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Factors Which Affect the Teaching and Learning of English in the Anglophone Caribbean
Factors Which Affect the Teaching and Learning of English in the Anglophone Caribbean
Hassan Basarally
806007430
Principles, Approaches and Methods in Teaching English in the Caribbean- EDLA 3111
Semester 2, 2008-2009
The Anglophone1 Caribbean region poses a unique linguistic situation and with it unique
challenges which affect the teaching and learning of English. The term English refers to the
Standard English2 that has been adopted as the official language of the territories. Language
learning is affected by different factors: teaching factors, learning factors and sociolinguistic
factors. Factors that affect English language learning are the multilingual nature of the region,
Lexicon creoles in Grenada, French Lexicon creoles in St. Lucia and Dominica and Neo Indian
creoles such as Garifuna in Belize. In addition Trinidad and Tobago has a Trinidad English
Creole and Tobago English Creole. In addition, the creoles3 spoken are the first language to the
majority of the student and teacher population. The result is that English was taught as a native
language to an audience who in reality has it as a second language. The student in the region is
different to other non native learners of English as the Creoles share the lexicon and many
aspects of the structure of English. Hence, Robertson (1995), disapproves of the second language
label, so “bi dialetalism” (Nero, 2000, p. 501) could be used or “linguistic schizophrenia” (p. 20).
The fact that the region can be classified as multilingual, bi dialectal etc. has implications for the
nature of language acquisition. Simmons-McDonald and Robertson (2006) hold that cognitive
development is hindered when first language is ignored, ease of second language acquisition is
dependent of first language competence and “initial literacy is best acquired in the first
language”4. Despite these linguistic realities language teaching and learning in the region has
been mostly monolingual in the official language, there is complete immersion in English in the
classroom with no use of Creole. The result is that teachers fail to apply appropriate second
language learning techniques and theories in the classroom. Development of skills in all domains
Hassan Basarally 806007430 EDLA 3111 Ms. Jaggernauth 3
of language is sought, i.e. reading, writing, speaking and listening. It cannot be achieved as the
Language attitudes of the teacher determine classroom practices and shapes student
perception of language. Attitudes are a result of language awareness of teacher, student and
society at large. In the region, language awareness is responsible for an individual’s perception of
Creole in the classroom. For a long time in the history of the education system in the region, the
creole speaking students were considered “linguistically and cognitively deprived, and
consequently low in mental ability” (Craig, 2006, p. 11). As a result of this mentality, teachers
were not motivated to use Creole in language learning and attempts were made to eradicate
Creole from the classroom. Teachers may also have no training in dealing with classes whose
students are Creole speakers or even sufficient knowledge of English. Parents also, view
education including creole as hampering learning of English. This impacted on the language
learning ability of students as the most effective teaching is done in the students’ first language.
Robertson (1995), states that “the linguistic norm for transmission of cultural items which
distinguish the Caribbean is therefore, non-standard” (p. 20). Also not utilising the creole as a
method of instruction denies the child the right to be taught in the first language.
Student language awareness and attitude determines the intrinsic motivation to learn
English. The presence of the creole continuum affects students’ motivation to learn English. The
continuum holds that decreolisation takes place and a creole moves towards the standard. This
means that there is a basilect which is farthest from the standard, a mesolect in the middle and an
acrolect close to the standard. As many students use English based creoles there is no perception
that the creole is very different from the standard. In addition, Barbadian English Creole and
Trinidad English Creole are acrolects, making students think there is even less difference. The
student is unaware of the phonological difference between English and Creole, e.g. the Creole
Hassan Basarally 806007430 EDLA 3111 Ms. Jaggernauth 4
use of [d] instead of [ɵ] as in ‘dis’ instead of ‘this’. Or syntactic differences, e.g. the placing of
the negative particle before the verb phrase or noun phrase as in ‘No woman like no poor man’
while English has it before the verb phrase alone. In addition the region has a high instance of
code switching and varilingualism. This has students interchanging the use of Creole and English
depending on the situation, many times incorrectly. Students are only required to utilise English
for examination purposes, hence everyday use is minimal. As communication with peers and
other members of the society can be conducted in Creole, English learning is deemed purely
academic. This attitude is not helped by various education ministries having no language policy,
or even recognising the multilingualism of the territories. This is now changing g with territories
such as Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica and St. Lucia utilising Creole in the classroom. However,
the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) allows optional Creole use in a limited role in
creative writing, showing that Creole is still of little importance. Due to the close resemblance of
the Creole and English, the bi dialectal term can be applied. In addition, the superficial similarity
between the creole and English causes teachers great difficulty in presenting the features of
English that must be learnt as different from that of the students’ language.
The Anglophone Caribbean is multilingual, with English being the official language and
Creoles occupying first language status. Stigmatisation of Creoles has led to attempts at its
removal from classroom. In addition, teacher knowledge of the similarities and differences
between English and Creole hamper effective teaching. Student motivation is affected by the
closeness of English and the Creole, seeing no distinction and the limited functional use of
English in life; students assume they already speak English. These factors compose the main
Works Cited
Hassan Basarally 806007430 EDLA 3111 Ms. Jaggernauth 5
Craig, D. (2006) Language teaching & literacy to Caribbean students: From vernacular to
Nero, J. S. (2000). The Changing Faces of English: A Caribbean Perspective. TESOL Quarterly,
34 (3), 483-510.
Robertson, I. (1995) Teaching the official language (english) in the caribbean: some
perspectives.
Endnotes
1The Anglophone Caribbean is both a political and linguistic demarcation. Politically, it refers to
British territories or now associated states, independent nations or republics. Linguistically, it
refers to territories whose official language is English; in addition it refers to territories that have
the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) as the regional examinations body. The territories are:
Anguilla, Antigua/Barbuda, Barbados, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica,
Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts/Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent/Grenadines,
Trinidad/Tobago and Turks/Caicos.
2There exists in the region several English lexicon Creoles in addition to English, hence the need to
classify English as Standard English.
3Creoles, in this sense, can be defined by Nero (2000, p. 486) as “a combination of phonology,
morphology and syntax of West African and other ethnic languages, with the largest contribution
to the lexicon coming from British English”.
4This is also held by Craig (1977), Simmons-McDonald (1996) and Shields-Brodber (1997).