. Lysard, of

talents Hilliard speaks

with

much commendation, but laments

that

"he

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

was unfortunate, from being English-horn^
wise, even the strangers (PhiUip

305
for other-

and the SpanThis miserable

talent,
is

iards) would have set

him up."

and unnatural prejudice against native

very remarkable throughout the history of the arts

in

England, down to a very late period

some think
remains
still

that a small quantity of the leaven

still

amongst us

whether

its

dregs do or do not
of dispute
;

exist in Britain,

may be a matter

but

that such a strange species of absurdity never did

exist in any other country,
historical records prove
is

quite certain, as the

most abundantly.

Had
that

the Protector, the magnificent

it

Duke

of

Somerset, hved,

is

probable, as

Walpole

says,

"he would have

called in the assistance of

the ablest artists, native and foreign, to adorn the

palaces and public buildings, with works that are

the noblest furniture."

John

of

Padua,

a celebrated architect, was

brought over at

this time.

Under
tinued to

Elizabeth

(15581603) the
;

arts

con-

make some progress

and amongst many

foreign painters, such as

chcro,

De

Heere, Ketel, T. Zuc-

Vroom, De
;

Critz, &c.,

we

find

two or three

natives of talent

one of these was Sir Nathaniel

306

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

Bacon, younger son of the Lord keeper, James

Oliver,

and N. Holland.
I.,

James
no more

(1603

1625,) perhaps fortmiately, did

arts, as

not meddle with the

service,

he might have done them

than he did to literature.

They,

however, got on quietly in the hands of foreigners,

such as Vansomer, Cornelius Jansen, D. Myttens.

But Peter Oliver and Gyles were

some employment.

natives,

who got
inferred

From

the foregoing

facts,

it

may be

that, although

an absurd and groundless prejudice,

combined with the general state of the kingdom's

affairs,

was not favourable

;

to the development of

English pictorial talent

yet

it

had been

for

some

time in a state of active, but very subordinate existence, silently practising the rules

and processes

of the good continental schools.

Charles

I.

(1625

1653) was

the

first

English

monarch whose example and encouragement created

an era of real taste
for the fine arts in Britain.

This monarch had a very strong native taste for

paintings,

and

his affection for

works of high art

prompted him, not only to purchase a great number of valuable pictures, but also to invite to his
court, such
artists as Titian,

Rubens, and Van-

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

dyke.
It

307

appears that the King intended to es-

tablish a

permanent school of arts

in

England,

being well aware of the advantages that the arts

always confer on nations, where they are duly protected and encouraged.

The

civil

war, and

its

calamitous consequences

however, soon scared the elegant and peaceful arts

from their propriety, and nearly extirpated them from the

artists,
soil

of England, by the dispersion of the

selection of paintings,
art.

and of the splendid

and other works of elevated

These the elegant

and cultivated taste of the monarch had caused to

be collected at a great expense, not merely
for his

own

gratification, but with the still

more

rational

purpose of creating a taste for such works, amongst

the nobles

and the wealthy men of the land;

cultivation of the arts as

justly considering the

being amongst the best means of conferring rational

refinement upon a people,

it is

and indeed of

which

clear,

from the best

historical evidences

of that day, the nation, with few exceptions, was

strangely deficient.

The desolating wing

of the worst

species of

Iconoclastic barbarity, having swept

away from the

shores of Britain these bright memorials of superior genius, intellectual cultivation,

and munificent

308

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

;

patronage
society,

long did the arts which adorn

civilized

remain comparatively unknown or

;

disre-

garded

and so

fatal

was the degrading

influence,

caused by the dispersion of the superb collection

of Charles
I.,

that

it

was

full

half a century before

to

confidence was in any degree restored, so as

make

it

not imprudent for Englishmen to make

the arts their profession, although foreigners were

always liberally rewarded, and so far the arts were

still

kept alive in England.

Besides the eminent

men

already mentioned,

whom

Charles had brought over and encouraged,

there was a native artist (Dobbs,) Avhom

assisted to bring forward,
into his service,
affairs

Vandyke

and the King took him

until his

and employed him

own

became desperate. After this, Dobbs, though

an excellent painter, got no employment from the

republican party, and died poor in St.

Martin's

Lane, a.

d,,

1646.

Whilst Walker, whose being

is

a native of England

doubtful, but

whose
not
so.

infe-

riority of talent to that of

Dobbs

is

was

patronized by Cromwell, and the leaders of the victorious party.

Amongst the other

painters in Charles's

time, were Lely, Diepenbach, Geldorp, Polemberg,

Honthorst, Gentilischi, Weesop, Wouters, Butler,

(Hudibras,) Pettitot,

Le

Soeur, a sculptor, Inigo

EXGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

Jones,

309

Graham, Hayward, Hoskins and Cooper.

were
all

The

last five

Englishmen of

fine talents,

but not

much encouraged

after the decease of their

unfortunate patron.

Charles II. (1660

1685)

may be

said to have

re-introduced the arts, but not good taste amongst

his subjects
fluttering,
;

under his injudicious patronage, the

style, into

gaudy, and not very decorous

fallen

which the arts had

on the continent, was

;

made

fashionable in England

and through the pro-

fligacy, ignorance,

and subserviency of the courtiers

in that reign,

and unquestionably by the meanest

sycophancy on the part of those decorative painters,

who

followed Charles to England

art,

the good

germs of
reign,

that had been planted in his father's

were nearly choked up and extinguished

and

this

happened whilst native

artists of great
in ob-

merit were pining away their unhappy lives

scurity

and want.
as Verrio, Parmentier,

Such empirics

La

Fosse,

and other foreign decorators, took precedence, and

revelled in the broad sunshine of royal favour,

and

consequently of court patronage.

It

perhaps would

not be credited, were not the public documental

proofs in existence, that this

man

Yerrio,

who was

a Neapolitan adventurer

and,

who

at the present

310

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

day, would only rank in mechanic art, as a respectable sign painter

seven thousand
fluttering

and decorator, actually received

for those
still

pounds of English money,

and tawdi*y productions, which are

allowed to disgrace

modern

British taste, in the

Halls of

Windsor

Castle, &c.

And

this

enormous

sum was but a

small part of the riches which this

pictorial charlatan,

and
assist

his

mynnidons, (whom he

brought over to

him,) received from the

public treasury of England.

The King

also

em-

ployed

Lely,

who was a
and other

clever

foreign artist

Laroon, Vanderheyden, Boll, Vanzoon, Hoogstrater,

Varelst,

foreigners,
:

and some of

whom were
veldes,

clever, as for instance

the

twoW.Vaninvited from

father

and

son,

whom

he

Holland, and appointed them his marine painters,

at a salary of one hundred pounds a year each,

besides paying

them

for their pictures.

artists

Several

names of English

appear about

this period,

but they were not encouraged by the

court

although some of these were

talents
;

men

of conRiley,

siderable

for

instance,

Hoskins,

Greenhill, Fuller,

and Davenport.

James

II.,

during his short reign, (1685 to

1689,) followed a similarly depressing course, with

respect to English artists,

who

nevertheless, were

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING,

on
the
advance,

311

both

in

number

and

merit.

Amongst them

are found the

names of Wright,

Ashfiekl, S. Cooper, Gibbon, &;c., with a host of

foreign

painters,

the

best

of

whom were

G.

Netscher, P. Stoop, Soest, LargeUiere, Wessing,

&c.

WiUiam

III.,

(1689 to 1702,) was not an enarts,

courager of the

either in foreign or native

;

hands, with the exception of two only

Kneller,

who

was a Gemian, and a much better courtier than

he was a painter, and Vanbrugh.

This architect,

and

Kneller,

divided

the

court favour between

them, to the almost total exclusion of native merit.

And
so

the vicious style of each in his vocation, both

in this

and Queen Ann's reign, corrupted the arts

I.,

much, that under George

(1702 to 1727,) the

fine arts

appear to have reached their lowest ebb

in Britain,

The

style

which was fashionable at

stately

this
stiff

period,

was the reverse of that

and

manner, which had prevailed a century or two

antecedently;
painting,
it

was a

loose,

disorderly kind of
his school,

begun by Verrio and

and

carried to its most perfect state of barbarous taste

by Sir Godfrey Kneller

who, most unhappily for

the arts, led the fashion in this corrupt

and manby the

nered

style,

and who was

8

closely imitated

312

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

his careless

mechanical artists of that era

ner,

manthan

which frequently reaches not

higher

daubing, was the admiration of the great vulgar

of that day
;

and some painters, emulous of

his
in

fame, believed they had caught his style,

fact,
lity,

when

they had merely neglected drawing, probabi-

and

finishing.

During

this antipodean period of art,

including

the reign of George L, there flourished in England,

Marco and Sebastian

Ricci, Jervas,

an imitator of
draperies

Kneller, and Richardson,

who painted

so fantastic, that they never could be

made

the

proper dress of any tribe, age, or nation.

facts

These

go

far to

prove

how

rapidly the arts degeintellectual pursuits

nerate

when

neglected.

These

require good encouragement to elicit the powers of

genius

but there was nothing of the kind in these

three last reigns.

And when

the Earl of Halifax

(lord treasurer) used his influence to get Sir

James

Thornhill to paint the

Court, &c., the
berlain)

apartments at Hampton
of Shrewsbury (lord cham-

Duke

was most desirous to give the work to

;

Sebastian Ricci

but the Earl of HaHfax said,

He

would not pay

the foreigner,
to

when a native

quite as

capable could he found

this sentence is

do the business.

And

worthy of being remarked, as the

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

first

313

burst of true patriotic feeling, with regard to

the fine arts, that the

yet recorded
;

Muse

of English history had

and

this manly, as well as just, ex-

pression of sentiment,

was the more precious

first

still,

because

it

appears to have been also the

bold

and successful effort that was made, to breakthrough

the ponderous crust of unnatural prejudice, which
liad hitherto overlaid

the energies of native talent,

and which, at

this juncture,

had nearly obliterated

the arts in England (A.D. 1700 to 1730).

It
is,

however, true that Sir Christopher

II., in

Wren
1668,

had been appointed, by King Charles

" Surveyor-General of Public Buildings ;" which

office

was renewed to him by James

memorial of

II..

Having

finished the splendid

his talents, St.

Paul's Cathedral,
several of the

between 1675 and 1710, and

handsomest of the London churches,

and accomplished
to his

this distinguished native architect

gentleman,

who had done

so

much honour

country by his talents and probity, particularly

whilst he held the office of Surveyor- General, &c.,

was dismissed (3d year of Geo.

I.)

without even a

colourable pretext, in the eighty-sixth year of his

age.

and the
it

fiftieth

year of his public services,

merely, as

appears, to

make room
p

for

an obscure

314

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

intriguer of the

name

of Benson,

whose memory.'

has been rendered immortal as Pope's Dunciad,"

and which memory he

signed to infamy.*

has,

by his own acts, con-

" Our Midas

sits

lord chancellor (of plays!)

On

poets' tombs, see Benson's titles writ,

lo
!

And, Note

A. Phillips

is

preferred to wit."

in the Dunciad,

book

iii.

" W m. Benson,
I.,

surveyor

o>f

buildings to his Majesty

King George
falling.

he gave

in a report too

the Lords that their house, and the painted

chamber

adjoining^,

were

in

immediate danger of

Whereupon

the lords meet

in committee to appoint

some other place to sit in, while the housee should be taken down. But it being proposed to cause somee other builders first to inspect it, they found it in very good conidition.

" The lords upon

this

were going upon an address

;

to the kingg

against Benson for such a misrepresentation

but the Earl oof

Sunderland, then secretary, gave them an assurance that bids

majesty would remove him, which was done accordingly.
favour of this man, the famous Sir Christopher Wren,

Itn

been architect

to

the

crown

for

above

fifty years,

who haad who had buililt

most of the churches in London, laid the first stone of St. Paul's s, and lived to finish it, had been displaced from his employment aat
the age of near ninety years."
2

The cause
;

of this man's promotion was not publicly

light.

known

aat

the time

but has since come to

He

married a Germann
of thaat

woman, who had

reign,
oti

been a favourite with a

High Personage
Wren's

condition that he should be appointed to

it

situationn,

for which,

is

almost needless to add, that he possessed not thae

slightest

qualification.

The same

royal influence got

Bensoon
of hitis

returned M.P. for Poole in Dorsetshire, and he sat in the housse

three or four years for that borough.

But on the discovery

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

It
is,

315

therefore, sufficiently evident, that the inci-

dent of Wren's appointment was a sort of episode,

or rather accident, which was remedied as soon as
possible by his dismissal,

to the

disgi'ace of those

by whom that great man was deprived of

situation.

his official

We

have seen that the

real talents of

native painters and architects were treated with

particular neglect or insult during the reigns of

George

I.

and his two immediate predecessors

but sculpture was even more discouraged than

sister arts.

its

Besides the artists already mentioned, were the

following,

who painted

in

England

Closterman,
Schalken,
Dahl.

Vander Meulan, Monamy, Hemskirk, Kerseboom,

Van Huysum, Le
Richter,

Piper,

Watteau,
and

Swede,

Vandiest,

But

most
in

certainly, since the arts were first

admired

Britain, this period

(1710 to 1730) has pro-

duced

fewer

w'orks

deserving the attention of

posterity than any previous portion of time equal

to
it

in duration since

Henry VIII.

In the reign of George II. (1727 to 1760) the

attempted extensive fraud upon the lords and the public purse,
togiether with other delinquencies

that

came

to

light,

he was

expelled by an unanimous vote of the House of Commons.

p2

816
arts
ture.

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

began to
resuscitate,

and

particularly architec-

The reason

of this improvement is easily

explained.

Her

majesty,

Queen

Caroline,

was a

munificent patroness of the fine arts, of which this

amiable queen had considerable knowledge

her

Royal influence and example

existence, at least into notice,

called,

if

not into

by

liberal

encourageart.

ment, considerable talents in every branch of

It

was

at that auspicious

epoch that the nobles

of the land were the amiable but worthy rivals of the

best practical architects of the age, as their works
still testify.

The Earls

of

Pembroke and Burlingall,

ton came

little,

or perhaps not at

behind Kent,

Gibbs, and other eminent architects, whose works

are the best argimients of their merit.

In painting, some foreign artists of distinction

still

received the encouragement which their talents

deserved.

The

chief of these artists were, Carl,

Venloo, Van-aker, Leoni, Amiconi, Zincke, Canaletti,

Rysbrack, and Roubiliac.

this

But

judicious

encouragement

to

foreign

artists did not interfere

unfavourably with the inte-

rests of the native talents in the arts,

which had

been gradually recovering from their accumulated

misfortunes of cold neglect, and the corrupt ex-

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

317

amples of the empirical school of foreign painters, of

whom Sir
artist

Godfrey Kneller was the head.

off the field,

When this
who

and Dahl went

Richardson,

had been the pupil of a clever native and

artist, Riley,

Jervis, took the lead as chief portrait painters

of this country.
arts

This fact

will

show how

far the

had

fallen in Britain,

through neglect.

Hudson

was a

pupil,

and became son-in-law to Richardson.

Hudson, though not a man of high pretensions, yet

had
original feeling
;

and repudiated the loose and

his father-in-law,

flippant

mannerism which

who was
taught
to

an imitator of Kneller, but not of nature,

liad

him

Hudson adopted a

style
It

more agreeable

nature and good taste.

was under

this artist

that young Reynolds received his elementary instructions in painting.

By

this
;

time Sir James

Thomhill was no more (1745)

Ramsay and Ho;

garth had risen into eminence as painters

Sir

W.

Chambers,

in architecture

Romney, West,
artists,

Gainsborough, Moser, Barret, and other

began to find that, though native painters, they

were receiving encouragement.

A.D. 1760, "The

Incorporated Society of Artists" was formed; and

the united pictorial efforts of the English artists
was, for the first time, exhibited to the public by

an exhibition in the great room belonging to the

p 3

318

OUIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

and
it is

Society of Arts, in the Strand

from this
fairly

era that the

EngUsh school of painting can

be dated."

The reign

of

George

III.

(1760) commenced

very auspiciously for the advancement of the fine

arts in England.

A.D. 1768,

this

monarch em-

bodied the principal artists by his

own authority
title

under the sign manual, by the style and

"

of

The Royal Academy

These

of Painting, Sculpture,
facts being recent

and

Architecture."

and conse-

quently well known, are only inserted here for the

purpose of showing that a term of seventy years

the longest period which can be assigned to
British
school,

is

the

from
;

its

commencement
it

to

the

present year (1839)

and

will readily

be con-

ceded by

all

persons

who

are

well acquainted

with the history of the arts, and progress of the

various schools of painting on the Continent, that

seventy years

is

a very limited period indeed, to

allow for the growth of a school of arts in

any

country, even in those states where both the go-

vernment and the people have been highly

partial,

The second

exhibition was in a very large

it

room

in Spring

Gardens, where
the Royal

was held annuitlly until the establishment of

in 1768.

Academy

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

819

and encouraging to the development of native

talents.

Oeorge

III.

may justly

therefore be styled "

in

The

Father of the Fine Arts

England."

With him
;

the love of art seems to have been inherent

there

was nothing accidental about

it

this

monarch's
honourable

efforts to raise the liberal arts to that

position
titles

to which their intellectual character en-

them,
;

were always

intentional,

always pre-

meditated

they were the offspring of judgment

arising from reflection, and consequently a perfect

conviction of the inestmiable value of the arts to

mankind, when properly encouraged, and

vated with true zeal and sound discretion.

culti-

His Majesty, besides

was,
it

liis

native love of the arts,

;

is

well

known, an excellent historian

and,

from

this inexhaustible source,

he derived additional
view he

and

irrefragable

arguments

in favour of the

had taken, and the advice he had

important subject
;

received, on this

and although he had to contend

against the cold and narrow prejudices of some

political advisers at first, yet

he firmly pursued his

enlightened course, and at length convinced even

those

who

at

first

were opposed to
is

this object, that a

great commercial nation

bound

to encourage the

p 4

320

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

moral
effect,

fine arts, for the

as well as the intel-

lectual dignity, they confer

on

society,

and that they

also assist in extending that very

commerce from

whence pecuniary wealth

is

extensively derived, but

which, without the aid of the elegant and intellectual arts,

would terminate in a vulgar display of

redundant, and fantastic finery, such
ridicule in the practices of wealthy

barbarous,
as

we now

but

semi-barbarous people with

whom we

hold com-

mercial but not intellectual intercourse.

The King, no doubt, was aware

of the high esti-

mation in which the arts were held by commercial

cities

and states in ancient times, as well as in Europe

during the middle ages.

The

people of Rhodes
;

were deeply engaged

they

in

commerce

yet the progress

is

made

in

the arts, especially in sculpture,

truly astonishing.

The Eginetans were

likewise a
;

commercial, but they were also an elegant people

and the beautiful sculptured marbles, some of which

we now

possess, that have been taken

from the

ruins of their temples, prove the fine taste of those

islandei-s,

and the high

degi'ee of

improvement to

which they had attained

ture.

in sculpture

and architec-

Argos, Athens, Sicyon, and Corinth, the

seats of transcendent

good

taste,

were more or

less

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

commercial
as were, in fact,
all

321

the cities of the

^gean
or the

sea,

and of the Cyclades.

Shall Pisa, Florence, and Lucca, be mentioned,

other greater commercial states of Italy,

Venice, and Genoa, or Holland and Flanders, to

remind our readers of the unfading glory which

commerce has derived from

tion of the arts, that

its

munificent protec-

adorn

civilized society, that

I

mend
all

the manners, and improve the heart

AVith

those matters, and abundance more, was George

;

III. well acquainted

and

so,

no doubt, are the

great majority of our readers.

But
which,

it

doubtless
aiding his

was

this valuable

information

natural affection for the arts, determined the kingto give every assistance

within his command, to

aid

them

in rivalling those of

any other nation,

to

ancient or modern.

But the monarch knew, that

be successful, this object would require a very long

time, and great encouragement from public, as well

as from private sources.

He
;

could not do

all

that

he wished to

effect this great object,

but he made

a decided commencement

and the royal example

was gracefully followed by the nobles and wealthier

classes of the land.

The kind

intentions of the
fulfilled

royal patron were in a

his
life

good measure

during

time, and the personal friendly intercourse

p 5

322

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

artists^

he held with the leading

ful

produced a power-

moral

effect

upon the public mind, and on the

character of the profession in England/

The momentum which the

received

arts

had thus happily

has continued,

and probably increased,

through the decided patronage of King George IV.,

who was

as anxious for their prosperity as his royal

parent had been.

When

Prince Regent, he en-

couraged the acquisition of rare and valuable works

of classic art.
It

was during

this period that the

Parthenon marbles, those inimitable and matchless

remains, produced in the halcyon days of Grecian
sculpture,

were brought to England.

In 1824 the National Gallery of Pictures was

commenced, by the purchase of the

fine collection

made by

J. Julius Angerstein, Esq.

This circum-

stance marks quite a

new

era of art in Britain.

Particularly the presidents, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin

West, and also Sir William Beechey, with each of

whom
to

this

monarch was
all

in the habit of holding familiar conversations on

subjects

connected with the

British

arts,

and conducive

their

prosperous advancement.
2

The Royal

Institution

was founded in

1805,

and

opened in January, 1806.

Its exhibitions,

and the

sales effected

there of the works of living artists, chiefly purchased by

members

of the Institution, have been of considerable benefit to the arts, in

bringing forward young

men

of talent,

who otherwise might have

remained

in

unmerited obscurity.

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTI^TG.

George IV. had magnificent ideas
arts
;

323

relative to the
life,

but coming into power late in

and being

annoyed by factious and domestic embarrassments,

his

good intentions

for

promoting art were unavoid-

ably neutralized.

"

The Society

of British Artists'' (in

Suffolk

Street) was also established in this reign, and its

exhibitions have brought forward
talent,

many

artists of

and even of high reputation.

in the

King William IV. having been bred up

naval service, to which

many

years of his

life

were

devoted, did not therefore possess the same knowledge of the arts as the two preceding monarchs
;

but he was always kind to the professors, and took

a great interest in the affairs of the Royal Academy, the yearly accounts of which society he always ex-

amined

himself, with great attention

and

it

must

not be forgotten, that the last public place which this

kind-hearted monarch visited, was to open the newgallery of the Royal

Academy
ill

at Trafalgar Square,

May, 1837.

The king was

then, but would not

disappoint the hopes of the lovers of art and the

members of that

institution

yet in six weeks after-

wards William IV. was no more.

The commencement

of her majesty

Queen Vic-

p6

324!

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

1837) appears to dawn auspi-

toria's reign (June,

ciously

on the

fine arts.
its

Her Majesty

visits

the

Royal Academy at

opening, and graciously per-

mits her portrait to be taken by painters and

sculptors

of
is

acknowledged

high talents.'

Her

Majesty

said to be fond of painting,

in its principles

and has

been well instructed

and practice

by eminent

artists.
tliis

Having brought

rapid but careful outline of

the origin and progress of the arts in Britain to a

close,

and having stated some of the important

facts

relevant to that subject, I feel a hope, that the

evidence

convince those of their error

tical

now brought forward will be who may

sufficient to

yet be scepsoil,
cli-

enough to imagine that either the

mate, or intellect of Britain, are not capable of

producing great works in the highest classes of

art.

My

object

is

to show, that the fine arts in

fair play until

this country

have never had

within

the last seventy years.

'

It has

been shown, from

portrait painted in

Her most gracious Majesty has bad her

Sir D. Wilkie's historical picture of

also by E. A. Chalon, R.A.

"The Queen in Council;" W. Wyon, R.A., medallist, has exe;

cuted some beautiful medallions of the Queen

Chantrey, R.A.,
is

and Sir Francis

now engaged

in

modelling a splendid bust of

her Majesty.

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

325

authentic records, that our native talent in the arts

was not only unaided, but neglected and despised,

with one or two exceptions, until about the com-

mencement
therefore,

of the period mentioned.

To

expect,

that the genius of the country should

develop itself under circumstances so cruelly adverse to the expansion of intellectual power, would

be about as reasonable as to expect that grapes,

figs,

and melons should grow and ripen unsheltered

in our climate at Christmas.

It is well

known to most of our readers,

that one of
is,

the grandest principles in physical science

" That

there cannot be any effect without an adequate

cause

;"

and

yet,

with respect to the arts,

it

does

appeal', as if this universal principle

was not to be
it is

applied in England.

And
liave

therefore

that

we

meet with persons now and then who dogmatically

assert, that

"the arts

not

made any thing

like

the progress in this country which they ought to

have done."

These gentlemen would do

to

well, in

the

first place,

make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the

on the Continent where they have arrived

history of the arts in Italy, and in the other countries

at pre-eminence, and then read the history of the arts

in

their

own country

and

if

they do not

326
abandon

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE

their first notions, they

must be lament-

ably obstinate in error.*

The

last seventy yeai*s, therefore,

we

think,

may

rightly be considered the age of the British school,

and

for that limited space of

time there

is

no other

school can

show

greater, or perhaps so gi*eat an

its fine climate,

improvement.

In Italy, with

and

enormous public encouragement, as well as private

patronage,
it

required fuU two centuries and a half ^

to bring these arts

up to

their meridian splendour.

Therefore, to

make the

cases of the foreign and natry the British intellect

tive schools parallel,

fairly to

and to
it is

the utmost,

clear that the

same

sort of

encouragement should be applied, otherwise the argu-

ment

is

good
it

for nothing.

But, on the other hand,

that under

perhaps

would be

difficult to prove,

similarly discouraging circumstances, the continental

schools would not have been altogether obliterated.

So

far, however,

as private patronage

is

concerned,

there certainly is, and has been for

some years, a great

upon our native

deal of encouragement bestowed

'

Possibly there

may

be some persons in this class of opinionists

to

whom

the following invocation of Count Strogonoff

:

applicable
ft

" Grand Dieu,

may be
amour

delivre nous de ces amateurs sutis

!

de ces connoisseurs sans connoissance

'

"
in

Cimabue commenced about 1260, and

both died,

1520

Da

Vinci and

Rafl'ael

the

first at

Paris, the second at

Rome.

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAIXTIXG.

artists
;

327
their

and

in the

same proportion have been

;

exertions to deserve success

and works of fancy

and portraiture are exhibited now, superior to any that could be produced
forty years since, with

the exception of Reynold's works.

This arises from

the superior knowledge of principles, and the practice

founded on these principles, which have become very

generally

known

in the British school.

It is not,

therefore, in these walks of art that encouragement

is

so

much wanted,

but in the more lofty and intel-

lectual classes of historical

and poetical composition.

is

Here

it

must be confessed there

in

no public en-

couragement, such as we see

France, Germany,

and the

Low

Countries.

And until our government,

and the wealthy public

bodies, offer to purchase great

works of art, it cannot be supposed that artists should

run the greatest risk possible of starvation whilst

employed
for which,

in the production of

such noble works,'

find
of,

when completed, they would not

Surely to expect such sacrifices
is

a
or

purchaser.

from, British artists,

more than sound reasoning

which he lived

James Barry's fate has had a most chilling effect on British His great genius was far in advance of the age in and though he had a sufficient pittance to exist upon, yet neglect and harsh treatment drove him into a confirmed state of misanthropy, if not monomania.
'

pictorial art.

328

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS OX THE

;

would expect

and

is

certainly far

beyond what has

ever been expected from the artists of any other

country.
It has

been

said, as I
if

understand, by

some gentlemen, " that

nation, great

the talent existed in the

works of

art

would be produced, and

then purchasers would be found for them."

Now,

without attempting to impugn the right of free

opinion, which these gentlemen possess, this asser-

tion does appear to be one of the

most

extraordiin
its
is

nary paradoxes that perhaps has yet appeared

this paradoxical age.

Indeed

it is

too broad in
;

way

to do any great mischief to the arts

it

another form

of

that

pseudo-philosophy, which
effects,

sometimes mistakes causes for

and at other

intervals expects effects without causes.

But if these

gentlemen

will

be so kind as to inform the artists

ai-e

of Britain, in what age or country they

to find
it

examples of that species of speculation, perhaps

would induce those of the higher grade

us to try the experiment.

in art with

But

until satisfactory

proof be given that this was the practice of the great

the

men of the foreign schools, common good sense of

them from a course
all

it

is

to be hoped that
will restrain

our artists
is

of action, which

opposed to
and

the sound principles of political, social,

intellectual

economy.

" The demand

is

the cause,"

ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTING.

" the supply
is

329

the effect ;"

all

and people of sound unlife,

derstanding, in

the intercourses of

take care

that the effect shall not precede the cause.

The

great cathedrals and other public edifices of Italy,

Spain, &c., were built without any thought about

the painters, and then the latter were called in to

adorn them with their splendid works of

art.

If

the Sistine chapel and the Vatican had not been

built, neither

Raffael nor

Michael Angelo would

be looked upon with that high degree of admiration

to which those great memorials of their

genius give

them

so just a

title.

Having shown that the strange

for so long a period
in the arts in

prejudice, which

had retarded the advancement

England, has been gradually wearing

away
in the

for the last seventy or eighty years,

and that

same proportion native talents, in every branch

of the arts, have developed themselves in a

manner

highly flattering to the character of the nation, so

far,

at least, as fair

encouragement has been be-

stowed upon them, we cannot help thinking that so

'

" Those great artists were not employed because they had

produced great works, but they produced great works because they
to produce them. Their fame rests upon exploits of which true patronage inspired them to conceive, encouraged them to undertake, and enabled them to accomplish." Letter of Sir M. A. Shee to Lord J. Russell,

were employed
art,

*530

ORIGINAL OBSERVATIONS,

SziC.

far the artists

and the enlightened portion of the

pubHc have done their duty, and to that extent have

rescued their country from the opprobrium of not
possessing native taste, intellect, or feeling, either
to produce works of art, or to reward our artists.

One

great object, therefore, has been gained

of the

and the impertinent sneers

Abbes Winkle-

mann, du Bos, and other continental writers, at our

Boeotian heaviness, have lost their power, but not
their malignity.
It is said that
lately

a person named
himself
in

Waagen

has

been indulging

some witticisms equally

ridiculous with those of

the great literary pioneers, his precursors.

"

For leaden dullness ever loves

its

pke."

It is

much

to be regretted, however, that

men

of literature connected with

the public press in

England, do not generally take up the side of

the
tect

men

of art, and give their powerful aid to prorising

and encourage the once oppressed but

arts of their country.

In this respect the conti-

nental artists have a great advantage over those of

Britain
:

the former have a cordial feeling towards

each other, which strengthens both, and injures

neither.
is

And

whilst a

German, or a French

critic,

dwelling with satisfaction

upon the merits

of a

METHODS OF PAINTING, &C.

oSl

middling picture or piece of sculpture by a compatriote^

the

English

critic

often
his

treats

with

harshness,

the best works

of

countrpnen.'
it

This

is

a thing to

be deplored, because

is

discouraging,
just.

always unkind, and sometimes unretaliate,

These arts cannot

feeling should

and therefore

manly

be exercised towards them,

for

and forbearance substituted

severity, except
its

where presumptuous ignorance obtrudes

offspring into the proper station of

brazen

modest merit.

Yet

it

is

to be

hoped that these gentlemen of

literary talents will look with cordial feeling

upon

the productions of the arts, and not intentionally

injure the prospects, or

wound the

feelings of

men,

who, in the pursuit of their elegant vocation, have

many

vexations to encounter of which the world

cannot be aware.

SECTION

II.

METHODS OF PAINTING USED IN THE ENGLISH

SCHOOL.
I

HAVE

already stated, that the principal artists

to

who came
'

England from the Low Countries

to

These remarks are only meant

apply to a certain class of

criticisms on the annual exhibitions.

332

METHODS OF PAINTING

were possessed of a good knowledge of the principles of art,

and

also of the proper materials

and the

methods of applying them.

that this knowledge
tionally

It

is

not improbable
tradifolit

may have come down

amongst the few native painters who

lowed each other to the time of Hudson, for

is

evident, that so far as his process

and materials

went, his works in general stand very well.

But

this did not satisfy the ardent

:

and

inquisitive

mind of young Reynolds

and examine
for

he would, and did think

himself.

The

result was, that

splendid breadth of effect, mellowness of tone, and

harmony of

colouring, which justly placed

him

at

the head of the colourists of his age.

The

infant British School of Painting adopted

his methods,
effect, colour,

and have produced works, which,

for

and tone, are not surpassed, perhaps

not equalled, in Europe at the present day, and

would be admired for these qualities in an age when

colour

and

effect

were

in their highest

state of

estimation.

The
will

following extract from

Mr. Northcote"'s book

convey the best ideas that can be obtained on

subject.

this

These notes appear to have been

to direct

written at

Eome by Sir Joshua,

him

in his

future practice.

USED IN THK ENGLISH SCHOOL.

"
is

333

The Leda,
shadows

in

the Colonna palace, by Correggio,

dead-coloured white and black, with ultramarine

;

in the

and over that

tint,

is

scumbled, thinly
caput mor-

and smooth, a warmer

tuum.

I believe

The

lights are

mellow
is

the shadows blueish,

but mellow.
a

The

picture

painted on a panel, in

broad
:

and

large

manner,

but

finished

like

enamel

the shadows harmonize, and are

lost

in

the ground.
"

The Ecce Homo The shadows

of Correggio in the are

entirely
lost

same
the

[)alace.

in

ground,
first.

perhaps more by time than

they were at

"

The Adonis

of Titian in the Colonna Palace

is

dead-coloured white, with the muscles marked bold.

The second
over
it
;

painting he scumbled a light

;

colour

the light, a mellow flesh colour

the sha-

dows, in the lighter parts, of a faint pm'ple hue

least

at

they were so at

first.

That purple hue seems

to be occasioned by blackish shadows under,'

and

the colour scumbled over them.

"
I

copied the Titian in the Colonna collection

'

Probably a dark ground, which Titian frequently employed,

itself

and which, in showing

stated,

through a white preparation, as

would take the

tint alluded to.

Such a ground

is

after-

wards mentioned as having been employed by G. Poussin,

334

METHODS OF PAINTING
;

with white umber, minio, cinnabar, black

the sha-

dows thin of
dark ground

colour.
left.

Perhaps

little

more than the

" In respect to painting the flesh

tints, after it

has been finished with very strong colours, such as

ultramarine and carmine, pass white over
thin with
oil.
it,

very

believe

it

will

have a very won-

derful effect.

"

Or
it

paint carnation too red, and then scumble

over
"

with white and black.

colour, with white

Then dead

and black only

at the second sitting carnation, (to wit the Barocci

at the Palace Albani,
phili.^
J

and Correggio

in the

Pam-

" All these

modes

of preparation

were afterwards employed by

Sir Joshua,

who

generally

made

out his shapes, as well as the light

more than blue black and white, or lake blue black and white (sometimes lake and white only), using always, in this stage of the picture, a good body of colour over this, when dry, he scumbled yellow ochre and white, or umber
and shadow of
his heads, in little
;

and white, sometimes

orpivient

and white, very thin

it,

and on

that

retouched his features, and tinted the cheeks and other parts of
the head which might require

with brighter and more decided

varnish, completed his

colour

a slight glaze, little

more than the

work.
" Sometimes, instead of scumbling, he employed glazing with red

lead or vermilion, which, being passed thinly over his white preparation, gave considerable

power

to the local colour of his

head

on

this

he painted thinly with ultramarine and white, and orpiment,

or yellow ochre, and white, tinting in parts with carmine, and

finishing with a thin glaze of asphaltura.

USED IX THE ENGLISH SCHOOL.

335

" Poussin's landscapes in the Verossi Palace,

are painted on a dark ground,

made

of Indian red

and black.
"

Make

a finished sketch of every portrait you

intend to paint, and by the help of that, dispose

your living model

a ground

then finish at the

first

time, on

made

of Indian red

and

black.

" All the shadows in the works of the Carracci,

Guerchino, as well as the Venetian school, are

made with
tians

little

colour, but

much

oil

the Veneoil,

seem

to be

made

only of a drying

com-

posed of red lead and

oil.

" Occasionally he allowed his

thinly over
it,

first

glaze to dry, and then painted

with orpiment and white, ultramarine and white, and

veruiilion or carmine

and white

but always allowing the colour

underneath to appear more or

over It. " In very

less

through whatever he passed

many
first

of his pictures, which have been injudiciously

cleansed, the

preparation

is

all

that

now remains

and

in

some cases

his glowing tints and other colours have

changed or

disappeared altogether, owing to his indiscriminate use of perishable materials "

;

for

he was a very indifferent chemist.

is

The cracking

of his pictures
it

chiefly occasioned

by painting

over his preparation before

was thoroughly dry, or by using

materials on the surface of his pictures, which dried harder tlian

those employed underneath. " Dark colours, and especially those which are transparent, will

generally open in large cracks

when
and

laid

on very

thickly, or

em-

ployed with

much

vehicle

this

was frequently the case

body of colour.

with Sir Joshua's pictures, whose dark back grounds, hair, and
draperies, were often painted with a considerable

10

886

METHODS or PAINTING

" In comparison with Titian, and Panl Veronese,

all

the other Venetian painters appear hard

they

liave in a degree, the

manner of

all

Rembrandt''s,
pic-

mezzotinto, occasioned

by scmnbling over their

tures

some dark

oil

colour."

In Sir Joshua Reynolds's memoranda, for December, 1755,

will

be found the following record

of the colours, which he then

made

use

of,

and of
on
his

the order in which they were aiTanged

pallette.

SIR

JOSHUA REYNOLDS WORKING COLOURS, WITH

IN

THE ORDER

WHICH THEY WERE ARRANGED

ON HIS PALLETTE.
" For painting the
flesh, black, blue black, white,

lake, carmine, orpiment, yellow ochre, ultramarine,

and varnish.
"

To

lay the pallette

first

lay carmine

and

white in different degrees

second, lay orpiment

and white,
ditto.

ditto

third, lay blue black

and white,

" The

first sitting,

make a mixture on the

pallette

for expedition, as near the sitter's complexion as

you can."

USED IN THE ENGLISH SCHOOL.

oo7

HIS OBSERVATIONS ON COLOURING.

"
ing
;

To preserve the colours fresh and

it

clean in paintcolours,

must be done by laying on more

in

and not by rubbing them

laid
;

when they

are once
laid just

and

if it

can be done, they should be

first,

in their

proper places at

and not be touched

is

again, because the freshness of the colours

tar-

nished and

lost,

by mixing and jumbling them

which de-

together

for there are certain colours

stroy each other by the motion of the pencil

when

mixed to excess.
"

For

it

may be

observed, that not only

is

the

brilliancy, as well as freshness of tints considerably

impaired, by indiscriminate mixing and softening

but

if

colours be too
oil will

much worked about with

the

brush, the

always rise to the surface, and

the performance will turn comparatively yellow in

consequence."
HIS INSTRUCTIONS IN PAINTING TO

THE STUDENT.

" Never give the least touch with your pencil, until

you have present

in

your mind, a perfect idea of

your future work.

" Paint at the greatest possible distance from

your

sitter,

and place the picture occasionally near

338

METHODS OF PAINTING
sometimes under him, so as to see

to the sitter, or

both together.
" In beautiful faces, keep the whole circumference about the eye in a mezzotinto, as seen in the

works of Guido, and the best of Carlo Maratti.

" Endeavour to look at the subject, or sitter
before you, as
if
it it

was a picture

this will in

some degree render

more easy to be copied.

" In painting, consider the object before you,

whatever

it

may

be, as
lines.

made out more by

light

and

shadow, than by
"

student should begin his career, by a care-

ful finishing

and making out of the

parts, as prac-

tice will give

him freedom and

manner
is

facility of

hand

bold and unfinished

of old age."

generally the habit

ON PAINTING A HEAD.
" Let those parts, which turn or retire from the
eye,

be of broken or mixed colours, as being

less

distinguished,

and nearer the borders.

;

" Let

all

your shadows be of one colour

glaze

them
"

till

they are so.

red colours in the shadows of the most

Use

delicate complexions, but with discretion.

" Contrive to have a skreen, with red or yellow

USED IN THE ENGLISH SCHOOL.

colour on
face.
it,

339
sitter'^s

to reflect the light on the

" Avoid the chalk, the brick dust, and the charcoal,

and think on a

pearl,

and a

ripe peach.

" Avoid long continued lines in the eyes, and too

many

sharp ones.

" Take care to give your figure a sweep or sway,

with the outlines in waves,

ceptible against the

soft,

and almost imper-

back ground.
too coarse.

" Never

make the contour

" Avoid also those outlines and lines which are

equal,

which make

parallels, triangles,

&c.

" The parts which are nearest to the eye appear

most enlightened,
seen.

deeper shadowed, and better

"

Keep broad

lights

and shadows, and

also prin-

cipal lights

and shadows.
there
is

"

Where

the deepest shadow,

light.

it is

ac-

companied by the brightest

" Let nothing start out, or be too strong for

place.

its

" Squareness has grandeur

the forms
feeble
:

it

gives firmness to

a serpentine
tottering.

line, in

comparison, appears

and

"

The younger

pupils are better taught by those

who

are in a small degi'ee advanced in knowledge

a2

340

METHODS OF PAINTING
;

above themselves

and from

that cause proceeds the

peculiar advantage of studying in academies.

" The painter

principles,

who knows

his profession

from

may

apply them alike to any branch of

it.

the art, and succeed in

"

ON THE EXAMINATION OF PICTURES.

strict

" After a

examination of the best pictures,

the benefit to be derived from

conclusions as

them

is to

draw such

may

serve in future as fixed rules of

practice, taking care not to be

amused with

trifles,

but to regard the excellencies chiefly. " There are some

who

are very diligent in examiall

ning pictures, and yet are not at

advanced in their

judgment, although they can remember the exact

colour of every figure, &c., in the picture
reflecting deeply
;

but not

on what they have seen, or making

all

observations to themselves, they are not at

im-

proved by the crowd of particulars that swim on

the surface of their brains, as nothing enters deep

enough
"

into their

minds to do them benefit through

digestion.

painter shoidd form his rules from pictures

;

rather than from books or precepts

infoi-mation at the first hand,

this is

having

at

the fountain-

USED IX THE ENGLISH SCHOOL.

head.

Sil
not

Rules were

first

made from
first

pictures

pictures from rules.

for painting

The

compilers of rules
in

were in the situation

which

it

is

desirable a student should be.

Thus every picture

an

artist sees,

whether the most excellent or most

ordinary, he should consider from whence that fine

effect,
is

or that

ill

effect,

proceeds

and then there

he

no picture, ever so

indifferent, but

may

look

at to his profit.

"
ral,

The manner
and

of the English travellers in gene-

especially those
virtu,
is

who pique themselves on

why they are

studying

that, instead of examining the

beauties of those works of fame, and

esteemed, they only inquire the subject of the picture,

and the name of the painter, the history of a

and where
it

statue,

was found, and then write that

while I was in the
six

down.
tican,

Some Englishmen,
down whatever

Va-

came there and spent above

hours in

writing

the antiquary detailed to

them

they scarcely ever looked at the paintings

the whole time."'

'

Our readers will please to recollect tliat this just, but by no means
Mr.
That

complimentary, description of English travellers, was written in

the interval between 1749 and 1752, the period during which

Reynolds was

in Italy

but ninety years must make a great change

civilized

in the information

and manners of any

nation.

q3

342

METHODS OF PAINTING
Sir

As

Joshua Eeynolds was the great master

of colour and effect, and, in fact, the founder of the

present high character which the British school

seems to hold, decidedly and almost

exclusively, in

these two great sections of the art, his sentiments

and
first

principles in these matters are entitled to the

consideration.

They are founded upon accu-

rate observation, and practical acquaintance with

the sound principles of art, with which he took no

ordinary pains to be well acquainted
;

and

this

extensive and accurate knowledge being directed in

its

operation by a

mind

like his, at

once endowed

with good sense and sound cultivation, produced

those admirable specimens of painting which the

world admires, and

it is

hoped long

will

admire.

To

dissent, therefore,

from any mode of comthis great artist, for

first sight,

bining colours, laid

down by

the process of painting, might look, at

like

a species of pictorial heresy.

But the duty

and the
solid

that

we have imposed upon

ourselves,

interests of the arts, oblige us,

on the most

grounds, to point out an error of a very serious

sketch would not

think, to the

Hogarth's dresses
costume.

now have much more resemblance, we should manners of our present race of travellers, than of the same period have to our present

USED IN THE ENGLISH SCHOOL.

343

nature in Sir Joshua's system of combining some

of his colours
;

and most probably that very error,

which has caused so much discoloration to some of

his finest

and

originally

most

effective pictures.

Our

readers will perceive that, in our quotation

from his notes on the combination of colours, Sir

Joshua frequently mentions " Orpiment," and that

we have marked the word

of

in italics for the

purpose

making these observations.

Now

it is

quite evi-

dent that orpiment, most probably the red sort,

realgar,

which

is

of a rich orange hue, was a faSir Joshua's palette,

vourite pigment
directs that
it
;

upon

and he

should be mixed with the usual sort

of white lead
ing, or

and he

chiefly

used

it

in either glazfirst

scumbling this colour upon his solid

painting.
in use
artists

The orpiments, red and

yellow, have been

;

from the

earliest times of this art

but the

of the great schools of painting appear to

;

have been aware of their injurious qualities

for

they

employed the orpiment alone, or

else

with ochres

and other colours, that do not act upon them, as

terra verte

and ultramarine

and there

is

not a

doubt but that the brilliant yellows which we see

in

some ancient
;

pictures, are preparations of orpi-

ment

but then they were laid on pure, without

;

any mixture of white lead

for these

two pigments

Q 4

344

METHODS OF PAINTING
when combined.
Speaking

are mutually destroyers

of the orpiments,

M. Merimee

says most justly,

(page 107) " It

is

easy (for a chemist) to perceive

that these colours

lead, nor with

must not be mixed with white

any of those colours into which lead

enters,

such as massicot, minium, muriate and

lead,

chromate of

and Naples yellow.

" For," he continues, " the sulphur in combination with the arsenic, having less affinity with this

metal than for

lead, lets the arsenic go,

and forms

a sulphuret of lead of a dark greyish colour."

in

And

a note M. Merimee adds,

"

It is probable that, after

some

time, the orpi;

inent takes

up the oxygen from the lead

this

would be an additional cause

the two colours."

for the darkening of

And
for,

this

is

precisely the mischief which has beartist

fallen the

works alluded to of this great

unhappily, he had no knowledge of chemistry,

by the aid of which he could at once have detected

and put a stop to those errors so
splendid works.
Sir Joshua also used too
fatal

to these

much asphaltum and a

;

preparation of
thickly with a

wax

at one time

and he

laid it

on

good deal of

vehicle, which,

after

some

time, opened in large

cracks.

The same

USED IN THE ENGLISH SCHOOL.

845

disadvantage has arisen in others of his pictures,

caused by painting or varnishing over his preparation

before

it

was quite dry, and using harder

materials than those underneath them.*

Orpiment
school
is
;

is

still

used to some extent in our

it

and so long as the contact of lead with

it will

avoided,

do good service for a colourist.

Asphaltum
attractive,
''scuro,

likewise, which, like orpiment, is very

in

both in aiding colour, and

chiaro

has some very practical advocates,

artists.

even

amongst our leading

their

It

is

hoped that
agency at

works

will

not be the worse for

its

some future

time.

With

respect to the methods and materials used

at present,

and which have been

artists,

for

some time

employed by our principal

they are only

modifications according to circumstances, of

of the materials*

many

and processes described by M.

'

Sir

Joshua Reynolds

tried his

new

speculations in colour

and

vehicle, painted

on panels or canvasses, which he kept by him

the sale of his things these "
;

many

years.

At

trial

boards" came

into the possession

afterwards at Mr. Christie's

2

and they were sold of Sir T. Lawrence some of the tints were discoloured. White or cream-coloured grounds, slightly absorbent, either on panel or cloth, have lately come much into use. This is a
:

great improvement.

dark grounds do in time, but aid the brilliancy of the

taking off the redundant
oil,

These grounds never devour the colour, as tint, by

&c.,

and give an evenness of tone by

U 5

346

METHODS OF PAIXTING
original version, of

Merimee, with the

ral of

which seve-

our Royal Academicians are acquainted.

But

as these essential parts of an artist's knowledge are

not extensively known in the profession, the president and members of the Royal Academy have,

much

to their honour, suggested and encouraged

its in-

the publication of this practical work, that

structive pages

may be open
it

to

all

who

practise

painting

and that
it

might not remain " a sealed

book," as
artists,

must have done, to a great many young

but for this circumstance.

leading painters of the English school use

The
a rich
tures,

full

pencil in the lighter parts of their pic-

and keep their shadows thin and transpaover this

full

rent

body of colour the various

glazings and scumblings are passed rapidly, to pre-

vent the surface being rubbed up

glazings,

upon these

&c.,

solid
;

colour

is

again applied, and

until the intended
skilful prac-

other glazes follow

effect is obtained
;

and so on,

and with the more

titioners there is little chance of not getting the

exact colour or tint required.

case, that in the

So much

is

this the

two fascinating portions of the

now

time.

Panels are always preferable to canvasses, but cannot

be procured of large dimensions, and are much dearer than primed

cloths.

USED IN THE ENGLISH SCHOOL.

art,

847
given to

"

effect

and colouring," the palm

is

the English school.

And

could the

fine,

correct,

and noble

style of

drawing, seen so conspicuously in the great Italian

masters'' works,

and

their elegant

and natural ideas

of composition, be added to these qualities, a school of arts near perfection would be the result
;

but such

a school of painting has never yet been seen in Europe.

The best French

artists are very able

and
well,

cor-

rect designers; they

draw the human figure

and

some of

their late pictures

show a decided advance

effect.

in composition, expression,

and

The German
in the higher

artists are also

making good progress

walks of

art.

But these

votaries of the graphic

muse are supported and encouraged handsomely

by their respective governments, and
they
are

proving themselves grateful and worthy of the just

aid they receive
;

they

will in

time return

its

value

to their respective countries, at least one hundredfold, for

the culture
in

now bestowed upon them.

this

But as we,

wealthy and enlightened

it

nation, have not any excitement of that kind,

would be rather too much to expect, that men

of high talents and manly feeling, should devote
their

best

energies and knowledge, to the pro-

duction of

works, by which they would not be

Q 6

348

METHODS OF PAINTING, &C.

enabled to maintain a respectable appearance in

society
;

although these works might afterwards

be looked upon with the greatest admiration, and

become a fortune to

their future possessors.

The truth
ever any

is,

that painters must hve, as well,

;

but not so expensively, as politicians

and when-

of the latter gentlemen shall lay

down

''their lives

and

fortunes"'"'

for the glory of their

country,

we pledge
There

ourselves that painters will be

found to emulate their glories, and to share in their

renown.
artists of

is

a capacity and a

spirit in

the

England, whether in painting, sculpture,

or architecture, able to achieve the greatest things

in their art,

provided, that those

who

hold the

destinies of the empire

and

its

revenues in their

hands, will only do their duty in this important

national concern.

CHAPTER

II.

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF HARMONY IN COLOURING.

This fascinating member
the artists of France
of the pictorial art, has

but of late excited particular attention amongst

;

and our readers have before

them the best

ing,

exposition of the theory of colour-

which we are aware has yet appeared on the

continent.

In the diagram of M. Merimee, the three

mitive colours,

pri-

and their three

duly

decided binaiy
in their natural

compounds, are
prismatic order
;

arranged

and

it is

most

likely this

arrange-

ment

is

an original one, as that author does not

refer to

any previous authority

relative to its in-

vention.

In this country, however, we have been engaged

in inquiries

on the theory of
in

colours,

and the

prin-

ciples

of

harmony

colouring, so far

back as

1766;

when Mr. Moses

Harris, the naturalist,

350

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF

author of the Aurelium, wrote and pubUshed a

small but clear

and

comprehensive

treatise

on

these portions of science, which he most satisfactorily

and

clearly

demonstrated by a circular
is

diagram, of which a figure

given,

and other
all

specimens of

its

application in the arts,

light
is

deduced

from Newton's Theory of

and colour.
so very scarce, that
it
;

This work of Mr. Harris

I

have never seen a copy of

but by good

for-

tune,

and no small

exertions, I

have had the

original
cisely

MS. under my
Phillips,

inspection \

and

it is

pre-

what Mr.
it

R. A., described

it

to be.

Were

not for the latter gentleman,

it is

proba-

ble that this small,

but clever and useful book,

might have been

lost to the world.

Mr.

Phillips fortunately
in
it

met with a copy of

it,

and finding

the corroboration of certain ideas

that he had on colouring, the professor introduced

the diagram and the theory into his course of

tures,

lec-

about

1827.

We

have

stated
is

that

M.
and

Merimee's arrangement of colours

his deductions

correct,

from them to explain the harmony

fair so far as

of colouring in pictures, are

they go,

and are satisfactory as to chromatic harmony:

It is in the

hands of

his grandson,

Mr. L, Harris.

HARMONY
in in

IN COLOURING.

851

Moses Harris's works, there

these
respects, as I hope to

is

no deficiency

show from Mr.

colouring,"

PhiUips's

eighth

lecture

" on

&c.

Having despaired
Harris's

of ever getting a sight of

Mr.

work,

requested permission from Mr.

extracts on this subject,

Phillips, to

make some

from

his published course of lectures, delivered at

the Royal Academy, to which the professor at

once kindly assented; and our readers

will

now

have an opportunity of observing the tw^o systems,

English and French, placed before them for the
first

time,

and

will

be thereby

fully

enabled to judge

of their merits.

Mr. Phillips says " coloured substances obtain

their hues

from

light,

and lose them when deprived

;

of

it.

Connect

this proposition with another

is

viz.

that shade, abstractedly considered,

in tone
;

always alike

and you

will

then perceive, that the same

tone

of darkness,
all

whatever

may

be

its

degree,

pervades

colours as they recede from the Hght,

to their complete union

and

total loss in

shadow.

"

We

may

arrive at the

same conclusion by a
;

more technical mode of proceeding

purpose of explaining
it,

and

for the

I lay before

you the inge-

nious diagram given in a work published

many years
of "

ago by Moses Harris, under the

title

The

352

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF
In the circular portion

Natural System of colours."

of this diagram, the prismatic colours, red, blue,

and yellow, are united, consonant with the system

of the rainbow, by orange, green, and purple, and
all

are graduated from the centre outwards, that

is,

from their utmost intensity to the

approaching to white
;

faintest tint

and those

tints are

marked

by a
the

scale of strength, say twenty-five, supposing

five

marked

circular spaces to contain five de-

grees each.

By

the central part of the diagram

it

appears,

very clearly, that the union of the three primitive

colours,

(as he well terms them,) red, blue,

and

yellow, in the pigments

we employ,
is

is

productive of

black, or a tone in

which there

a total privation

of

all

colour,

and which therefore assumes the per-

fect character of shade.'

Now,
in their

if

the union of the three primitive colours

utmost degree of intensity be productive of

it

perfect shade,

must be apparent that

their union

in fainter, but equal degrees of tint,

must be protone, in a

ductive of the

same negative colour or

'

In curious contradistinction of the effect of aerial prismatic

colours, the production of their union being white light.

theless they agree

Never-

in one point, viz. that each

is

a negation of

colour.

HARMONY

IN COLOURING.

853

degree consonant to that of the tints of the colours

employed, proving that which

that
will
all

I before stated, viz.

is

shade in every degree

like effect

aUke

in tone,

and

produce the
it.

on every coloured object

subjected to

These two points then,

truth of imitation of an
is,

actual colour, and unity of shade, I conceive to be

the firm, though simple basis of true colouring, in

its

primitive purity and simplicity, that

when

considered without regard to reflections, yet operating over these

tion,

when they are admitted

transmitted

for reflec-

being

hght

through

another

medium, but produces another colour upon the surface of the tions to the

body where

it

reaches

and

its

grada-

shadowed parts where

it

cannot reach

are subject to the

same law.
any single

" Thus

much

for the consideration of

colour and

its varieties, in
is

union with shade.

Our

next object

the union of the different colours

It

with each other.

appears,

from numberless
is

observations, that the

human eye

so constituted
derives plea-

with respect to colour, that though

it

sure from viewing each of the three primary colours

alone, yet if

two of these are introduced to

it

its

view together,
fication, the

then requires, for

its entire grati;

presence of the third also

and that

354

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF
in the eye
itself,

want causes a physical sensation

which, without mental agency, and in a manner

unknown to

us,

produces the third colour.

colours be united,
their union

For let those two

and the com-

pound colours formed by

be exposed to

the eye for a time, and then suddenly removed from

before
it,

the form of the figure in which the comwill

pound colour was exhibited

remain present to
:

the view, but tinged of the colour omitted

if

that
will
;

is,

the compound be pm^le, the spectrum

;

be

yellow

if

orange, blue

and

if

green, red

and

even while the original colours are singly before the

eyes, if regarded attentively,

each of them

will

be

seen surrounded by the compound of the other two.

This points out, I conceive, the physical source

of that pleasure which we derive from well arranged
colouring, and of those sensations of gratification or

of dissatisfaction which must have been frequently

experienced by every painter as he produced or

neglected the requisite unions of colours.

We

universally

acknowledge great dchght in

regarding the rainbow, and no one has yet dis-

covered an arrangement in colours more gratifying

to our eyes or to our understanding.

When

the three primary colours are placed be-

HARMONY

IN COLOURING.

355

fore us, our eyes accept the vision with a certain

degree of pleasure, but they are most gratified

when

the intermediate colours are properly intro-

duced, and the whole scale of the colours which

constitute a ray of light
is

presented to them.

This aiTangement, then, seems the most proper

for adoption

by the painter, as producing the most

of colours
;

pleasing concord

and we may

safely

conclude, therefore, that such an arrangement of

colours
is

the best adapted to our vision, and prois

duces just that order which

our eyes.

most acceptable to

In this we have one principle of harmony in colouring,

the

harmony of arrangement.
tliis is

It

may
it

perhaps be said, that

rather more according

:

with melody in music than with harmony

still

enters into those combinations for which in colour-

ing

we have no other name than harmony.

Consonance, or harmony of hue, consists in those

colours being brought together, which, though they

may

not be placed exactly in the regular order seen

in the

rainbow or

in the

chromatic scale, yet act in

accordance with each other upon the eye, and pro-

duce no uneasy sensations within

afford
it

it,

but rather

pleasure.

356

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF
in this portion of haris

There are two gradations

mony
said,

of colouring.

There

first,

as I have just

a certain degree of accordance between the

three primary colours

other.

when arranged beside each

compound

But, secondly, a more perfect accord ensues

of

when any two

upon the
in

them

are united, and the

placed beside the third, both evidently depending

relation they bear to the prismatic colours
light.

a ray of
It
is it

to the eye that colours address their power,

and
is

may

fairly

be assumed, that whatever colour

produced by the eye during the presence of

first

another colour, but seen most clearly when the

presented to
it is

removed, must have been required

its

by

it

to perfect

pleasure, and, therefore, that

such colour must be the harmonizing one with the

original colour, or that

which forms a union with

the other agreeable to the eye.

This we find accordant with experience.

The

primitive colour which harmonizes best with purple

is

yellow

with green, red

with orange, blue.

And
per-

again, that these are the colours which

fectly associate is proved,
it

most

appears to me, by their

union in any degree of tint producing a negative

colour,

and

in their

extreme intensity in black,

will do.

which the union of no two other colours

HARMOMY

IN COLOURING.

357

except such compounds as have relations similar to

theirs.

Another point

requisite to

produce hannony
it

is,

that the colours used to produce

be of the same
explain this I

degree of strength in the scale.

shall refer to

To

Mr. Harris's diagram.

fifth

Suppose we take a red at the

tensity,

degree of in-

and a green

at the twentieth, or a purple

at its extreme degree of power,

fifteenth,
it will

and a yellow

at the

not require

much argument to prove

;

their

want of

perfect accordance

but

if

you take

either of those unions of harmonizing colours at the

same degree, say the tenth or the

accepts their union as agreeable.
T

fifteenth, the

eye

have thus endeavoured to explain to you the

nature of the second principle of harmony in painting

;

there
:

is

still
is,

a third wanting to render

it

complete

that
all

unity of tone produced by the

colours being

\^Tought under the influence of the

same
its

illumination,

by which

mean a

light equal in

degree of intensity and of tone.

On

these three points, then, depends that agree-

able accordance of effect in the colouring of a pic-

ture which

we term

" harmony,"
;

viz. in

the order

of their arrangement

in the

employment of those
is,

accordant in their nature, that

equal in their

12

358
scale of

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF
hue or of
tint
;

and their being seen under

a like degree of illumination, unity of shade being

implied of course.

The next

point for consideration

is
it,

contrast of

colour; a principle, in

my

view of

opposed to
in

harmony, but creative of richness and vivacity

the effect of a picture.

Contrast

signifies

opposition

or discordancy

among
it,

things,

and in that sense

it

I prefer

employing

and confining

specifically to those oppositions

of colours which are discordant to the eye, as

now
has

commonly employed
no
specific

relative to colouring.

It

meaning, except as another term for

variety.
I

have already spoken of the colours, whose

effects

upon the eye unite agreeably, and when

;

placed beside each other produce harmony

as

yellow and purple, blue and orange, red and green,

in equal degrees of the scale
varieties,

throughout

all

their

and you

will find in

the diagram of

Mr.

Harris,

all

those colours which thus unite, stand

it,

opposite to each other in the circular portion of

and therefore have been miscalled "

contrasts.""

The

colours most strongly contrasting with each

other, are any

two of the three primitives which

stand triangular-wise in the diagram, as red, blue,

; ;

HARMONY

IN COLOURING.

359

&c., as they not only have distinct quahties, but

also have

no point of union, except

;

for

the produc-

tion of other colom-s

and when presented to the

uneasy sensation

eye together, they produce an

within
it.

It is the

same with orange and purple,

or orange and green \ though the contrasts they

form to each other are

of the primary colours
;

less

powerful than any two

all

and

further

compounds

of them, partake less and less of that character

such contrast

will

produce similar

effects in every

degree of the scale.

The

principles,

whereon depend the means pro-

ductive of good colouring,

when employed by the

unity in

man
hues

of genius, are truth in imitation of the actual

*

of the objects to be represented

their shade,

and consequently

in their half tint

There being too large a portion of yellow

in

combination with

the red and the blue employed, to produce the effect of a perfect

ray of light.
'

To

give the
tint,

mind
and

a clear view of the

tone,

meaning attached
to

to the

terms hue,

Mr. Phillips defines a hue

that

be the

positive colour of the object,

which distinguishes one from another, as red from blue, and blue from yellow, throughout
all

their

combinations.
its

tint

means the gradations

to
its

of

any

one colour from

extreme intensity
only
to the

faintest degree.

And

tone he would attach

efiect

produced by the
it

degree and colour of the illumination, and the shadows

duces.

pro-

360

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF
contrast

hannony of arrangement and of hue, with

and
reflection, to enrich

and invigorate them.

These regulations govern throughout every portion of the scale of colours,

from their

faintest to

their deepest tint, from the degree

employed

in the

sky,

and the most distant parts of a landscape, to

its

those employed on

foreground, and to the

still

stronger colours to which the portrait or the historical painter resorts, or the tive hues,

more

directly primi-

by which are represented the choicest

productions of the garden.

I

have thus, through the good feeling of Mr.

Phillips,

found myself at liberty to lay before

copious
extracts

my
and

readers

on that

beautiful

interesting quality in picture, "

ing,"

harmony of

colour-

as

understood not only theoretically, but

English school of painting, of
in

practically in the

which the best works

our exhibitions, give un-

deniable and often charming evidence.

This work
is,

(Mr.
in

Phillips's course of lectures

on painting,)

our opinion, one of the best treatises on the

in

"History and principles of painting"

the English

language, and ought to be in the hands of every

artist,

who wishes

to be guided by the
art,

most sound
drawing, or

principles of the

in invention,

HARMONY

IN COLOURING.

361
''scuro

design, composition, colouring,

and chiaro

',

or effect.

'

Of the exact meaning

no

of this term

it

is

difficult to

convey a

perfectly clear idea in our language to the general reader.

artists it requires

To

and shade" do not convey the true meaning, although these two qualities It means the whole effect which the principal form its basis.
translating.
light

Our words "

masses of light and their subordinates produce as opposed to the

medium and darker masses

of shadow.

CONCLUSION.

Having

reviewed the past and present state of

the arts in Britain',

1

we cannot

close this sketch

We

feel that an essential part of our duty would have been

strangely neglected, had

English
at this

we closed this outline of the history of art, without giving the names of as many as we can collect moment of the real admirers and promoters of the arts in Britain. Some of those estimable and enlightened noblemen and
arts
;

gentlemen are gone, and no longer promote the

but their
all

memories

will ever be held in grateful

remembrance by

those
the

who value

the advancement of the arts in Britain.

Amongst
felt
:

most recent of these friends of art, whose loss will be

sively, are the late

exten-

de Tabley (the

Dukes of Sutherland, and Buckingham Lord first who collected the works of native painters),
Earl Mulgrave,

the Earl of Egremont, Lord Farnborough (his lordship bequeath-

ed to the nation pictures valued at 10,000)

Lord Monson, Walter Fawkes,

the
first

Esq., of Farnely Hall

(who made
worth
;

great collection of water

to

colour

drawings), the Rev.

Hollwell Carr (who bequeathed

the nation pictures

25,000).
there are
forgotten.

many

but These are a few the memory just furnishes other names dear to the arts, whicii cannot be

We

are most fortunate

still

to

patrons, whose loss the arts

must deplore

have worthy successors to those who are to be seen

;

CONCLUSION.
of that important subject properly, without

36S

mak-

ing such of our readers as

may

not be aware of

the

fact,

acquainted

with a plan that was sug-

gested in 1809, "for the national encouragement

of painting in the united
in

kingdom
late

;""

it

originated

a conversation with the

late

Sir T. Barnard,

and the

Sir

Cr.

Beaumont, two directors of

the British Institution, and Sir

M. A.

Shee,

P.R.A.

The
those

president in

consequence, at the request of

gentlemen,

drew up the

plan,

which the

directors submitted to the then prime minister,

Mr. Perceval, who,

clined to take

after considerable

delay,

de-

any proceeding on the subject, the

still

country being at that time

dious and expensive war.

engaged

in a te-

The plan

alluded to

we have seen

we think

it

constantly in the walks of art, purchasing works of real talent,

and
its

in various

modes

assisting to raise the arts of their country to

proper eminence.

Need

it

be mentioned

that,

amongst the

foremost of these sincere friends of the

arts, are

their graces the

of

Dukes of Sutherland, Devonshire, and Bedford; the Marquesses Lansdowne and Westminster Earls Aberdeen, Essex, Normanton and Aylesford Lords F. Egerton and Northwick Sir T. Baring, Sir R. Peel, N. W. Ridley Colborne Messrs. T. H. and H. P. Hope, Samuel Rogers, C. B. Wall, M.P., Joseph Neeld, M.P.,
; ;

W.

Wells,

J.

All these

W. Thompson, Robert Vernon, Esq., &c. &c. &c. noblemen and gentlemen are directors or members of
R 2

the Royal British Institution, Pall Mall.

364

CONCLUSION.

would have been admirably adapted to the purpose,

and

it

is

a matter of serious regret to

find

us,

that

we cannot

room

in our " sketch" for the

:

greater part of this valuable document

all

that

can be done in this

case,

is

to give merely the

enumeration of the prizes intended to have been

instituted for this purpose.

There were three prizes proposed, to be divided

into three classes,

and decreed with public solem-

nity every third year.

The

first class to consist

of three prizes,

and

to

be appropriated to those who, by a noble application of their powers, should most successfully pro-

mote the cause of

religion

and morality, stimulate

the cause of public virtue, and commemorate the

glories of our country.

The second
subjects

class, three prizes, to

be devoted to

drawn from ancient

history, poetry, or ro-

mance

(these to be on a smaller scale.)

third class,

The

three prizes, to be devoted to

subjects of a

more miscellaneous character than

still

the foregoing, but

the subject must come

within the description of historic art.

Subjects of the

first

class, to

be chosen by the

artists themselves; each picture to contain at least

thirteen figures the size of

life,

and no picture to

CONCLUSION.
exceed the dimensions of the cartoons at
Court.

365

Hampton

The
2nd

first

prize of the first class to be 3000?.

;

prize, 2000?.

3rd prize, 1000?.

The
the

subjects of the second class to be chosen by

artists,

candidates

each picture to consist of

life)
;

at least seven figures (size of

if
;

on a smaller

scale, to consist of thirteen figures

no picture of

this class to be smaller

than the " Death of General

Wolfe," by West.

Of this
1000?.
;

class,

the

first

prize to be 1500?.

2nd,

and 3rd,

750?.

Subjects of third class to be chosen by artists,

candidates
;

the limitation as the second class, but

imrestricted as to the

number

of figures

being

intended to embrace
pencil, of

all

such productions of the

;

one figure or more

those
of

the size not to be

" Sacraments,"

smaller

than

the

by

Poussin.
First prize in this class, 750?.
3rd, 300?.
;

2nd, 500?.

and

A reward of 500?. each

candidates of the
prize.
first

to three

most deserving

class,

who have not got a

300?. to each of three unsuccessful candidates in

the second class.

R 3

366

CONCLUSION.

150?. to each of three unsuccessful candidates in

the 3rd

class,

who

shall

be judged most deserving.

The
nation
tion to

prize pictures to
;

become the property of the

to be presented as an honourable decora-

some of our churches,

;

palaces, or places of

public worship

the pictures to be publicly exhibited

at the British Gallery for two

months

a com-

mittee of the directors and of the Royal

to examine
all

Academy

the works offered for the prizes.

To
sident

supply the funds, 5000?. to be voted annually

pre-

by Government, under the management of the

and directors of the British
Institution.

This

sum

to be annually placed in the funds

at

the end of the third year the whole, with the interest, to

be applied to carry the object into

if

effect.

This plan was certainly calculated,

effect,

carried into

to arouse the higher

;

energies of British

genius

and perhaps some great statesman may yet

arise in our country, capable of properly estimating

the arts, and at the same time with eloquence to

persuade his opponents out of their

erroneous

opinions, or to enlighten their understandings in

these important concerns.

He

should also be en-

dued with an indomitable moral courage, and constancy in the promotion of those high interests, so

dear to civilization

he should be unawed by the

CONCLUSION.
vulgar clamour of party
spirit,

367
and despise the

drivelling of pseudo-economists, mindful only of his

country's prosperity

and honour.

We

are

far,

therefore, from despairing of the

:

ultimate triumph of high art in England

in every

other great pursuit, whether naval or military,

whether

in the

walks of elevated science, poetry, or

;

general literature

the intellectual, as well as the

moral and physical energies of the British people,

have shown themselves second
believe,
in

achievement,

we

to

none, and

superior to

many

nations.

'

Previous to Horace Walpole's " Anecdotes of Painting,"

it

1762-71,

appears as he states,

that, while the

French, Italian,

and German authors, had written numerous works in commendation

of the arts in those countries, " England, which does not

its

always err in vaunting

own

productions, has not a single vopainters."

lume

to

show on the works of

very different.

its

The

case

is

now

in

this respect

There have been two large editions of the " Anecdotes" published since that time,

the

last is

Dallawy's

also Edwards's

book

on the same subject.

to, at

The admirable

courses of lectures alluded

the Royal Academy, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, Barry, Opie,

West, Fuseli, and Sir M. A. Shee's Poem on Art, Mr. Northcote's

and Mr. A. Cunningham's

life

of Reynolds,

Mr. Beechey's edition

of Reynolds's works, &c., Mr. Hope's excellent work, Mr. Sydney

Taylor's, the firm and successful advocate for the preservation of

the

Ladye Chapel,

St.

Alban's Abbey, and above twenty of the

handsomest of our
"
tion,

city churches,

and of the splendid screen of

destrucof these

York Minster," which had been wantonly doomed to Mr. Offley's work on art, &c. &c. The works
artists

gentlemen have in some degree vindicated the cause of the arts

and of
from the mass of ignorance and misapprehension,

by which the public mind was long overshadowed with respect

368

CONCLUSION.
should
still exist,

Why any doubt

capabilities
difficult,

as to the national
it is

for excelling in the nobler arts,

for us impossible,

and

even to conceive

we may be

partial, perhaps, to
full

the character of our

native country, but until a

and

fair trial

of this

important question shall have determined that we

are wrong,

we must beg

leave

still

to maintain on

this national subject

our expressed opinions.

Amongst
arts, ai'e

other proofs of our advancement in the

societies of architects that

two

have been

established within

the last seven years.

One

is

denominated

"

The Architectural Society"

the other
is

(35,

Lincoln's -inn-fields);

called

"The

Institute of Architecture,"

and has

its sittings at

Brook-street, Grosvenor-square.

This latter has

a charter of incorporation
are self-supported.
"

both these societies

School of Design" has also been established

(1837) at the old rooms of the Royal Academy,

Somerset House.

This
;

is

supported by grants
object
is

from the public funds

its

to give in-

struction to the various

classes

of artisans

and

mechanics.
to the real state

and character of our native school

good example
will stimulate

and

it

is

hoped

that their

our

men

of litera-

ture generally, to look with the

same kind and true feeling upon the fine arts of their own country, as the same valuable class do in France, Germany, and other continental nations.

CONCLUSION.

369

There has also been formed, within a year or

two, a society called "
the

The Art Union

Society ;"

members

of which subscribe a
;

certain

sum

annually (one guinea, or upwards)

after

these funds,

paying the expenses, are devoted to the pur-

chasing of pictures, drawings, enamels, sculpture,

medals, or engravings.

Every member,

for

each

guinea subscribed,

is

to

have a chance of obtaining

;

one work at the annual drawing of prizes

to be selected out of

the work

any of the exhibitions by the

successful drawer of a prize.'

The

facilities for

acquiring sound instruction in the true prin-

ciples of art,

have also increased considerably.

three
for

The Royal Acaviz.

demy supports
Antique School,
in

schools

in

their

establisiiment,

the

studying from the best antique models, both

;

drawing and modelling

the Living

Model School,

for similar

purposes.

mitted

Into these two about twenty pupils are annually adand have the privilege of studying for ten years. The
is

Painting School

for the

more advanced students

in this school

they are instructed in copying some of the best pictures of the ditferent schools, by which they are enabled to acquire a correct know-

ledge of the mechanical processes and materials employed in the

good schools of art.

Besides these means of practical instruction,

;

there are five courses of lectures, likewise gratuitous

tiiese

are

given to the exhibitors as well as students.

The courses

are on

painting, sculpture, architecture, perspective, and anatomy.

The

professors

now
:

are Mr.

Howard, Sir Richard Westmacott, and

is

Mr. Wilkins
sent
;

the professorship of perspective

is

vacant at pre-

the course of anatomical lectures

delivered regularly by

Mr, Green, the professor. Every second year three prizes (gold medals) are given

one

370

CONCLUSION.
and architecsup-

in each of the higher schools of drawing, sculpture,

ture.

Out of

the gold medal

men one

is

selected to be sent to

Italy for three years; they are taken in rotation,

and each

is

ported those three years at the expense of the Academy.

When

the gold medals are bestowed, a

fifteen, are also

number

of silver medals,

not exceeding
class, viz.
:

given to the students, three in each

model, models in clay, also

drawings from the living

;

from the

life

drawings from an antique figure, or group, and

architectural
inter-

models of an antique figure or group, and for

drawings of some one of our public buildings
:

and in the

mediate years, five silver medals are given. The lectures and premiums are provided for entirely out of the funds of the Royal Academy. There are some other schools of instruction, but not of so complete a character as those of the Royal Academy. Mr. Sass is proprietor of one of these for elementary instruction in the principles

of the art, and in drawing from the antique.

There
dels

is,

likewise, the Living

Model Academy,
evenings.

in

Martin's-lane, where the study of the antique and the living

is

Upper St. moan indeof the

constantly carried on in the

This

is

pendent society, which was formed about seventeen years ago, near

Temple Bar
and
its

and numbered amongst

Its

its

members some

ablest artists of the British school.

terms are very moderate,

discipline similar to that of the

are, or were, also

Royal Academy.

There
appear

" Rustic Academies,"

to get

two or three places of study, termed and " Drapery Schools;" but they do not
as they tend to depress in-

much encouragement,

stead of elevating the taste of the students.

Nothing

fine

in

drawing, or elevated in character or sentiment, can be acquired

in places

where the clumsy and graceless figures and attitudes of and along with the
loss of

our costermongers, gypsies, fishmen and women, &c., are the

objects of study;

refinement in taste,
;

there

is

great danger of the feeling for good colour being injured

is

and there

no chance of even a tolerable knowledge of drawing

being acquired in these studios.

higher views of
schools
;

As

to subjects,

they afford no

but are very

human nature and action than the low Dutch much below them in all the mastery of the

painting tools and materials.

CONCLUSION.
The
affection

371

we bear

to the arts obliges us to point out those

;

very erroneous modes of study

these are not only our opinions,

but also those of the ablest artists of the British school.

was not by these modes of study that the artists now conspicuous in the British school acquired that knowledge and the
It

refined taste, which raised

them

to the

elevated positions wliere

:

they stand, whether in painting, sculpture, or architecture

in

every one of these departments, the young aspirants for professional distinction will find the best
qualities,

examples of
to imitate

talent,

and

social

which they would do well

and acquire. Let the

witli patient in-

pupils, therefore, eschew discontent,

and follow

dustry and good feeling, their laborious avocation, as the surest

and best means of attaining

profession.

to the highest

honours in their elegant

Besides the exhibition at the Royal Academy, there are two

others at the British Institution, Pall Mall
of the spring, for
;

one

in

the earlier part

new
is

pictures,

and one

in

the

summer

for old

paintings.
street,

There

also the British Artists' Gallery in Suffolk-

which opens

in April for three

months
;

and the old and

new

societies of

Water Colour Painters

is

each of these societies

has an annual exhibition, which

well attended.
is

The National
to the

Gallery, at Trafalgar-square,
first

open gratuitously
;

public on the four the

days

in

each week

and both here

and

at

summer

exhibition at the British Institution, artists

are allowed to copy the pictures under certain regulations.

Having now
some of which
sources

offered to the

British public the above facts

and

circumstances, connected with the arts, in a compendious form,

lie

scattered over the pages of

numerous volumes,
the best
his

whilst others are

produced for the

;

first

time, from

of information

the Author

respectfully

submits

labours to the indulgent consideration of his readers.

THE END.

LONDON
GILBERT

&

RIVINGTON, PRINTERS,
John's square.

ST.

s^^^^acv^c:

\_n

lllllllllllllllllllllllllllililllllil

3 3125 00003 0748

THE ART
OF PAINTING
IN

OIL

MERIMEE