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Journal of Animal Science Advances

Prospects of Utilizing Insects as Alternative Sources of Protein in Poultry Diets in Botswana: a Review
Moreki J. C., Tiroesele B. and Chiripasi S. C.

J Anim Sci Adv 2012, 2(8): 649-658

Online version is available on: www.grjournals.com

ISSN: 2251-7219

MOREKI ET AL.

A Review

Prospects of Utilizing Insects as Alternative Sources of Protein in Poultry Diets in Botswana: a Review
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Moreki J. C., 2Tiroesele B. and 1Chiripasi S. C.

Department of Animal Science and Production, Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana 2 Department of Crop Science and Production,Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana

Abstract
Feed costs account for nearly 70 to 80% of the total production costs as nearly all ingredients used in feed manufacturing in Botswana are imported. Therefore, complete feeds are expensive and out of reach of smallholder poultry farmers who lack economies of scale and access to credit. This makes the prospects of utilising insects as a source of protein feasible because they are available throughout the year. Insects have played an important role in human nutrition as a source of protein since time immemorial. Of all insects, only phane (Imbrasia belina) has been used as source of protein in poultry diets in Botswana. This work has shown that the nutrient composition of phane, grasshoppers, crickets and fly maggots compare favourably with major conventional protein sources such as fish meal, indicating that insect meals can partially or completely replace fish meal in poultry diets.The inclusion of insect meals in poultry diets is likely to lower the cost of feeds, thus contributing to the profitability of smallholder poultry production.Harvesting insects for use as feed ingredients will reduce damage in the crop fields, minimize the use of pesticides for management of pests and reduce environmental pollution. However, in utilizing insects as sources of proteins in poultry diets, the seasonality aspect, as well as, the presence of chitin which detrimentally affects protein digestibility must be considered. Further investigations on the nutritional composition of insects used for human consumption should be conducted with a view to utilizing them in livestock nutrition as well.

Keywords: Botswana, chitin, insects, fish meal, nutrition, protein, smallholder poultry

Corresponding author: Department of Animal Science and Production, Botswana College of Agriculture, Private Bag 0027, Gaborone, Botswana Received on: 24 Jul 2012 Revised on: 27 Jul 2012 Accepted on: 13 Aug 2012 Online Published on: 30 Aug 2012

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J. Anim. Sci. Adv., 2012, 2(8):649-658

PROSPECTS OF UTILIZING INSECTS AS ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF

Introduction Most developing countries are facing difficulties of acute shortage of animal protein that adversely affects the protein intake level of the countrys population resulting in malnutrition ( Das et al., 2009). As a result, insects are a good alternative as they are consumed all over the world (Melo et al.,2011). Insects have played an important role in human nutrition as a source of protein since time immemorial. Protein is a very important nutrient source in poultry diets and is useful in maintaining and repairing tissues for organisms to enable proper growth and development (Bondari and Sheppard, 1981). Melo et al. (2011) noted that several species of Orthoptera order, grasshoppers form part of the diet of some ethnic groups in all continents. Most edible insects are cheap, available and can provide a good source of protein and minerals needed to complement cereal-based foods consumed in the developing countries (Ifie et al., 2011). In the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, the larva of Oryctes monoceros is one of the insects that are commonly consumed raw, boiled, smoked or fried. Similarly, Mophane worms (Imbresia belina) form an important source of protein in human nutrition and to a lesser extent animal nutrition in Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. According to Womeni et al. (2012), the high cost of animal protein has directed interest towards several insects as potential sources of proteins for humans. The high cost and scarcity of feedstuffs particularly the protein sources such as soybean cake, groundnut cake and fish meal are the major factors militating against commercial poultry production (Adeniji, 2007). Feed constitutes approximately 75% of the variable costs in poultry production (Mupeta et al., 2003) or 70% of the total production costs of broiler meat (Teguia and Beynen, 2005). The demand for low cost poultry feed is high, due to the rising cost and limited supply of commercial feeds (Mupeta et al., 2003). Hassan et al. (2009) contended that the cost of feed ingredients has been steadily increasing due to growing number of poultry farms and feed compounding mills. In Nigeria, Ojewola et al. (2005) stated that the search for alternative protein sources of feed ingredients as a partial or complete
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substitute to fish meal, a conventional costly ingredient in poultry diets has been long and tortuous. Presently, the demand for feed grade fish and fish meal far exceeds availability. As a result, Gabriel et al. (2007) opined that locally produced feed using locally available ingredients will reduce the cost of production. Insects such as grasshoppers fly lava, corn crickets, field crickets and mophane worms (also locally known as phane) occur in good numbers in most parts of Botswana and could be easily harvested and utilized as protein sources in poultry diets. Of these, only phane has recently been utilized as a protein source in livestock feeds, indicating that there is limited information on the use of insects as alternative sources of protein in livestock diets in Botswana. Therefore, this work endeavours to draw attention to the nutritional value of insects as constituents of poultry diets in smallholder poultry production. Nutritional value of some selected insects Mopane worms The Mophane caterpillar is the larval stage of the Mophane moth, Imbresia belina (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). The mophane caterpillar derives its name from the host plant, Colophospermum mophane and feeds on its leaves (Motshegwe et al., 1998). These caterpillars of the emperor moth emerge in southern Africas summer, a time when other staples can be in short supply. Dried, stewed, smoked or fried, the insects are a popular delicacy (Vogt, 2010).Traditionally, phane used to be an important food source mainly for north-eastern Botswana. However, phane is now consumed all over Botswana and has become a much sought after delicacy in southern Africa (Motshegwe et al., 1998) and are among the cheapest sources of animal protein in most African countries. As an important food source for the people of Botswana and other ethnic groups in southern Africa, phane has attracted some attention, especially with regard to its nutritional value (Motshegwe et al., 1998). The nutritive value of phane is summarised in Table 1. Mophane worms are commonly used as relish and snacks, especially
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among the malnourished, immunosuppressed, pregnant and nursing populations (FAO, 2004). According to Madibela et al. (2007) and Yen (2009), phane can also be used as an animal feed, especially in Botswana where there is inadequate supply of animal protein for livestock feeds. Animal proteins have higher nutritive value than plant proteins because the former have larger amounts of essential amino acids required by poultry (Yen, 2009).
Table 1: Chemical composition of phane meal Nutrient (units) Content Crude Protein (%) 55 Ash (%) 5.8 Neutral Detergent Fibre (%) 27.8 Acid Detergent Fibre (%) 16 Acid Detergent Lignin (%) 5.2 Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen (%) 0.9 Fat (%) 16.7 Potassium (mg/g) 35.2 Calcium (mg/g) 16.0 Phosphorus (mg/g) 14.7 Magnesium (mg/g) 4.1 Iron (mg/g) 12.7 Zinc (mg/g) 1.9 Sodium (mg/g) 33.3
Source: Headings and Rahnema (2002); Madibela et al. (2009)

Botswana heavily relies on imported fishmeal as a source of animal protein in livestock diets. Fishmeal is imported from neighbouring countries such as South Africa and Namibia at high expense.

Though seasonal, phane is a more readily available and cheaper source of animal protein. Mophane worms contain higher protein, fat, carbohydrate and mineral content than beef and chicken (Table 2). According to Siame et al. (1989) and Madibela et al. (2007), phane contains about 50% crude protein (CP) and is abundant in the wilderness during its season of availability. Madibela et al. (2009) reported that degutting improves the CP concentration of the phane by 10%. According to the workers, the mineral content of phane differs with location. For example, phane from Maunatlala, Moreomabele and Sefophe in Botswana had ash contents of 54.94, 48.43 and 44.60 g/kg dry matter (DM), respectively. The differences in ash content may be attributable to differences in soil types in different locations which influence the organic component of the mophane tree leaves on which the worms feed. Furthermore, the different processing methods influence the mineral content of phane i.e. salting vs. not salting and roasting. Salting increased the mineral content of phane from 48.46 to 50.19 g/kg DM while roasting increased mineral content to 61 g/kg DM (Madibela et al., 2009). Phane contains chitin, a component or the outermost part of the worm, which forms 27% of the dry weight (Sekhwela, 1989; Ohiokpehai et al., 1996). Chitin physically blocks the access of digestive enzyme to hydrolyze protein and lipid, thus affecting the utilization of these nutrients (Mahata et al., 2008).

Table 2: Comparison of nutritive value of phane and other animal protein sources Protein source Crude protein, % Fat, % Carbohydrate, % Calcium, % Beef 22 8 0 0.016 Chicken 20.5 6.5 0 0.010 Mopane worms 56.8 16.4 13.8 0.458 Fishmeal 65.5 4.1 0 4.07
Source: Akpalu et al. (2007); Jurgens (2002)

As shown in Table 2, phane has higher crude fat content than beef and chicken. Motshegwe et al. (1998) reported that the oil from phane is much more like unsaturated seed oil than a typical fat. Furthermore, phane is a better source of linolenic and linolenic acids than many other food sources. Pharithi et al. (2004) stated that the percentage ratio
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of total unsaturated fatty acids to total saturated fatty acids in phane is 57:40 with -linolenic acid being the single most abundant unsaturated fatty acid. The authors stated that fatty acid composition differs with stage of growth of phane with the highest unsaturated to saturated fatty acid ratio of 71:25 attained at the third instar stage of growth.

PROSPECTS OF UTILIZING INSECTS AS ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF

Recently, Mareko et al. (2010) found that broilers which were fed different levels of phane had different levels of K, Na and P in the meat. Meat from birds fed diets containing 40% phane had higher mineral content (1.57% K, 0.008% Na and 2.57% P) than those fed 20% (1.52% K, 0.006% Na and 2.39% P). Grasshoppers Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) and most other Acrididae family members have high nutritive value and are most utilized by people to significantly improve the peasants diet (Blsquezet al., 2012). Most edible insects are collected in the wild. In Mexico, for instance, farmers collect young grasshoppers from their maize and alfalfa fields, where they would otherwise do damage (Vogt, 2010). Anand et al. (2008) reported that protein content of acridids ranges from 60 to 66% and Blasquezet al. (2012) from 43.9 to 77.1%. The protein content of acridids compares favourably with that of soybean meal (48%) and fish meal (50 to 55%) (Anand et al. 2008). In addition, acridids have a good amount of calories (4.5 to 7 kcal/g), total fat (6 to 7.5%), total carbohydrate (3.6 to 7.5%) and mineral contents. Because of their high nutritional value and ubiquitous presence; acridids present a potential sustainable food resource in animal nutrition. Also, harvesting food acridids from croplands will minimize the use of pesticides for management of pest acridids and reduce the environmental pollution (Anand et al., 2008). It is estimated (Ojewola and Udom, 2005) that grasshopper has DM content of 91.67%, 28.13% CP, 2.38% crude fibre (CF), 9.97% ash, 4.18% ether extract (EE) and 1618 Kcal/g gross energy (GE). Also, Ojewola et al. (2005) found DM content of grasshopper to be 97.17%, CP (35.67%), CF (1.06%), EE (15.86%), ash (6.02%) and GE (1917 kcal/kg). On the other hand, Hassan et al. (2009) reported DM, CP, CF, EE, ash and nitrogen free extract (NFE) contents of grasshopper to be 94.23%, 53.58%, 9.21%, 26.52%, 4.31% and 6.40%, respectively. Furthermore, Melo et al. (2011) found that grasshopper contains 71.5% CP, 5.75% lipids, 2.50% minerals, 3.89% CF and 16.36% NFE on a DM basis. These findings
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indicate that the protein content of grasshopper varies widely (28.13 to 53.38%) probably due to stage of growth and locality. Bernard et al. (1997) mentioned that EE is highly variable among invertebrate species, ranging from 4-55% on a dry matter basis and that it may vary substantially within a species depending on developmental stage. Many insects accumulate fat during larval development, and two of the most commonly utilized insects in zoos are larval forms, mealworm larvae and wax moth larvae. The authors contended that if these larvae constitute a substantial part of the diet, they may present a disproportionately high fat content, leading to excess energy intake relative to other essential nutrients. There is growing interest in the use of insects as protein source in diets of farm animal genetic resources due to high expense of conventional animal protein sources. Hassan et al. (2009) fed 0%, 50% and 100% grasshopper meal to broiler chickens and concluded that grasshopper meal can replace significant quantity of fish meal in broiler diets. Similarly, Njidda and Isidahomenl (2010) fed rabbits diets containing 0, 1.25, 2.50, 3.75 and 5% grasshopper meal and observed that carcass characteristics showed significant differences among treatments (P<0.05) for slaughter weight, carcass weight, dressing percentage, skin pelt, tail, feet and abdominal fat. Also, the slaughter weight and carcass weight were better in groups receiving 2.5% grasshopper meal (50% fish meal replacement). Crickets Previous studies indicate that crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae, Rhaphidophoridae) play a role in human nutrition. In West Africa, some children dig the brown crickets (Brachytrypes membranaceus L.) from their holes in the fields, roast and eat them. Crickets come out of their holes at night when they can be picked life. DeFoliart et al. (1982) reported that corn cricket (Anabrus simplex Haldeman) had a mean dry weight (males and females combined) of 1.08 g and CP content of 58%. Furthermore, the CP content of B.membranaceuswas 25.8 and 32.4% for females and males, respectively. Additionally, the
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carbohydrate for males was lower (489 g/kg) than that of females (548 g/kg). The fat content for males and females were 32 and 53 g/kg, respectively and fibre content for males and females 85 and 80 g/kg, respectively (Adeyeye and Awokunmi, 2010). According to Mayhew and Macmillan (1998), the protein and fat contents of locusts are 490 to 610 and 100 to 180 g/kg, respectively. Adeyeye and Awokunmi (2010) also worked on the proximate compositions of field cricket (Brachytrypes membranaceus L.) and found the CP to be 324 and 258 g/kg for males and females, respectively while carbohydrate was 489 and 548 g/kg for females and males, respectively. The energy content of cricket meal ranged from 15 MJ (male) to 16 MJ (female) which compared favourably with the cereal value of 13 - 16 MJ/kg. Also, the Fe content is 31100 mg/kg. Brachytrypes membranaceus is a good source of Zn (515 - 1032 mg/kg), K (746 - 1122 mg/kg), Na (1037 2226 mg/kg) and P (10880 10936 mg/kg).The authors concluded that B. membranaceus was a good source of protein, carbohydrate and energy,and minerals (major and trace). Finke et al. (1985) evaluated the protein quality of Mormon crickets (Anabrus simplex Haldeman) in broiler chick diets and found that the corn cricket diet compared favourably with a corn-soybean meal diet with no significant differences in weight gain or feed/gain ratios. Previously, DeFoliart et al. (1982)

fed corn-cricket to broilers and found that corn cricket-based diets produced significantly better growth of broiler chicks than was produced by a conventional corn-soybean based diet. Similarly, Nakagaki et al. (1987) incorporated dried house cricket meal into practical diets replacing soybean meal as the major protein source and reported no significant differences in weight gain between chicks fed corn-soybean meal diet and those fed cricket diets. However, feed ratios improved significantly when diets were supplemented with methionine and arginine, indicating that these were probably limiting. The study by Wang et al. (2005) on the nutritional value of field cricket (Gryllus testaceus) as poultry feed. As shown in Table 3, field crickets have 58.3% CP on a dry basis. Also, fat and, thus energy content was higher in field crickets compared to soybean meal, meat and bone meal, and fishmeal. The chitin content of this insect was 8.7%. Ifie et al. (2011) found that larva of O. monoceros had 36.45% CP (dry weight), 34% crude fat, 10.5% CF and 4.0% ash contents. The ash contained 440.0 mg/100 g, 175.0 mg/100 g, 85.00 mg/100 g and 38.40 mg/100 g of Na, Mg, Fe and K, respectively. The protein digestibility was found to be 58.05%. These values indicate that insect larva could serve as an alternative source of protein and other nutrients supplement in human and animal diets.

Table 3: Comparison of chemical analysis of field cricket and other feedstuffs (g/100 g, dry matter basis) Content (%) Proximate analysis Ash Chitin Fat Crude protein Field cricket 2.96 8.7 10.3 58.3 Fish meal 12.51 4.11 60.2 Meat and bone meal 31.65 8.47 48.5 Soybean meal 6.13 1.84 46.8
Source: Wang et al.(2005)

Wang et al. (2005) compared the total amino acid profiles for field cricket to fishmeal and found that amino acids percentages of field cricket were higher than those of fishmeal. Lysine, methionine and cysteine were 4.79%, 1.93% and 1.01%, respectively in field cricket compared to 4.51%, 1.59% and 0.49% respectively in fishmeal. These values indicate that field crickets could be excellent source of protein in poultry diets. The authors also
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found that field crickets had good amounts of digestible amino acid for poultry. The average total amino acid digestibility coefficient of field cricket was higher (92.9%) than that of fish meal (91.3%) showing that in addition to high protein content, it also has good amounts of digestible amino acids. The amino acid composition of B. membranaceus samples also showed that total essential amino acids were comparable to those of milk, beef and eggs

PROSPECTS OF UTILIZING INSECTS AS ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF

(Adeyeye and Awokunmi, 2010). Furthermore, the total essential amino acid was reported to be higher in all the cricket samples ranging from 288.5 to 339.7 mg/g protein (with histidine) and 267.9-316.8 mg/g protein (without histidine). These results compare favourably with the total essential amino acid values found in cows milk, beef and eggs, indicating that B. membranaceus is a good source of protein, carbohydrate, energy and minerals. Fly maggots Maggots (Diptera: Muscidae) can be obtained from housefly (Musca domestica) and then prepared into poultry meal, which is called maggot meal or magmeal. The advantages of utilizing maggot meal in poultry nutrition are recycling of poultry waste

(El Boushy, 1991) and sustainable environmentally friendly management of poultry wastes (Akpodiete et al., 1998). Several studies have shown that maggot meal is of high nutritive value. For instance, the percentage of lipids in maggots ranges from 12.5 to 21%, and CF from 5.8 to 8.2% (Ogunji et al., 2006). The CP for maggot meal ranges from 37.5% (Ogunji et al., 2006) to 40-61.4% DM (Teotia and Miller, 1973; Spinelli et al., 1979; Ajani et al., 2004). Olele (2011) showed that maggots have 44.5% CP, 10% ash and 24% lipid, whereas Aniebo et al. (2008) showed that maggot meal contains 47.1% CP, 25.3% fat, 7.5% CF and 6.25% ash at DM level of 92.7%.

Table 4: Amino acid composition and coefficient of apparent digestibility of maggots and soybean meal (SBM) for broiler chickens Composition (%) Coefficients Amino acids Maggots SBM Maggots SBM Crude protein 63.996.81 44.607.15 0.9850.002 0.9800.001 Essential amino acids 29.460.21 18.340.24 0.9480.002 0.9240.002 Arginine 3.630.12 3.670.23 0.9560.001 0.9390.001 Histidine 1.980.35 1.150.13 0.9370.003 0.9010.002 Isoleucine 1.460.17 1.760.12 0.9220.001 0.9330.001 Leucine 5.220.18 3.260.31 0.9470.002 0.9270.002 Lysine 5.220.18 2.540.15 0.9760.006 0.9270.001 Methionine 2.340.20 0.700.26 0.9560.003 0.9300.003 Phenylalanine 3.570.35 2.310.17 0.9680.002 0.9470.002 Threonine 2.270.11 1.760.18 0.9330.001 0.8930.004 Tryptophan 3.170.16 0.100.20 0.9390.001 0.9320.005 Valine 2.920.25 1.090.11 0.9450.003 0.9110.002 Non-essential amino acids 28.220.22 16.590.27 0.9470.002 0.9220.001 Alanine 4.850.15 3.010.13 0.9570.004 0.9380.003 Aspartic acid 2.210.21 3.230.17 0.9320.002 0.9510.001 Cysteine 0.420.15 0.360.20 0.9270.001 0.8760.002 Glutamic acid 5.710.15 1.750.18 0.9510.001 0.9120.001 Glycine 3.270.13 3.680.11 0.9550.002 0.9320.002 Proline 1.580.14 1.550.17 0.9340.003 0.9010.003 Serine 5.630.22 1.810.30 0.9560.004 0.9250.001 Tyrosine 4.550.17 1.200.14 0.9610.002 0.9380.002
Source: Hwangbo et al. (2009:611)

In Nigeria, Okah and Onwujiariri (2012) found that maggot meal contains 44.44% CP, 1.84% CF, 9.76% EE, 14.29% ash, 16.81% NFE, 0.03% Ca and 0.05% P. In addition, Ogunji et al. (2006) found that maggot meal contains 36 to 61.4% CP, 12.5 to 21% lipid and 5.8 to 8.2% CF, indicating that
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maggot meal is of high biological value. Other studies by Ajayi (1998), Adesulu and Mustapha (2000) reported 61.4% CP, 12.5-21% lipid, and 0.93-11% ash in maggot meal. The amino acid profile showed that maggot meal contains 17 amino acids among which are nine essential amino acids
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with tryptophan not identified (Aniebo et al., 2008). Furthermore, lysine and methionine were found to be higher in the maggot meal (6.04% and 2.28%, respectively) compared to other conventional protein sources including fish meal. Odesanya et al. (2011) found slightly lower Lysine (5.03%) and methionine (2.58%) values. Table 4 summarises the amino acid composition and coefficient of apparent digestibility of maggots and soybean meal (SBM) for broiler chickens. Proximate analysis of maggot meal in a study by Odesanya et al. (2011) indicated 86.0 0.47% moisture content, 10.03 0.44% ash content, 5.89 0.05% CF, 48.0 CP, 31.76 0.02% crude fat, 3755 190 kcal/kg energy. Fatty acids profile showed lauric acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid and stearic acid to be 69.92%, 2.09%, 15.25% and 12.75%, respectively. The variations in CP of maggot meal can be related to the quality of poultry droppings or food given to maggots (Fasakin et al., 2003) and differences in processing, drying and storage methods. Maggot meal is rich in phosphorus, trace elements and B complex vitamins (Teotia and Miller, 1973). Fashina-Bombata and Balogun (1997) and Ajaniet al. (2004) showed that the nutritive value of maggot meal compared favourably with that of fish meal. It was concluded that maggot meal can replace up to 100% of fish meal in the diets of Nile tilapia (O. niloticus). According to FashinaBombata and Balogun (1997), 1 kg maggot meal is 20% cheaper to harvest and process than 1 kg of fish meal. Maggot meal protein was used in the study by Spinelli et al. (1979) in the diets of rainbow trout and it was found that it boosted growth and feed conversion levels equivalent to fish meal at substitution levels ranging from 25 to 100%. In a similar study, Okah and Onwujiariri (2012) evaluated the performance of finisher broilers fed maggot meal as a replacement for fish meal in a 35 day trial. Diets were formulated such that maggot meal replaced fish meal at 0, 20, 30, 40 and 50%. The results showed that feed intake and feed conversion ratio of birds on maggot meal were superior to commercial diet. The authors found that the replacement of a 4.0% dietary fish meal in finisher broiler chickens diet with 50% maggot
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meal gave superior performance characteristics to the basal diet, and was a more economical option. Hwangbo et al. (2009) in South Korea fed male broiler chickens either a basal diet or the basal diet supplemented with 5.0, 10.0, 15.0 and 20.0% maggots and found that maggots significantly increased dressing percentage, breast muscle, and thigh muscle (P<0.05). Additionally, in the maggotfed broilers, breast muscle lysine and tryptophan levels increased significantly (P<0.05) compared to the birds fed the basal diet. The authors concluded that feeding diets containing 10 to 15% maggots in chicken dropping after biodegradation can improve the carcass quality and growth performance of broiler chickens. In another study, Adeniji (2007) fed diets containing 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% maggot meal to broilers and reported that maggot meal could replace up to 100% of dietary groundnut cake level in the diets of broilers without adverse effect on performance. Again, Akpodiete et al. (1998) determined the replacement values of maggot meal for fish meal in diet of laying chickens and concluded that maggot meal can nutritionally and productively replace fish meal in layer diet without adverse consequences on performance and egg quality characteristics. The authors also found that egg yolk cholesterol and calcium concentration significantly (P<0.05) declined with increased inclusion of maggot meal in layin g chickens diet, suggesting that the use of maggot meal in poultry diets may reduce cholesterol intake through consumption of eggs. Hawk moth caterpillar (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) The Hawk moth (Agrius convolvuli L.) caterpillar commonly known as monakamongwe in Botswana is a larva of the Hawk moth. The very characteristic larvae are smooth and bear a short upright horn at the end of the abdomen (Picker et al., 2004). The name monakamongwe is derived from the short upright horn. The caterpillars of this insect are a natural resource to many people in Botswana because it is regarded as a highly nutritious food source, especially to the rural populace. Usually, A.convolvuli larvae which is available during the rainy season (i.e., October to January) derives its nutrition from leaves of

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creeping plants. To date, no studies have been done to document the nutrient composition of A. convolvuli insect larva. Therefore, more work has to be done focusing on the multidimensional aspects of hawk moth nutrition. Availability of insects Table 5 shows the availability of insects during theyear. Melo et al. (2011) stated that the availability of insects may change according to biotic and abiotic conditions of the environment. In Botswana, grasshoppers and crickets are available for 10 months, i.e., from August to May and absent in winter months of June and July (Table 5). On the other hand, maggots are available throughout the year. However, their population is likely to decline during winter season.

From Table 5, it is apparent that phane is available from November to May. This finding is consistent with Ditlhogo (1996) who stated thatphane is bivoltine, i.e., it produces two generations per rainy season annually. The first generation appears from October/November to December/January and the second generation is from February/March to April/May. On the other hand, Mpuchane et al. (2000) reported that the two generations of phane occur in December/January and April/May for first and second generations, respectively. Mareko et al. (2010) also mentioned that depending on the availability of rain, a second small crop of phane may also be expected from April to May. A.convolvuli larvae are available during the rainy season, i.e., October to December. However, the numbers of A.convolvuli larvae appear to be declining.

Table 5: Availability of insects during the year in Botswana Species Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Grasshopper X X X X X Crickets X X X X X Maggots X X X X X X Phane X X X X X Hawk moth
Source: Ditlhogo (1996); (Mpuchane et al. (2000); Mareko et al. (2010)

Jul

Aug X X X

Sept X X X

Oct X X X X

Nov X X X X X

Dec X X X X X

Conclusion References Due to their high nutritional value and ubiquitous presence, insects are a potential sustainable food resource in animal nutrition. It appears that the utilization of insects as alternative sources of protein is feasible in Botswana, especially under smallholder poultry production practised by resource-poor farmers who cannot afford expensive compounded poultry feeds. Therefore, producing feeds using locally available ingredients will reduce the cost of production. Furthermore, promoting cultivation and improved preservation techniques will ensure a regular and good source of income for people who grow these insects not only for their utilization in poultry feeds but also for their own consumption. As insects are generally easy to cultivate, it is important to conduct further investigations on new methods of gathering, producing and processing.
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