TREE Teaching and Research in Engineering in Europe Special Interest Group B5 "Problem based and project oriented learning"

; SIG Leader: Selahattin Kuru, Isik University

Problem Based Learning

Latest update, 10.08.07

Problem Based Learning

Contributors: Anette Kolmos, Aalborg University (Denmark) Selahattin Kuru, Ik University (Turkey) Hans Hansen, Vitus Bering University College (Denmark) Taner Eskil, Ik University (Turkey) Luca Podesta, University of Rome La Sapienza (Italy) Flemming Fink, Aalborg University (Denmark) Erik de Graaff, Delft University of Technology (The Netherlands) Jan Uwe Wolff, Vitus Bering University College (Denmark) Ahmet Soylu, Ik University (Turkey)

ABSTRACT This report discuss Problem-Based and Project-Based Learning (PBL) as an approach to meeting the demand for the educational requirements of the next generation engineering graduates. The report is prepared as the final report of the Special Interest Group (SIG) B5 of the Erasmus Thematic Network Project TREE (Teaching and Research in Engineering Education) on ProblemBased and Project-Based Learning. In engineering education there is a shift in emphasis from professional skills to process skills. These skills include problem analysis and problem solving, project management and leadership, analytical skills and critical thinking, dissemination and communication, interdisciplinary competencies, intercultural communication, innovation and creativity, and social abilities. PBL is an instructional method that challenges students to "learn to learn," working cooperatively in groups to seek solutions to real world problems. These problems are used to engage students' curiosity and initiate learning the subject matter. PBL prepares students to think critically and analytically, and to find and use appropriate learning resources. PBL is both a curriculum and a process. The curriculum consists of carefully selected and designed problems that demand from the learner acquisition of critical knowledge, problem solving proficiency, self-directed learning strategies, and team participation skills. The process replicates the commonly used systemic approach to resolving problems or meeting challenges that are encountered in life and career. This report gives a survey of PBL and several best practice examples from Europe, and discusses how an institution can change to PBL. The conclusion of this report is that PBL can, regardless of discipline, enhance students' achievement of both professional skills and process skills. Therefore European higher education institutions should consider shifting to PBL. The shift to PBL cannot be accomplished as a sudden change. It should be considered as a strategic change and the necessary measures should be taken for successful completion of change.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Table of Contents 1. THE CHALLENGE 2. OVERVIEW OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING 3. PBL BEST PRACTICE EXAMPLES 3.1 Aalborg University, Denmark 3.2 Maastricht University, The Netherlands 3.3 Vitus Bering University College, Denmark 3.4 Ik University, Turkey 3.5 University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy 3.6 Other Examples 4. CHANGING TO PBL 5. CONCLUSION REFERENCES CITED APPENDIX: BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX: WEB RESOURCES

1. THE CHALLENGE A survey carried out in the years 1995 and 1997 amongst 36 Danish companies and 269 American companies shows the demands on personal qualifications of their employees or future employees. Some of these demands are summarised below: Communicative skills. The ability to communicate a message clearly is crucial, particularly in the light of increasing needs for working in teams. Being able to communicate knowledge in an understandable language is especially important for cooperative organisations comprising specialists. Ability to work in teams. As a result of the technological development and increasing competition employees must possess specialised knowledge within relevant professions. At the same time they must realize that the correct solution to a given task can only be achieved in cooperation with groups of people, who jointly possess the needed cross disciplinary competences. Flexibility. Employees must be willing to move, not only physically but also mentally. They must be prepared to break up inveterate habits in order to cope with changes in organisation, tasks, fields of production etc. Initiative. A property connected with the development towards a flat organisational structure and extended responsibility given to employees. If people are responsible for certain tasks/areas, they are also expected to take initiatives. International orientation. Understanding and accepting other cultures is crucial for work on an international competitive market even if a company is oriented towards the domestic market. The markets are global and it is hardly possible to survive locally. Deep knowledge of different cultures is important. An international orientation means proficiency in at least one of the main languages plus detailed knowledge of at least one foreign culture. Interpersonal qualifications. Being responsible, quality focused adaptable, communicative, ability to work in a team, work discipline, reliability. Analytical skills. It is increasingly important for professionals to possess highly developed analytical skills. These are prerequisites in order to deal independently with new complicated problems or work processes, to divide complex tasks into manageable sizes and to see process relations. Management skills. It is important to educate/train people within managerial aspects. Companies and organisations dealing with international projects often seek cross border cooperation and form project organisations with both professional and functional management. The above is very much in line with ABET1 criteria for program outcomes and assessment, which states that engineering programs must demonstrate that graduates have an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and applied sciences an ability to design and conduct experiment, as well as to analyze and interpret data an ability to formulate or design a system, process or program to meet desired needs an ability to function on multidisciplinary teams an ability to identify and solve engineering problems an understanding of professional and ethical responsibility an ability to communicate effectively the broad education necessary to understand the impact of solutions in global and societal context a recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in real life-long learning a knowledge of contemporary issues an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern scientific and technical tools necessary for professional practice

ABET, Inc., is the recognized U.S. accreditor of college and university programs in applied science, computing,engineering,andtechnology.
4

As it is seen, there is shift in emphasis from professional skills to process skills. These process skills may be listed as follows: Problem analysis and problem solving Project management and leadership Analytical skills and critical thinking Dissemination and communication Interdisciplinary competencies Intercultural communication Innovation and creativity Social abilities Collaboration How do we meet these demands within engineering education? Is it possible to fulfil academic requirements on engineering qualifications and simultaneously provide for process skills? This report introduces the Problem-Based Learning approach as an answer to this question. 2. OVERVIEW OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING This section is based on input from Erik de Graaff, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, and Anette Kolmos, Aalborg University, Denmark.2 History Problem-based learning (PBL) dates back to early 1970s. As a new learning paradigm, PBL was first adopted in the McMaster medical school of Canada. With the realization of PBL in the institution, the curriculum shifted from a faculty-centered to student-centered, interdisciplinary teaching model. The PBL approach is thought to be well suited especially to medical schools since the skill of life-long learning is critical in this field. The success of this new learning paradigm in the McMaster University encouraged other medical schools to follow this example and embrace PBL in their curriculums. Among the first schools to adopt PBL were the medical schools of Maastrict in the Netherlands and Newcastle in Australia (Graaff and Bouhuijs, 1993). In New Mexico, a program in health sciences was started (Kaufman, 1985). As newly founded institutions, these schools took advantage of identifying their professional objectives first and adopting the educational model that best is best suited to these objectives. Parallel to the birth and development of PBL in the medical schools, a new project-based pedagogical approach in engineering education emerged in the Universities of Roskilde and Aalborg in Denmark. PBL in the engineering education was first implemented and institutionalized by these universities by permeating PBL in the entire establishment phase organizationally, culturally as well as physically. Both schools established new PBL models that are widely known and accepted in the world. Although PBL has not lived up the expectation of bringing about positive changes in the society, it proved to be an excellent method for developing new forms of competencies (Kolmos et al., 2004). Implementing a PBL curriculum is demanding both in terms of resources and learner-teacher efforts and involves a gradual adaptation to regional and institutional conditions. Therefore, each institution must deal with its own and unique evolution, introducing specific ingredients to the characteristics of the PBL according to the surrounding circumstances. As a consequence of these ongoing processes, the styles of PBL curricula vary widely among institutions. In spite of the challenges that inherently exist in the adoption or shift to PBL curricula, this new learning paradigm has conquered a prominent place not only in medicine and health sciences, but also in other
See Graff, E. de, and Kolmos, A., eds., (2007), Management of Change Implementation of Problembased and Project-based Learning in Engineering, Sense Publishers.
5
2

professional studies such as engineering, law, psychology, education, economics and architecture all over the world(Albanese and Mitchell, 1992; Ryan, 1993; Ostwald and Kingsland, 1994; Little, Ostwald and Ryan, 1995; Negt and Kluge, 1972; Negt, 1968; Jansen and van Kammen, 1976). Characteristics of PBL Research has shown that students retain minimal information in the traditional didactic teaching environment and frequently experience difficulty in transferring the acquired knowledge to new experiences (Schmidt, 1983). Schmidt argues that a PBL environment enables students draw upon their prior knowledge and skills, brings a real-world context in the classroom, and reinforces the knowledge through both independent and cooperative group work. Characteristics of PBL can be summarized as follows: Ill-structured, complex problems that are often drawn from the real-world provide the focal points and act as stimuli for the course, curriculum or program. Learning is student-centered. Instructor takes the role of a supervisor, as a coach or facilitator. Learning is realized in small groups of students who analyze, study, discuss and propose solutions to (possibly) open-ended problems. Learner assessment is enhanced by self and peer assessment. The Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy compared prescriptive and experiential curriculums (see Table 1). Using these as endpoints on a pedagogical continuum, one would place PBL close to the latter. In a PBL setting the learning process is typically stimulated by discussion in small groups of students. This provides students with the opportunity to prepare for the professional life, by practical training in coordinating a work group and working effectively as a part of a team. The independent research and learning aspect of the PBL provides the students the skill of identifying, researching and filling in the missing knowledge in the type of problems they may encounter in their professional lives. Experiments carried out in the Maastrict University indicated that learning in a PBL curriculum is more effective than in a traditional classroom setting due to the emphasis put on the activation of prior knowledge in PBL (Schmidt, 1983). It was also observed that graduates of a PBL curriculum better adapt to changing requirements because they are trained to learn within a relevant context (Post et al., 1988). Table 1. Prescriptive versus Experimental Curriculum Prescriptive Curriculum Teacher-centered Linear and rational Part to whole organization Teaching as transmitting Learning as receiving Structured environment Experiential Curriculum Student-centered Coherent and relevant Whole to part organization Teaching as facilitating Learning as constructing Flexible environment

In a PBL setting, the role of the instructor is drastically changed from a lecturer to facilitator. The facilitator role requires the instructor to act as a, content and procedural resource person, facilitator of group processes, pointer to additional resources, sounding-board person, and learner.
6

One important issue to deal with a PBL conversion is to consider the amount of additional time that will be needed to prepare course materials, train facilitators and determine the means of an authentic student assessment procedure. Another critical issue for the faculty is to cope with the role reversal in the classrooms. Instead of lecturing, the faculty member now needs to employ various pedagogical approaches to stimulate learning. Most of the times, the transfer of pieces of information is replaced by meta-cognitive questions such as How do you know that?, Are there any assumptions you might be making? and What else might you need to know? PBL also alters the student role in the classroom. Students, particularly freshmen, have difficulty adapting to the concept of self-directed learning and may at first react to the PBL practice with shock, denial, anger and resistance, most often followed by acceptance and finally, confidence. PBL encourages students to take responsibility and identify their own learning needs, locate the resources and do independent study in the context of a small group. The independent study brings in considerable collaboration with other students and faculty, which facilitates better comprehension of the problem and improved transfer of knowledge to future situations. Collaboration is an essential skill that is also emphasized in the PBL paradigm since students will most likely be working as members of teams in their prospective workplaces. Two challenging tasks students encounter in most PBL practices are the processes of reflection and peer assessment. Reflection, also known as self-assessment, allows the students to complete the learning cycle via questions such as What did I learn?, What more do I need to know?, and How can I approach this problem in the future?. For effectiveness of PBL, students must obtain skills not only assessing their own progression in learning, but also that of their peers. The ability to monitor ones own progress as well as provide credible feedback to colleagues is an important personal and professional skill. To orient students to such drastic changes in the learning environment, the concept and rationale behind the PBL approach could be introduced in an orientation setting. Students also can be smoothly introduced to the new paradigm through simulated PBL sessions followed by debriefing. The concept of a problem is central to PBL. A critical question in the course of implementing PBL is: what is a problem? A problem in PBL is an incentive for students, a challenge to start them off on their learning process (Norman, 1986). A good PBL problem has the following characteristics (Bloom 1956): Is engaging and oriented to the real-world. Is ill-structured and complex. Generates multiple hypotheses. Requires team effort. Is consistent with desired learning outcomes. Builds upon previous knowledge/experiences. Promotes development of higher order cognitive skills. The selection of problems is critical for the success of the course. Therefore allocating sufficient amount of time to develop and analyze the problems is essential. The following process may be recommended to design, implement and evaluate a problem: Identify a central idea, concept or principle commonly incorporated in the course. Delineate learning outcomes for the problem. Brainstorm and then outline an ill-structured, complex problem. Divide the problem into stages to allow for progressive disclosure. Develop a tutorial guide. Assist students in identifying resources. Different types of problems may be designed depending on purpose, as follows:

Connected to real-world: Problems can be drawn from real-world examples or designed specifically for the discovery of knowledge and skills in the subject. Real-world problems help students connect the learning outcomes with the world and increase the motivation to learn. Ill-structured and complex: Problems can be well-defined or incompletely stated. In real-world scenarios problem specifications in general are not completely specified. Students are expected to complete the problem specification through discussions, and when possible consulting experts, researching similar cases, etc. Open-ended: Open-ended problems have multiple possible solutions depending on the assumptions made in the solution process. If the problems are well-defined, they may be designed to have a single solution. Open-ended problems promote discussions in the team and are better representatives of real-life problems. Promotes team work: Although PBL is not necessarily realized in teams of students, most applications stress teamwork. Interaction within a team is an important means of knowledge and skill discovery and transfer in PBL settings. Builds on previous experiences: For success, PBL must lend itself to piecewise and incremental learning. Each problem must be designed to build on previous knowledge and experiences and add new pieces of information to the students knowledge base. It is mostly agreed that the problems/projects must be incremental, i.e. building on the previous experience or knowledge of the students. The importance of ill-structured, open-ended problems is emphasized. The problems are not always drawn from real-world examples, some institutions prefer to synthesize carefully designed problems that assist a more controlled learning experience. There are various strategies of incorporating PBL into a course: Problem, Problem, Problem: In this strategy, instead of the regular lecture-problem order, the class is started out and continued with problems. The role of the facilitator is to monitor the discovery of knowledge or skills and take corrective action if necessary. Specific Problem, Specific Problem, Comprehensive Problem: The class is started with problems that lead to discovery of specific knowledge or skills for each individual topic. The class is continued with a comprehensive problem that integrates the previous knowledge for a higher-level understanding. Level A Problem, Level B Problem, Level C Problem: The problems are ordered from easier or introductory-level to complex or comprehensive. Problem, Lecture, Problem, Lecture: This strategy can be viewed as the traditional method of teaching with the difference of reversed order of lectures and problem solving sessions. Each problem solving session is followed by a short lecture that wraps up the learning outcomes. Parallel Project and Lecture: The project and the courses start at the same time and span the entire semester. This strategy is used to integrate all courses of a semester with a theme in one big project. Students are given an introductory training in teamwork and project based research and then left on their own to apply their knowledge, consult faculty and experts to discover ways to attack the problem and conclude their projects with a report and presentation. Case Study, Problem: A case study is solved with the interaction of the facilitator to ensure the achievement of required learning outcomes. This is followed by a problem solving session that builds on the knowledge obtained from the case study and enables students to independently generalize their knowledge to more complex situations.

It is observed that most institutions prefer either Parallel Project and Lecture or Level A Problem, Level B Problem, Level C Problem strategies. The Parallel Project and Lecture approach demands the students to become autonomous and accountable problem solvers by assigning each team a complex and comprehensive project without any intermediate level problems. On the other hand, the Level A Problem, Level B Problem, Level C Problem strategy allows more smooth learning of the subject by starting with the easiest problems and slowly progressing to complex ones. Problem-based versus Project-based Learning In the literature, many authors pointed out the distinctions between problem-based and projectbased learning approaches (Prince and Felder, 2006; Savin-Baden, 2000). In most cases, the distinction between the problem-based and project-based learning environments lies in the perception of the curriculum component that stimulates the learning. Problem-based learning is mostly referred to as the approach in which learning is stimulated by open-ended and ill-structured problems whereas project-based learning is interpreted as learning through an assignment or task performed by the students. In the context of the former, a project is defined as a unique and complex task requiring more sources than a single person is able to deliver in the allocated time (Algreen-Ussing, 1990). In the latter approach, the assignments that trigger the learning process are generally more authentic than some artificial cases designed for use in PBL. The point that should not be missed here is that it is not just the problem that governs the learning process, much depends on the context in which the assignment is presented to the students. All models of problem and project-based learning are derived from the same pedagogical paradigm, based on the historical development of both methodologies. Graaff and Kolmos (Graaff and Kolmos, 2003; Kolmos, 1996) suggest making a distinction based on varying degrees of self-direction by the students. Savin-Baden (Savin-Baden, 2000) attempt to distinguish between different modes of PBL by suggesting five models of problem-based learning. These models focus on learning objectives ranging from narrow subject objectives to gathering interdisciplinary knowledge that is necessary to analyze and solve complex problems. The problem types range in accordance with the learning objectives, from limited sets of right solutions to open-ended and ill-structured problem domains. The five models proposed by Savin-Baden stand for the extent of diversity in PBL and assist in conceptually bringing together the variations of problem-based and project-based learning practices. All models accept the fact that problem-based and project-based learning may vary to a certain degree, inviting people to develop mixed models such as they are practised around the world. The common element in problem and project-based learning is that in both cases, learning is organized around problems. A problem as incentive for the learning processes is a central principle to enhance students motivation. Therefore, it is important which problems the students are attracted to on the basis of their own experiences and interests. It could be any type of problem, for instance, a concrete and realistic problem, or a theoretical problem. Most important is that the problem reflects the conditions of professional practice. Therefore, it makes sense that in some instances cases are relatively short, providing study materials for half a week and in other instances a project could last half a year. For instance, in a medical curriculum, the typical problem is a patient case. The challenge to come up with a diagnosis and a treatment plan takes the average family physician less than 10 minutes. The bigger engineering projects involve many years and thousands of men. Another important difference between education programs based on problem-based or project-based learning lies in the nature of the product that the students are required to turn in at the end of the period. With projects, this usually consists of a finished product, a design, or a report. As such, a product is often at the centre of a rating system, and also the assessment formats differ markedly. Based on the historical development of both problem-based learning and project-based learning, the various models are based on the same type of principles of learning (Boud and Feletti, 1991). In fact, there is substantial evidence supporting the psychological mechanisms explaining how PBL
9

works (Norman and Schmidt, 1992). Graaff and Kolmos (2003) have summarized the main learning principles in three approaches: learning contents - social. The learning approach as problem and project-based learning means that learning is organized around problems. It is a central principle for the development of motivation. A problem makes up the starting point for the learning processes and places learning in context and base learning on the learners experience. The contents approach concerns especially interdisciplinary learning, which may span across traditional subject-related boundaries and methods. Exemplary practice in the sense of learning outcome is exemplary to the overall objectives. The social approach is team-based learning. The team learning aspect underpins the learning process as a social act where learning takes place through dialogue and communication. But the students are not only learning from each other they also learn to share knowledge and organize the process of collaborative learning. The social approach also covers the concept of participant-directed learning, which indicates who has the ownership of the learning process and, especially, the formulation of the problem. Problem-based Learning versus Other Active Learning Strategies Savin-Badin (2000) delved into the differences between PBL and other teaching strategies. Drawing upon Barrows work (Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980) , she delineated the basics associated with several active learning strategies (see Table 2). Table 2. PBL versus Other Active Learning Strategies Teaching Strategy Lecture Case-based Case method Modified case method Problemfocused Problem-based Description Information presented and discussed by faculty instructor. Written case histories provided prior to lecture and followed with in-class discussion about content and concepts. Written case histories provided prior to class, studied and then discussed in class (typically in small groups) Incomplete, written information provided and studied prior to class. Within groups, determination made as to additional information needed. Sometimes additional information provided in class. Students provided with a simulated problem/scenario. Incomplete, written information provided and studied prior to class. Focus is on identifying learning issues applicable to resolution of the problem. Content and concepts relevant to learning a key component.

The differences between case-based and problem-based learning can be difficult to ascertain. The uniqueness of each is in the presentation of the problem. With case-based, the problem is accompanied by resource materials and questions; with PBL, only the problem is provided. PBL focuses more on what students do, rather than what the faculty do (MacDonald and Issacs, 2001).

10

3. PBL BEST PRACTICE EXAMPLES This section gives some PBL best practice examples. It should be noted that there many other examples all over the World which are not included in here. For a more comprehensive investigation please refer to web resources given in the Appendix. 3.1 Aalborg University, Denmark This section is based on input from Anette Kolmos, Aalborg University, Denmark and Flemming Fink, Aalborg University, Denmark. PBL is used in all study programs at Aalborg University within the Faculty of Humanities, the Faculty of Social Science, and the Faculty of Engineering and Science. The traditional Aalborg model is founded on problem-based project work, in which approximately one half of the students' time is spent on project work in teams, whereas the other half is spent on more or less traditional lectures. All project work is made in groups, and the same model is followed from the first semester until the completion of a masters degree (tenth semester). During the span of the university degree program, the groups normally become smaller, starting with typically 6-7 students in the first year, and reduced to maximum 2-3 students in the final semester. Project-organized, problem-based learning as it is implemented at Aalborg University is described in the booklet The Aalborg Experiment project innovation in university education (Kjrsdam and Enemark, 1994; Fink, 1999). The curriculum is organized into semesters 10 semesters leading to a Masters degree, organized in a very deterministic structure with a very well-prescribed output. The project work is formulated within the framework of the given theme, related to the overall educational objectives, which can be a broad, open theme or a subject-related limited theme. The students are allowed to formulate their project proposal themselves, but there is always a supervisor who approves the proposal. In each semester the project and the majority of the courses must relate to the theme of the actual semester. The students are supposed to attend the courses and apply them in their project work, and the output of the courses is assessed along with the project report at the end of the semester. The examination is a joint group examination with individual marks and takes up to six hours. The work with the project report and the courses covers approximately 80% of the semester, equivalent to 24 ECTS. A full semester is 30 ECTS points. The rest of the semester includes fundamental courses or other compulsory courses (study courses) assessed by more traditional examinations. The structure of the curriculum is fundamentally progressive, and in addition each step in this progression implies a large degree of flexibility. Within a specific theme projects can and do change from year to year. A theme covers a great variation of problems, and as the projects selected will be a combination of (1) proposals from industry, public administration, etc. (2) interests among students, and (3) interests among staff etc., and new problems will always be in focus. Therefore, even though the purpose and the content of the theme is well prescribed using Blooms taxonomy of learning depth (Bloom, 1956), the curriculum is very flexible and can follow the scientific development and integrate application of new research results. Each group has one or several supervisors (faculty member). The role of the supervisor is to respond to the students project process along the way and to take the group through to the examination. The examination is a group examination, where a supervisor and an external or an internal examiner is present. The project-based model varies considerably in practice. The subject, educational objectives, extent, placing in the study program, group size, variations in the students liberty of choice, the relation between courses and project, the form of examinations, and use of resources are just some of the differences that are often mentioned when project work at different institutions is compared. In nearly all programs the project work corresponds to half of the students time. Although the typical project lasts five months, there are exceptions. In some programs, for instance
11

at the Department of Architecture and Design, the students work with a series of shorter projects of less extent, because that approach suits the educational objectives better. The understanding of the educational principles varies from department to department, and these variations affect aspects of the program, including the implementation and the curriculum formulation: The themes can be defined in different ways as themes describing various types of problems, or as themes directed towards certain subjects. The choice of projects can be based on open or more controlled problem formulations depending on the educational objectives and the understanding of problem-based. In the open situation the students are supposed to prepare and word the problems and the projects themselves, and in the more controlled situation the teachers make the preparation and wording. The definition of a problem can vary between professional areas. In some programs the problem must be a dilemma or a social discrepancy, in other programs the problem will be an issue calling for an engineering solution, or in other cases it is a question of turning the learning process in a certain direction. The definition of the various phases of the project may vary depending on the subject in question. The relation between courses and project will depend on the understanding of knowledge, traditions and culture of the various departments. For example there are large differences in the relation between courses and project at the Faculty of Engineering and Science, and the language study programs at The Faculty of Humanities. At the Faculty of Engineering and Science the students attend project courses, which support the objectives of the project and the project itself. At some of the languages studies the students are offered a number of courses and they are free to choose 2-3 courses and write their project within in the framework of these courses. The extent of project supervision varies a lot and is carried out in different ways. The group sizes vary from first semester and up to tenth semester with more students in the groups at the beginning of the study. But the group sizes also vary from department to department. More variations can be mentioned, and the above are just presented to illustrate that there are variations in the concrete execution of the model. Therefore, the formulation of learning principles and learning philosophies is an essential part in the development of models. There must be some core principles, with variations being allowed within a given framework. 3.2 Maastricht University, The Netherlands This section is based on input from Eric de Graaff, Delft University, The Netherlands. Starting with the first students in 1974 the Medical Faculty of Maastricht University in the Netherlands was among the first to apply the principles of problem-based learning at the level of an entire curriculum. An important characteristic of the original Maastricht PBL model is the thematic organization replacing the traditional array of disciplines and majors. The preclinical phase of the Maastricht medical curriculum consisted of thematic blocks. The theme was introduced to the students by means of problems, descriptions of patient cases or other phenomena related to the current theme. Students had to analyze the problems in small groups (8-10 students), meeting twice a week. The staff-member supervising the sessions (the tutor) did not need to be an expert with respect to the issues at hand. Students were expected to elaborate their prior knowledge. In the course of this process they found out where they were lacking important information, resulting in the formulation of learning goals. In addition to the small group-work, skills training and practice orientation were scheduled. A large proportion of study time was set aside for independent selfstudy.

12

The success of the Maastricht Medical School allowed Maastricht University to expand into other professions. First a faculty of Health Sciences was established, later Law and Economics followed. In each case the PBL model was adapted to suit the needs of the particular field of study. The Maastricht model has been used widely as an example and a basis to contrast the PBL approach of other institutions and all aspects of the Maastricht PBL model have been researched extensively. The PBL homepage in the Maastricht University is developed to keep in touch with the other institutions and disseminate the PBL experiences of the university. To realize this objective, the PBL homepage brings various resources together and makes them publicly accessible. Among these are PBL course materials, information on how PBL is implemented in seven different faculties, publications, useful links and contact information. Each semester, the self reflection and peer assessments are carried out as well as faculty and course assessments. The assessments made in the General Sciences Faculty have shown that the PBL approach is specifically useful to improve skills such as learning programming languages, mathematical problem solving, writing reports, team work, etc. However, PBL is not found to be more advantageous than the traditional class environment in building the students knowledge base. 3.3 Vitus Bering University College, Denmark This section is based on input from Hans Hansen, Vitus Bering University College, Denmark, and Jan Uwe Wolff, Vitus Bering University College, Denmark. Vitus Bering University College in Denmark is offering Architectural Technology and Construction Management degree program, hosting more than 800 full time students. The tuition languages offered are Danish and English. Nearly from day 1 of the study program after a short introduction students are forming project groups of 3 to 4 members, all with different background in terms of nationality, cultural and educational background. Right from the beginning the group and the allocated lecturers agree on a design project to be defined and carried out throughout the semester. A semester comprises 20 weeks, being a combination of lecturers and project work in groups. Naturally the project is deemed to be relevant to the applicable course program. As an example taken from the fifth semester, a group project could comprise design, specifications, calculations and planning of a renovation and refurbishment project (housing). Objectives and outcomes are being discussed, defined and recorded and they do form the framework and references platform for the future group work, project work and the learning process. A project based learning process within this course program should comprise traditional academic subjects, such as mathematics, physics, technology, construction, management, languages, computer applications etc., but also strong emphasis on interpersonal qualifications like group work relations, working discipline and ethics, team building aspects, cooperation, knowledge sharing as well as interactive learning activities. The project always has a multi disciplinary scope aiming at increasing complexity and maintaining a holistic approach, meaning that students should regard the project as a meaningful and motivating contribution to their learning process and the development of their academic and personal qualifications. The project agreed upon constitutes the leading theme throughout the semester. The project work is supported by relevant theory lessons promoting and underpinning the learning process and the development of the project. The distribution of project work and theory lessons in average is 50% project work and 50% lectures. Lectures are normally given to groups of 15 to 30 students. The project work is guided (coached) and supervised, either involving the entire project group or individuals.

13

Every student is obliged to keep record of his/her study and learning process by using a logbook (or study journal). The study journal is a personal tool to be used in order to improve the study process. What to keep recorded in the study journal is very much an individual decision. Studying the proposed agenda listed in the study journal it is, however, evident that the content is largely focusing on the personal evaluation of own efforts as well as the evaluation regarding the professional outcome of the tuition/study. These evaluations will of course be put into use. Reading the Study Guide the students will learn that the predominant working method in most of the semesters will be project work carried out in groups. Experience shows however, that group work can be very difficult if it is not handled correctly from the outset. A very important issue when working in a group is to find a suitable working rhythm and to keep in step, that is, to agree on common objectives and to pursue these objectives. In order to achieve this it is necessary to continuously coordinate the work. The coordination of the group work can be achieved partly by writing down agreed rules, which will apply to the group work, and partly by securing that the rules are observed. The first part is fairly easy to implement whereas the second part can be extremely difficult to control. One method that may be used in controlling the latter part is to hold regular project meetings within the group (at least once a week). In order to keep track of the progress in these meetings students will use their own notes from the study journal as the basis for their input. It is therefore of utmost importance that notes/minutes are taken regularly. Lack of such notes will prevent group members from contributing constructively in the discussion and in making decisions. From the above it may be deduced that the study journal - apart from containing notes on own efforts and progress - may also be used to make notes concerning the efforts of the group and maybe the evaluation of contribution and efforts of fellow group members. Whether the latter will be the case or not depends on the rules agreed upon within the group. In the mentioned project meetings, minutes must be taken. In general the minutes will account for the development of the project and the learning process since the previous meeting. This development will of course include the efforts of the individual group member in relation to the defined objectives and subsequently planned activities. Additionally the minutes will account for whatever issues the group has chosen to focus on. The minutes will serve as the groups documentation for the work carried out during the semester. In case of disputes within the group regarding the presence/absence and all efforts of individual group members the minutes may be used as evident supporting possible allegations. In summary, the logbook is a tool for students to help focusing and keeping attention to their own learning process, to plan, analyse and select project activities and also to monitor and quality assure the communication within the group and the different tasks to be carried out by group members. Moreover, it is a working method reflecting their future professional jobs, the real life situation, where working in teams, planning and coordination of team based project works will be a part of the daily life of engineers. Experience shows that group work in that respect can be difficult and rather energy consuming due to a number of factors: Different ambitions amongst group members Different knowledge on technologies causing discussions and - hopefully - consensus or compromises Language deficiencies. Different meeting and working culture Different cultural background in general.

14

However, this is exactly the purpose of the prescribed group work: to develop a professional attitude to the act of working together in teams, focusing on results and problem solving in an efficient way regardless of differences in culture and personalities. That the group work itself causes problems and sometimes frustration amongst group members is beyond any doubt. Several interviews with international students from many different cultures over the last years confirm that working in groups is difficult but something one has to get used to. Each semester of the program contains two comprehensive evaluations. Evaluations focusing on both the learning process of each individual student, but also focusing on how they managed to work together in the group, how they shared the work load, how they learned from each other, how they organised themselves in terms of group leadership, time schedule, minutes of meetings etc. From more than 60% of the students evaluation reports we notice that the worst or most difficult part of the studies is the group work. The majority of our international students are not used to this kind of work and study. They feel especially in the beginning uncomfortable by sharing their knowledge with others and being dependent on other group members knowledge and work discipline. Even though they may sign a group work contract in the beginning of a semester including time schedule, objectives, work discipline and sanctions, they face the problems when implementing a set of rules. However, this terrible experience with group work seems to be mostly in the beginning of the course programs. After some semesters and to those who are familiar with this pattern of studies the benefits become more and more clear. The efficiently working group even get much further in their studies and personal development than any individual student could ever manage to do. It should be mentioned again here, that only about 50% of the students workload is dedicated to project work and thereby to the dreadful group work, whereas the remaining 50% of the studies are provided to the students in a more traditional way as taught classes. On completion of the semester the project work is assessed. Students present their project work including drawings, specifications, calculations and sketches to a panel of examiners both from Vitus Bering as well as external examiners predominantly professionals invited from private companies like consulting companies or contractors. Students may present their project work as a joint group presentation, at least partly. But each student will be assessed individually in order to disclose individual competences in terms of academic subjects, but also in order to prove the development of soft skills and personal qualifications achieved and trained during the previous group work sessions. Individual marks are given. The marks may very well differ from one student to another within the same group, depending on the individual performance during the assessment. 3.4 Ik University, Turkey This section is based on input from Selahattin Kuru, Ik University, Turkey. Ik University PBL experience is limited to course level. Department of Computer Engineering at Ik University uses PBL in certain courses including the junior level database systems course, and special project course and the senior level software engineering course. Here we give an overview of the experience in the software engineering course. The senior level software engineering course is a problem-based project-oriented course. This is one of the most important courses in the curriculum. The course has several goals, including learning a software development methodology, developing fluency in using certain software tools including CASE tools and social software tools, developing skills to work in teams, and developing written and oral communication skills. The course work requires the use of knowledge acquired in

15

basically all courses in the previous semesters of the curriculum. The student develops analysis, synthesis and design skills in this course. The course has three components: case study, lecture and project work. The main component is the project. Students learn software development by developing a software product, working in teams of 5. The case study and the lecture help students build the necessary background knowledge for doing the project. Each team is assigned a different software development project, that is, each software team develops a different software product. The software product is usually some application software. Development is done using a well defined methodology, which is in this case iterative objectoriented development. The methodology requires development and delivery of a deliverable in each of a series of successive phases. In each phase a specific aspect of the development is addressed and a specific deliverable is produced and delivered. The deliverable is of document nature in the first 8 weeks. The final delivery, which is delivered at the end of the semester, that is at week 14, is the software product itself together with final documentation. Project team members devote a considerable amount of time to the project, typically 4 to 6 hours every week. Each team has a team leader, which may rotate among team members. The work cycle for every week is as follows: The team meets and discusses the deliverable of that week. The work to be done to produce the deliverable is then divided into parts and distributed among team members. Individual team members work on their parts of the production of the delivery by themselves. The deliverable is produced in electronic form using a shared work space software. A final meeting is held to review the deliverable before bringing it to the meeting with the teaching assistant. The case study is a software development project illustrated by the instructor in the class. In other words it involves the development of a software product just like in student projects. The case study is strictly synchronized with the project, in the sense that the type of deliverable worked on weekly in the case study and in the project is the same. In other words, every week a deliverable is illustrated and discussed in the case study, which is the same type of a deliverable to be developed by the students for their projects. The class meets three hours a week. In the first 8 weeks typically two hours is devoted to the case study and one hour to lectures. In the remaining weeks more time is devoted to lectures. In the lectures the instructor introduces technical and non-technical (e.g. organizational) background knowledge in software engineering to the students. Two types of facilitators are involved, the instructor and the teaching assistant. The instructor does the overall coordination of the course, leads the discussion of the case study in class, and does the lectures. The instructor meets with the students in class for three hours every week. As stated, typically two hours are allocated to the case study and one hour to the lecture. The teaching assistant deals with the project. She acts both as a coach and as an evaluator for the project team. A one hour meeting is held with every project team every week. The project team brings the deliverable of that week to the meeting and the deliverable is discussed in the meeting. A number of tools are used by the project teams. These include communication tools, shared workspace tools and CASE tools. The specific tools may change to some extend from team to team and from year to year, depending on familiarity with tools and popularity of tools. Typical tools used in the course include Wordpress for weblogging, del.icio.us for bookmarking, Google docs and spreadsheets for shared document production, Flashmeeting for teleconferencing, various email tools, office tools, and CASE tools. Evaluation of student work is based on project work. Evaluation is done by the teaching assistant and by the students (peer evaluation). The teaching assistant evaluates deliverables (group evaluation) and performance of individual students every week. Students evaluate the deliverables
16

produced by other groups (group evaluation) and the performance of their team mates in their groups (individual performance). The evaluation scheme is given in Table 3. Table 3. Evaluation Scheme Who evaluate s Teaching Assistant Students What is evaluated Basis of evaluation (Group / Individual) Group Individual Group Individual Scope of evaluation All groups All groups All groups except hers Students in her group

Deliverable of the week Individual performance of students Deliverable of the week Individual performance of students

3.5 University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy This section is based on input from Luca Podesta, University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy. Within the Faculty of Engineering, University of Rome La Sapienza, there are several courses with theoretical and practical aspects. In the Didactic Laboratory of the Department of Electrical Engineering, practical exercises for the courses in Electrical and Electronic Measurements are performed. These exercises are practiced on a daily basis. However, at the end of every exercise, the measuring workstation is dismantled in preparation for a new exercise. Because students needed to access the exercises at a later time, a web site was created. As a friendly environment for the exchange of information, the web site offered numerous possibilities for interaction among students, teachers and tutors. The quality of learning was improved and it was a valid integration for face-to-face situations. Registered users could perform real measurements by accessing several laboratories in which measuring instruments are interfaced with personal computers. Furthermore, they can perform virtual measurements by accessing a library of experimental exercises accompanied with theoretical explanations. Students are able to perform experimental exercises and repeat them freely without being limited by the opening hours of the laboratory. If students encounter difficulties, it is possible to perform virtual exercises that lead, step by step, to the final real exercise. If necessary, it is also possible to make a careful theoretical study through available documents. Didactic laboratories confront the specific problems of having to manage a large number of students with a limited number of workstations. In contrast, a web-based laboratory system has many advantages that overcome such problems: students are able to connect easily to remote measurement systems and perform experimental exercises stipulated by the measurements courses. As web-based studying is not dependent on time and place, students can choose freely the time to perform the experimental exercises. But, how to improve the experience about real instruments? The web-based laboratory seems to be so far from the real instruments. The experimental laboratory is a very important component of courses in Electrical and Electronic Measurements. Due to the limited time available, usually students are not able to attain the appropriate knowledge and skill. Moreover, students cannot assess whether their level is adequate to perform the experimental exercises. A system has been proposed based on a virtual environment that allows the student to perform a self-assessment. The proposed method prepares students to perform real experiments in the laboratory and improves the quality of the acquired
17

knowledge. Laboratory experiments represent the first contact many students have with real instruments and they are afraid to make mistakes or damages. For this reason, experimental practice with real instruments cannot be developed neither autonomously nor in a short time. Moreover, students access to the laboratory is limited by its operating hours and the tutors availability. As there are too many students needing to access the laboratory applications, only a few are able to perform the experimental exercises live (i.e. at the very moment in which the theories are introduced in the classroom). All these problems weaken the didactical strength of the laboratory experiments. It is also noted that most students are passive towards real laboratory experiments and many do not participate because they dont know how to take measurements with the instruments. As a result, there is little learning and the knowledge the students acquire is unstable. Following the above considerations, it seemed necessary to change the practical part of the Electrical and Electronic Measurements course. An analysis on the causes of failure of the didactic goal of laboratory tests revealed the relevance of training students to use the instruments in the laboratory effectively. The main target seemed to be that of changing the students attitude from a passive one to an active one, especially towards practical activities. To help the students approach the real experimental setups gradually, a virtual system was introduced to orientate the students before they execute real experiments in the laboratory by means of a PBL-approach. Every exercise in the virtual system is simulated by means of a LabVIEW virtual instrument. Students must log into the program to access the simulated exercise and follow some predefined steps which reproduce the real conditions of the practical exercises. At the final step, students are told the final score obtained during the execution of the exercise. If the score is over a minimum mark, students can advance to the real exercise and gain access to the laboratory. Otherwise they must work through the exercises in the simulator again. Students can repeat the exercises freely and train themselves with the Virtual Laboratory whenever they want, thanks to the availability of the system in the website of the didactic laboratory. It was important to help the students understand that the programs goal was to allow them to access the laboratory training freely and that each students score is an indicator of the students knowledge which is mainly useful to the user himself. If the student thought he was taking an exam, he would not move even the mouse due to his fear of failure. With this aim, the system proposes exercises based on measurements with simulated instruments through LabVIEW and offers an analysis of the results. It gives a score which is entered in a prefixed file that represents the users evaluation. The program carries out two different indexes of evaluation on the studentslevel of knowledge on specific matters and overall knowledge. At the end of the virtual didactic itinerary, students are allowed to enter the real laboratory only when they have obtained a sufficient overall evaluation (i.e. a well-defined minimum score). As far as the impact of the new didactical system is concerned, the students recognized the utility of a specific training before the real laboratory. The students awareness and effectiveness in the laboratory increased significantly. This resulted in a significant reduction in the use of laboratory resources (about 50% less compared to the past) although the virtual laboratory forces the students to spend more time on the simulated exercises. Students learning and knowledge have also improved. Furthermore, the students are able to decide how to manage their time in accordance to their needs. These didactical system have been used within a PBL-course in Electrical Measurements, in which the starting point is, for example, How to measure a resistance?. In the application of PBL students are more motivated and there is more participation. Students become active participants of education and in this way they activate the process of continuous education, essential to face the rapid changes in science and technology. 3.6 Other Examples This section is based on input from Taner Eskil, Ik University, Turkey.

18

Pennsylvania State University, USA The Penn State Information Sciences and Technology (IST) Initiative was started in years 20002002. This initiative required the PBL to be the underlying method for most IST courses. The web site for the initiative has detailed information on PBL based course design. The courses start with made-up small problems and continue with higher complexity problems to open-ended, complex, real-world scenarios. The problems are selected carefully to build upon students previous knowledge and skills. Teams consist of eight to ten students. Some student reaction and reluctance was observed in the first years of the initiative; students mostly complained about not having crisply defined tasks that determine their grades. Instructors also reported that students searched for what the instructor wants rather than researching, cooperating and creating. In spite of this resistance, it was observed that the first PBL graduates felt more confident in their first jobs. According to some employers, these graduates also adapted faster and found more opportunities to promote in the firm. The institution is currently trying to test students performance using self-efficacy surveys. The aim of a self-efficacy survey is to find a measure of ones own judgment to accomplish a task under varying, discouraging conditions. The results of these surveys are yet to be published. University of Manchester, UK University of Manchester uses Enquiry-Based Learning. The motto of Enquiry-Based Learning initiative is learning is driven by a process of enquiry owned by the student. Under the guidance of a facilitator, students identify the issues and questions in a given scenario. Next, they research the resources and locate and acquire the needed knowledge. This type of learning is found to be retained longer since it is acquired through a real problem solving experience. At the completion of a PBL module, students reach a higher level of abstract thinking. They are at this point capable of not only investigating the questions posed by others, but also formulating their own research questions and convert their studies into useful knowledge. The Enquiry-Based Learning Initiative was started in year 2005 with the aim of making PBL a key ingredient of the curricula by year 2015. The curriculum is designed to assign one major project to each team of students in four faculties Engineering and Physical Sciences, Humanities, Life Sciences, Medical and Human Sciences. There is also a Core Team or the Hub that is responsible for orchestrating the PBL practice with these four faculties. The courses are designed to have simple to complex problems. Open-ended problems are selected with a consideration to allow multiple intellectually valid responses in the allocated time constraint. The problems are also selected to build upon students earlier knowledge and skills. Student assessments have shown that students can be overly anxious about curricular changes. On the other hand, the first graduates of the program rated the new curriculum with very high marks. McMaster University, Canada The Chemical Engineering Department in the McMaster University incorporates PBL in one junior and one senior level course in the program. It is argued that posing the problem before showing the solution method produces better motivation, since the students know why they are learning the new knowledge. Learning for solving a problem also found to result in a better retention and recall of knowledge. The Chemical Engineering Department adopts the PBL definition as introduced by the Medical School of McMaster University. According to this definition, PBL is a cooperative, self-directed,
19

interdependent and self-assessed learning environment that is realized in small groups. However, it is also suggested that any scenario that poses the problem before learning starts may be called PBL. In other words, all research in the most general sense is also PBL. McMaster Medical School model consists of groups of 5 students, each of which are accompanied by a tutor or an instructor. The Chemical Engineering department on the other hand has classes of up to 300 students. To accommodate PBL in these large classes, the department chose to eliminate the tutors role by giving the tutor orientation to the students instead. With this training, the students are prepared to guide their own research, to be autonomous and accountable. PBL is incorporated in two courses in the program, concurrent with conventional teaching in other courses. The teaching strategy in these courses is to present the students specific problems followed by one comprehensive problem. The university also offers a theme school program, which consists of courses from different disciplines and students can choose to take them as overload. This program consists of 5 regular courses, 3 seminar courses and 2 research internships. All regular courses in the program follow PBL throughout the semester. The course perceptions questionnaire has shown that students assess the theme school program one to two standard deviations more positive than their own departments. Samford University, USA PBL was initiated in the Samford University in 1998, with the founding of Center for Teaching, Learning and Scholarship (CTLS) to assist professors in transition to the new learning paradigm. The web site created for the center includes a comprehensive overview of different PBL approaches and course design guidelines for instructors. The incorporation of PBL in the program is course-based rather than holistic. Instructors choose their teaching strategy according to the guidelines outlined by the CTLS. As stated above, each PBL session must build on previous experiences and lend itself to incremental learning. To realize such a dissection of knowledge, one must start with the common knowledge asset. The students are given background knowledge probes short examinations in the beginning of the semester and before introduction of each important new topic to assess the knowledge base of the students. Focused listing helps students keep their attention on the focus of the session and the related subjects. Focused listing starts with a single most important concept and guides the students to list the related concepts and pinpoint the focus point. While background knowledge probes and focused listing help students to bring to light their previous knowledge, misconception/preconception check aims to assess any prior beliefs that could obstruct learning. For assessment, instructors may prefer to give empty or partially filled outlines for the students to fill in what they learn in one session. The memory matrices are used for organizing the information or illustrating the relationships that exist in the new information. They are two-dimensional diagrams which are filled by the students to provide feedback to the instructor for quick and easy analysis of the outcomes of the session. Another way to assess the learning session is to use minute papers, which are short essays to answer questions such as What was the focus of the class? and Which question was left unanswered?. Each session is ended with the muddiest point practice, in which the students write a short response to the topics that are left unclear at the end of the session. Principia Project, Mexico Experience in Mexican higher education has shown that the traditional learning environments result in a low retention of knowledge, unsatisfactory skills in mathematical reasoning, and low motivation of students towards learning of the course contents. The first two years of mathematics, physics and programming program were redesigned to accommodate PBL in the curriculum. The enrolment in the PBL curriculum was left voluntary for the students.

20

The courses in the Principia Project start with exercises that are studied in transitory teams. Then the permanent teams are formed and a more complex problem is assigned. At the last stage projects are assigned, which are ill-structured and open-ended projects. At the end of each semester, the assessments of the courses by the students are carried out. These results show that the students in the PBL curriculum have a worse attitude towards programming and physics and a better attitude towards mathematics and education. The California Critical Thinking Skills test results indicated a better performance but not statistically significant improvement compared to the students in the traditional curriculum. It was shown that there is a statistically significant improvement in the performance in future Probability and Oral Communications classes. The PBL students also are found to have higher GPA, but attention was drawn to voluntary enrolment in the PBL curricula. 4. CHANGING TO PBL This section is based on input from Anette Kolmos, Aalborg University, Denmark, Erik de Graaff, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands3. PBL can be incorporated in the entire curriculum or at a component level, such as in courses or units of courses. The extent of incorporation of PBL in the curriculum depends on financial and personnel resources as well as time constraints and the readiness of faculty and students. Different strategies may be followed in changing to PBL at curriculum level. PBL can be a portion of the curricular instruction process, the entire focus or a curriculum or only within a course, unit or module. Frequently, resources (i.e. personnel, financial) and facilities place constraints on the breadth and depth of PBL use. Initiating PBL within a curriculum can create anxiety for administrators, faculty and students. Anxiety comes from change and uncertainty as to efficacy of PBL. This should be eliminated by explanations regarding the use of PBL and provide to all relevant constituents of the curriculum, provisions for faculty development, and orientations for the students. The following initial steps may be taken while changing to PBL at curriculum level: Deciding to change to PBL Centralizing the curriculum management of PBL Determining who has the power and authority for designing, implementing and evaluating PBL Exploring the essential content. This is relevant to the success of PBL as you will not have sufficient time to cover all content down to the absolute "need to know." Developing templates/prototype PBL problem that will serve as a guide for PBL problem development. One should be aware that PBL can take more time than traditional teaching strategies, like lectures. Novice learners require more structure and time to approach and solve problems; problems are complex, open-ended and thus take more time for students to process. One should examine resources and should ensure students have access to the personnel and materials they will need. Determining an assessment method is critical in this process. Each school, faculty or department need to decide if PBL is in alignment with their respective teaching and learning philosophies. Change in teaching and learning approach at institutional level is a complex process. Several authors proposed models for such a change (Fullan, 2001; Henriksen et al,. 2004; Biggs, 1993;
See Graff, E. de, and Kolmos, A., eds., (2007), Management of Change Implementation of Problembased and Project-based Learning in Engineering, Sense Publishers.
21
3

Khoo 2001; Him and Hippe, 1997; Him and Hippe, 1993; Kolmos, 2002; Graaff and Mierson, 2005; Kotter, 1995; Morgan and Roberts, 2002; Kolmos, Gynnild and Rox, 2004). These models stress the complexity and difficulty in such a change and identify factors/elements to take into account. These factors/elements include, depending on the model, the students social, cultural, psychological, and physical prerequisites for learning, cultural, social, and physical factors of frame (including the prerequisites of the teacher), and goals for learning the curriculum, the teaching/learning methods/process, the assessment procedures and the methods of reporting results, the climate of interaction with students, the institutional climate, the rules and procedures to follow. Kotter has developed a model for change based on eight steps (Kotter, 1995): establishing a sense of urgency, forming a powerful guiding coalition, creating a vision, communicating the vision, empowering others to act on the vision, planning for and creating shortterm wins, consolidating improvements and producing still more change, and institutionalizing new approaches. Moesby (2004) has developed a model for implementation of change to PBL in higher education covering four phases: investigation phase (pre-action activities), adoption phase (formulation of vision, defining criteria of success, communication of the results), implementation phase (staff development program, evaluation program), and institutional state which is the final state of the change process. Thousand and Villa (1995) identify six factors for managing complex change, including vision, consensus, skills, incentives, resources, and action plan, and points out that only if all of these factors exist then change can occur as desired; otherwise the result is confusion, anxiety, resistance, frustration, sabotage or treadmill, depending on the missing factor. Kolmos, Gynnild and Rox (2004) point out that neither bottom-up nor top-down strategies are sufficient for successful change, arguing that bottom-up strategies are not efficient since change at a system level requires a decision at top-level, and op-down strategies are not efficient as they create much resistance in the system. Also pointed out is the need for change agents; if the change starts from the top, change agents must be found among involved staff members, if the change starts from the bottom, change agents must be found in the top. The role of change agents is to motivate staff and to lead the change process by pushing the whole time. The success of changing to PBL depends on the faculty to adapt the educational method to the needs. An important advantage of the introduction of PBL is that it entails a new way of thinking about education and learning. Little reflection on the task of teaching exists in traditional organizations in higher education. The introduction of PBL curriculum can help to break down traditional boundaries. In the course of the introduction process, the staff has to be trained in order to learn to function effectively in the new situation. Successful educational leadership assumes the responsibility of making decisions that are necessary for the organization to survive in a competitive world. 5. CONCLUSION Problem-based learning is an instructional method where students "learn to learn," working cooperatively in groups to seek solutions to real world problems. PBL prepares students to think critically and analytically, and to find and use appropriate learning resources. PBL is both a curriculum and a process. The curriculum consists of problems that demand from the learner acquisition of critical knowledge, problem solving proficiency, self-directed learning strategies, and team participation skills. PBL alters traditional teaching and learning patterns. The process of presenting a topic so that students assimilate the various pieces of knowledge and hopefully apply them to personal and professional problems have not been shown to be effective. PBL allows students to explore relevant sources of knowledge. PBL can enhance students' achievement of adaptation and participation in change,
22

application of problem solving in new and future situations, creative and critical thought, adoption of holistic approach to problems and situations, appreciation of diverse viewpoints, successful team collaboration, identification of learning weaknesses and strengths, promotion of self-directed learning, effective communication skills, augmentation of knowledge base, leadership skills, utilization of relevant and varied resources.

PBL is a solution to meet the current learning needs in engineering education. Therefore European higher education institutions should consider shifting to PBL. The shift to PBL cannot be accomplished as a sudden change. It should be considered as a strategic change and the necessary measures should be taken for successful completion of change. REFERENCES CITED Albanese, M. A., and Mitchell, S. (1992). Problem-based learning: a review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues, Academic Medicine, 68(1), 52-81. Algreen-Ussing, H. and Fruensgaard, N.O. (1990). Metode i Projektarbejde. Aalborg University Press. Barrows, H. S. and Tamblyn, R.M. (1980). Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to Medical Education. New York, Springer. Biggs, J. (1993). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. The Society for Research into Higher Education, Open University Press. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomi of Educational Objectives. The Classification of Educational Goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain. David Mckay Company, New York. Boud, D. and Feletti, G. (1991). The Challenge of Problem-based Learning. London, Kogan Page. Fink, F.K. (1999). Integration of Engineering Practice into Curriculum 25 years of experience with Problem-Based Learning, FIE99, Frontiers in Education Conference , Puerto Rico, November 1999. Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change (third edition). New York, Teachers College Press. Fullan, M. (2005). Leadershipand Thousand Oaks. sustainability: system thinkers in action. Corwin Press,

Graaff, E. de and Bouhuijs, P. A. J. (Eds.) (1993). Implementation of Problem-Based Learning in Higher Education, Thesis publishers, Amsterdam. Graaff, E. de and Mierson, S. (2005). The dance of educational Innovation, Teaching in Higher Education, 1(10). Graaff, E. and Kolmos, A. (2003). Characteristics of problem-based learning, International Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 19, no. 5. Graff, E. de, and Kolmos, A., eds., (2007), Management of Change Implementation of Problembased and Project-based Learning in Engineering, Sense Publishers. Him, H. and Hippe, E. (1997). Lring gennem oplevelse, forstelse og handling en studiebog i didaktik. Gyldendal Undervisning, CPH.
23

Him, H. and Hippe, E. (1993). Lring gjennom oplevelse, forstelse og handling: En studiebok i didaktikk. Oslo, University Publishing. Jansen, T. and van Kammen, A.-R. (1976). Projektonderwijs: afleren en aanleren [Project education: un-learning and re-learning]. Purmerend, Muusses. Kaufman, A. (Ed.) (1985). Implementing Problem-based Medical Education. Lessons from Successful Innovations. New York, Springer Publishing. Kolmos, A., Fink, F. K. and Krogh, L. (Eds.) (2004). The Aalborg PBL Model Progress, Diversity and Challenges. Aalborg, Aalborg University Press. Kolmos, A. (1996). Reflections on Project Work and Problem-based Learning, European Journal of Engineering Education, 2(21). Kolmos, A. (2002). Facilitating Change to a Problem-based Model, The International Journal for Academic Development, 1(7), Routledge Kolmos, A., Gynnild, V. and Rox, T. (2004). The Organisational Aspect of Faculty Development. In Kolmos, A., Vinther, O., Andersson, P., Malmi, L. and Fuglem, M. (Eds.) (2004) Faculty Development in Nordic Engineering Education.Aalborg University Press. Kotter, J. B. (1995). Why Transformation Efforts Fail, Harvard Business Review, March-April 1995. Little, P., Ostwald, M. and Ryan, G. (Eds.) (1995). Research and Development in Problem-Based Learning, Vol 3. PROBLARC, University of Newcastle. Moesby, E. (2004). Reflection on making a change towards Project-oriented and Problem-based learning, WorldTransactions on Engineering and Technology Education, 2(3), 2004. Morgan, C.K. and Roberts, D. (2002). Herding Cats? Obtaining Staff Support for Curriculum Change and Implementation, International Consortium for Educational Development. Perth, July, 2002 Negt, O. (1968). Soziologische Phantasie und exemplarisches Lernen. Zur Theorie der Arbeiterbildung. Frankfurt am Main. Negt, O. and Kluge, A. (1972). ffentlichkeit und Erfahrung: Zur Organisationsanalyse von brgerlicher und proletarischer ffentlichkeit. Frankfurt am Main. Norman G. R. (1986). Problem-solving skills, Solving problems and problem-based learning, Medical Education, 22, 279-286. Norman, G. and Schmidt, H. G. (1992). The psychological basis of problem-based learning: A review of the evidence, Academic Medicine, 67(9), 557-565. Prince, M. and Felder, R. (2006). Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, Comparisons, and Research Bases, Journal of Engineering Education, 2(95). Ostwald, M. and Kingsland, A. (Eds.) (1994). Research and Development in Problem-Based Learning, Vol 2. PROBLARC, University of Newcastle. Post, G. J., Graaff, E. de and Drop, M. J. (1988). Efficiency of a Primary-Care Curriculum, Annals of Community-Oriented Medical Education, 1, 25-31. Ryan, G. (Ed.) (1993). Research and Development in Problem-Based Learning, Vol 1. PROBLARC, University of Newcastle. Savin-Baden, M. (2000). Problem-based Learning in Higher Education: Untold Stories. Buckingham, SRHE and Open University Press. Schmidt, H. G. (1983). Problem-based learning: rationale and description, Medical Education, 17, 11-16. Schmidt, H.G. (1993). Foundations of problem-based learning: Some explanatory notes, Medical Education, 27, 422-32. Thousand, J. S. and Villa, R. A. (1995). Managing Complex Change Towards Inclusive Schooling. In Villa, R. A. and Thousand, J. S., Creating an Inclusive School. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
24

APPENDIX: BIBLIOGRAPHY Articles Albanese, M. A. and Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: a review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues. Academic Medicine, 68(1), 52-81. Aldred, S. E., Aldred M.J., Walsh L.J. and Dick B., (1997). The direct and indirect costs of implementing problem-based learning into traditional professional courses within universities. Canberra, AGPS. Armarego, J., Clarke, S., (2005), Problem-based Design Studios for Undergraduate SE Education. Proceedings of 18th Conference on Software Engineering Education and Training, 2005. CSEE&T 2005, Page(s)249 254 Aronowitsch, E., Crafoerd, and Floberg, U. (1995). Introducing Problem-Based Learning in Psychotherapeutic Training--Focus on Regression and Integration. Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, Vol. 9, pp. 31-40 Baron, J. (1981). Reflective thinking as a goal of education. Intelligence, 5, 291-309. Barrows, H. S. and Mitchell, D.L. (1975). An innovative course in undergraduate neuroscience: Experiment in problem-based learning with "problem boxes." British Journal of Medical Education, 9(4), 223-230. Barrows, H.S. and Tamblyn, R.M. (1976). Guide to the development of skills in problem-based learning and clinical (diagnostic) reasoning. Project for Learning Resources Design (PLRD) Monograph #1. McMaster University, Faculty of Medicine, Hamilton. Barrows, H..S and Tamblyn, R.M. (1979). Problem-based learning in health sciences education. Contract No. 1 LM-6-4721, US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Library of Medicine, National Medical Audiovisual Center. Barrows, H.S, Feltovich, P.J. (1987). The clinical reasoning process. Medical Education, 21(2), 8691. Barrows, H.S., Norman, G.R., Neufeld, V.R. and Feightner, J.W. (1982). The clinical reasoning of randomly selected physicians in general medical practice. Clinical and Investigative MedicineMedicine Clinique et Experimentals, 5(1), 49-55. Barrows H.S., Tamblyn R. and Jenkins M. (1976). Preparing faculty for innovative educational roles. Journal of Medical Education, 51: 592-594. Barrows H.S., Tamblyn R.M., Gliva G, Baxter D, Murray J and Dunne P. (1979). Design and evaluation of problem-based learning units in neurology. Transactions, American Neurological Association, 104, 23623-23628. Barrows, H.S., Tamblyn, R. (l976). An Evaluation of Problem-based learning in Small Groups Using a Simulated Patient. Journal of Medical Education, 51, 52-54. Barrows, H..S. (l986). A Taxonomy of Problem-based Learning Methods. Medical Education, 20, 481-486.

25

Barrows, H.S. and Tamblyn, R.M. (1977) The portable patient problem pack: A problem-based learning unit. Journal of Medical Education, 52(12), 1002-1004. Barrows, H.S., Bennett, K. (1982). Experimental studies on the diagnostic (problem-solving) skill of the neurologist, their implications for neurological training. Archives of Neurology 1982, 26,273277. Barrows, H.S., Myers, A.C. Williams, R.G., Moticka, E.J. (1986). Large group Problem-Based Learning: A possible solution for the 2 sigma problem. Medical Teacher, 8(4), 325-331. Barrows, H.S., (1998). The essentials of problem-based learning. Journal of Dental Education. 62:9, 630-633. Benware, C.A., Dice, E. (l984). Quality of Learning With an Active Versus Passive Motivational Set. American Education Research Journal, 21 (4), 755-765. Berkson, L. (1993). Problem-based Learning: Have the Expectations Been Met? Academic Medicine, 68: S79-588. Bhattacharya, M., 2006,Technologically Enhanced PBL Environment for Preparing Lifelong Learners, Sixth International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, 2006. , Page(s ) 1125 1126 Birch, S. (1986). Towards a model for problem-based learning. Studies in Higher Education, 11(1), 73-82. Blake, J.M., Norman, G.R., Keane, D.R., Mueller, C.B., Cunnington, J., and Didyk, N. (1996). Introducing progress testing in McMaster University's problem-based medical curriculum: Psychometric properties and effect on learning. Academic Medicine, 71, 1002-1007. Bloom, B.S. (l984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher,13(6), 4-16. Blosser, P. E. (l988). Teaching Problem Solving--Secondary School Science. EMI-ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics and Environmental Education 2. Blumenfeld, P.C. et al. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3,4), 369-398. Boshuizen, H.P.A. and Schmidt, H.G. (1992). The role of biomedical knowledge in clinical reasoning by experts, intermediates and novices. Cognitive Science, 16, 153-184. Botti, J.A., Myers, R., Exploring the environment: a problem-based approach to learning about global change, International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 1995. IGARSS '95. Page(s). 391 - 393 vol.1 Bousmah, M., Elkamoun, N., Berraissoul, A., Aqqal, A., 2006, Online Method and Environment for Elaborate the Project-Based Learning Specifications in Higher Education, Advanced Learning Technologies, 2006. Sixth International Conference on, Page(s) 769 773 Bransford, J.D. Stein, B.S., Shelton, T.S., Owings, R.A. (1981). Cognition and adaptation: The importance of learning to learn. In J. Harvey(Ed.) Cognition, Social behavior and the environment. Hillsdale, NJ. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

26

Bransford, J. D. et al. (1990). Anchored Instruction: Why We Need it and How Technology Can Help. Cognition, Education, And Multimedia. Hillsdale, NJ. Erlbaum Associates Brown, A., Ash, D., Rutherford, M., Nakagawa, K., Gordon, A., and Campione, J.C. (1993). Distributed cognitions, Ed. by Salomon, Gavriel, University of Haifa, Israel, Chapter 7, Distributed expertise in the classroom, Cambridge University Press. Brown, J.S., Collins, A., Dugvid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher ,18(1), 32-42. Chamberlain, T.C. (1965). The method of multiple working hypotheses. (Reprinted from Science, 15:92, 1890). Science 148(5), 754-759. Chiang, A., 2005, MALESAbrain for problem-based learning in IT education, ICALT 2005. Fifth IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, 2005, Page(s):570 574 Christensen,J., Henriksen, L.B., and Kolmos, A., (2006). Engineering Science, Skills and Bildung, Aalborg University Press. Cline, M., Powers, G.J., (1997) Problem-based learning via open ended projects in Carnegie Mellon University's Chemical Engineering undergraduate laboratory, Proseedings of 27th Annual Conference Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997 'Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change'. Page(s):350 - 354 vol.1 Codone, S., (2003). Simulation Jr: - using modified problem-based learning in technical communication undergraduate courses, Professional Communication Conference, 2003. IPCC 2003. Proceedings. IEEE International, 7 pp. Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (l990). Anchored Instruction and its Relationship to Situated Cognition. Educational Researcher; Aug-Sept. 2-10. Colby, K. (1986). Problem-based learning of social sciences and humanities. Journal Of Medical Education, 61(5), 413-415. Collins, A, Brown, J.S., Newman, S. (1989). "Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the Craft of Reading, Writing, and Mathematics," in Knowing, Learning and Instruction: Essays in Honor of Robert Glaser, ed by L.B. Resnick, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. Collins, A. et al. (1991). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Making things visible. American Educator, 15(3), 38-46. Collins, A., Brown J.R., Newman S.E. (1989). Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing and mathematics. In L.B. Resnick (Ed.), Cognition and Instruction: Issues and Agendas (1-35). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Collins, A., Stevens, A.S. (1982). Goals and Strategies of inquiry Teachers. In R. Glasser(Ed.), Advances in Instructional Psychology. (pp 65-119). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Coreiro,P. (1990). Problem-based thematic instruction. Language Arts, 67(1), 26-34. Costa, L.R. J., Honkala, M., Lehtovuori, A., 2007, Applying the Problem-Based Learning Approach to Teach Elementary Circuit Analysis, IEEE Transactions on Education, 41 - 48

27

Coulson, R.L., Osborne, C.E., (1984). "Insuring Curricular Content in a Student-Directed ProblemBased Learning Program," in Tutorials in Problem-Based Learning, ed by H Schmidt, Van Gorcum, Assen, The Netherlands. DeVolder, M.L., Schmidt, H., GeFrave, W.S., Moust, J.H.C. (l984). Motivation and achievement in cooperative learning: The role of prior knowledge. In H. Heckhausen(Ed.).Task Motivation and Achievement. ( 335-347). Lisse, The Netherlands: Sawets and Zeitlinger. Distlehorst, L.H., Barrows H.S. (l982). A new tool for problem-based self-directed learning. Journal of Medical Education, 57(6), 486-488. Distlehorst, L.H. and Robbs, R.S. (1998). A comparisonof problem-based learning and standard curriculum students: Three years of retrospective data. Teaching and Learning in Medicine. 10(3), 131-137. Dolmans, D.H. et al. (1991). Course improvement based on course content data: An explorative study conducted in problem-based curriculum. ERIC Document ED334220. Dolmans, D.H. et al. (l992). Do Students Learn What Their Teachers Intend They Learn? Guiding Processes in Problem-based Learning. ERIC Document ED343955. Dolmans, D.H.J.M., Gejselaers, W. H., Schmidt, H.G., and van der Meer, S.B. (1993). Problem effectiveness in a course using problem-based learning. Academic Medicine, 68(3), 207-213. Dolmans, D.H.J.M., Schmidt, H.G., and Gijselaers, W.H. (1993). Course content coverage as a measure of instructional quality. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 16, 448-471. Dolmans, D.H.J.M., Schmidt, H.G., and Gijselaers, W.H. (1994). The relationship between studentgenerated learning issues and self-study in problem-based learning. Instructional Science, 22, 251267. Dolmans, D.H.J.M., Schmidt, H.G., and Gijselaers, W.H. (1994). Use of student-generated learning issues to evaluate problems in a problem-based curriculum. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 6, 199-202. Dolmans, D.H.J.M., Schmidt, H.G., and Gijselaers, W.H. (1994). What drives the student in problem-based learning? Medical Education, 28, 372-380. Dolmans, D.H.J.M., Wolfhagen, I.H.A.P., et al. (1994). A rating scale for tutor evaluation in a problem-based curriculum: Validity and reliability. Medical Education, 28-550-558. Duffy, T. (l994). Strategic Teaching Framework: An Instructional Model for Learning Complex Interactive Skills. Instruction of Development State of the Art,(3). Paradigms. C. Dells, A. Romeszowski(Ed). Educational Technology Publications. Eisenstaedt, R. (1990). Problem-based learning: Cognitive retention and cohort traits of randomly selected participants and decliners. Academic Medicine, 65(9), 511-512. Elstein, A. S. (1994). What Goes Around Comes Around: Return of the Hypothetico-Deductive Strategy, Teaching and Learning in Medicine, Vol 6, No.2, 121-123. ERIC/SMEAC. (1988). Teaching Problem Solving-Secondary School Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education 2. Science. ERIC

Farmer, A. (1985). A new approach to physics teaching. Physics Teacher, 23(6), 338-343.
28

Feldman, E., Jenkins, M., Barrows, H., and Tamblyn, R. (1980). An approach to faculty education, Journal of Medical Education, Vol 55, May 1980. Feltovich, P,, Johnson, P.E., Moller J.H. and Swanson, D.B. (1984). The role and development of medical knowledge in diagnostic expertise. In Clancey W.J., Shortliffe E. Readings in medical artificial intelligence: The first decade. Addison Wesley, Reading MA. Feltovich P.J. and Barrows H.S. (1984). Issues of generality in medical problem solving. In Schmidt HG and DeVolder ML. (Eds.), Tutorials in problem-based learning: New directions in training for the health professions. Van Gorcum, Assen/Maastricht. The Netherlands. Feltovich, P.J., (1982/1983). Expertise: Reorganizing and refining knowledge for use. PERN ,4(3), 5-9. Finch, P.M. (1999). The effect of problem-based learning on the academic performance of students studying podiatric medicine in Ontario. Medical Education, 33, 411-417. Fink, F.K., Enemark, S., Moesby, E., Kolmos, A., 2003, Global network and global centre for problem-based learning, Frontier in Education, 2003, FIE2003, 33rd Annual, Volume 2, 5*8 Novev. 2003, pp. F3B-15-20. Firestien, R., and Treffinger. (l989). Guidelines for Effective Facilitation of Creative Problem Solving. Gifted Child Today, 12(5), 44-47. Frederiksen, N. (1986). Toward a broader conception of human intelligence. American Psychologist, 41(4), 445-452. Frederiksen, N. (l984). Implications of cognitive theory for instruction in problem solving. Review of Educational Research, 54(3), 363-407. Friedman, R.S., Deek, F.P., (2002). The integration of problem-based learning and problemsolving tools to support distributed education environments, Frontiers in Education, 2002. FIE 2002. 32nd Annual, F3E-17 - F3E-22 vol.2 Fujioka, T., Takada, H., Kita, H., (2006). What Does Squeak Provide Students with?--- A Comparative Study of Squeak eToy and Excel VBA as Tools for Problem-Solving Learning in High School, The Fourth International Conference on Creating, Connecting and Collaborating through Computing, 2006. C5 '06. , 42 - 49 Gale, J. , Marsden P. (1983).Medical Diagnosis: from student to clinician. Oxford University Press, London. Gallagher, S., Rosenthal, H. and Stepien, W. (l992). The effects of problem-based learning on problem-solving. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36(4), 195-200. Geerligs, T. et al. (l993). Test Format and Test-directed Study Behavior in Problem-Based Learning. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Geerlings, T. (1995). Students' thoughts during problem-based small-group discussion. Instructional Science, 22, 269-278. Gilhooly, K. J. (l990). Cognitive Psychology and Medical Diagnosis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, (4), 261-272.
29

Glaser, R. (1982). Education and thinking. EL Thorndike Address. American Psychological Association. Godden, D.R., Baddeley, A.D. (1975). Context-Dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 325-31. Graff, E. de, and Kolmos, A., eds., (2007), Management of Change Implementation of Problembased and Project-based Learning in Engineering, Sense Publishers. Graaff, E. de, and Kolmos, A., (2003), Characteristics of problembased learning, will be published in the International Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 19, no. 5, 8 sider. Gulseyen, S., (2004). Problem-based learning application to teach IT skills to prospective teachers in a Faculty of Education, Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training, 2004. ITHET 2004. Proceedings of the FIfth International Conference on, 187 - 191 Hansen, S., Kolmos, K., and Kofoed, L., (2003). Teaching and Learning process Competencies by Experimenting and Reflecting. Das Hochschulwesen, UniversittsVerlagWebler, no. 6, 2003. Harel, J., Papert, S. (l990). Software Design as a Learning Environment. Interactive Learning Environments, (l). 1-32. Harvel, L.D., Newstetter, W., Truong, K., Abowd, G.D., (2004) Work in progress-supporting automatic capture in problem-based learning environments, FIE 2004. 34th Annua lConference on Frontiers in Education, 2004. Page(s::F4E - 17-18 Vol. 2 Hay, J.A. and Schmuck, M.F. (l993). Problem-based Learning: Development and Analysis of a Tutor Evaluation Form for use in Small-Group Problem-based Learning. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. He, S., Kinshuk, P. A., (2002). Adaptivity in problem-based learning: use of granularity, Computers in Education, 2002. Proceedings. International Conference on, Page(s):711 - 712 vol.1 Hilgard, E.R., Irvine, R.P., Whipple, J.E. (1953). Rote memorization, understanding, and transfer: An extension of Katona's card trick experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46(4), 288292. Hmelo, C. (1995) Problem-Based Learning: Development of Knowledge and Reasoning Strategies. In J.D. Moore and J.F. Lehman (Eds) Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 403-408. Hmelo, C.E. and Ferrari, M. (1997). The problem-based learning tutorial: Cultivating higher-order thinking skills. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 20, 401-422. Hmelo, C.E. (1998). Cognitive consequences of PBL for the early development of medical expertise. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 10, 92-100. Hmelo, C.E. (1998). Problem-based learning: Effects on the early acquisition of cognitive skill in medicine.Journal of the Learning Science, 7, 173-208. Hmelo, C.E., Gotterer, G.S., Bransford, J.D. (1994). The Cognitive Effects of Problem- Based Learning: A Preliminary Study. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting, New Orleans, LA. ERIC Doc #ED371026.

30

Hmelo, C.E., Gotterer, G.S., Bransford, J.D. (1997). Theory-Driven Approach to Assessing the Cognitive Effects of PBL. Instructional Science, 25, 387-408. Hmelo-Silver, C.E., (2003). Facilitating collaborative knowledge construction, System Sciences, 2003. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Hawaii International Conference on, Page(s):10 Hovila, J., Ristimaki, T., Laitinen, K., Trygg, P., Kuusiluoma, S., Korpinen, L., (2000).Problembased learning in teaching electricity economics, Power System Technology, 2000. Proceedings. PowerCon 2000. International Conference on, 559 - 563 vol.1 Jian, M., (1996). Group decision support system for assessment of problem-based learning, Education, IEEE Transactions on, 388 - 393 Kagan, D.M. (1988). Teaching as clinical problem solving: A critical examination of the analogy and its implications. Review of Educational Research (58(4):482-505. Kamin, C.S. and Hawkins, J. (1997). A Protocol to Assess the Curricular Validity of Cases for PBL, Teaching and Learning in Medicine, Vol 9 (3) 215-220. Kaufman, D.M., Eng, M., and Mann, K.V. (1996). Comparing Students' Attitudes in Problem-based and Conventional Curricula, Academic Medicine, Vol 71 (10) 1096-1099. Keller, F.S. (l968). "Good-Bye teacher". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis ,l(l), 79-89. Kitchener, K. (l983). Cognition, Metacognition, and Epistemic cognition: A three Level Model of Cognitive processing. Human Development, 26(4), 222-232. Kleinmuntz, B. (1968).The processing of clinical information by man and machine. (chp. 4). The Formal Representation of Human Judgment. Carnegie-Mellon University. Kline, M., Chang L., Johnsen, J., Wolfe, C., Drumm, P., (2005). Mastering problem-based learning and case-based instruction techniques in a faculty learning community, Frontiers in Education, 2005. FIE '05. Proceedings 35th Annual Conference, T3F - 9-14 Knoll, J. W. (1993). An Introduction to Reiterative PBL. Issues and Inquiry in College Learning and Teaching Spr/Smr. 19-36. Kolmos, A., Vinther, O., Andersson, P., Malmi, L., and Fuglem, M., eds (2004), Faculty Development in Nordic Engineering Education, Aalborg University Press. Kolmos, K., K. Fink, F.K., and Krogh, L.,eds. (2004). The Aalborg PBL Model Progress, Diversity and Challenges, Aalborg University Press Kolmos, A., and Kofoed, L., (2004). Experimentation and reflection as learning strategies, in M.S. Gil, V.M.S., Alarco, I., and Hooghoff, H., Challenges in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, University of Aveiro. Kolmos, A., (2004). Estrategias para desarrollar curriculos basados en la formulacin de problemas y organizados en base a proyectos, Educar, no. 33, p. 77-96. Kolmos, A., (1996). Reflections on Project Work and Problem-based Learning, European Jounal of Engineering Education, Vol. 21, no. 2, p 141 - 148. Koschmann, T., Glenn, P., and Conlee, M. (1997). Analyzing the emergence of a learning issue in a Problem-Based Learning meeting. Medical Education Online, 2(1) also to appear in D. Evensen
31

& C. Hmelo (Eds.), Problem-Based Learning: A research perspective on learning interactions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.]. Kurfiss, J. G. (l988). Critical Thinking: Theory, Practice, Research and Possibilities. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report #2. Laforcade, P., Barbier, F., Sallaberry, C., Nodenot, T., (2003). Profiling cooperative problem-based learning situations, Cognitive Informatics 2003 Proceedings. The Second IEEE International Conference on, 32 - 38 LaPlaca, M.C., Newstetter, W.C., Yoganathan, A.P., (2001). Problem-based learning in biomedical engineering curricula, Frontiers in Education Conference, 2001. 31st Annual, F3E - 16-21 vol.2 Lautenbacher, G.E., Campbell, J.D., Sorrows, B.B., Mahling, D.E., (1997). Supporting collaborative, problem-based learning through information system technology, Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. 'Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change'. Proceedings., Page(s):1252 - 1256 vol.3 Levine, H.G., Forman, P.B. (1973). A study of retention of knowledge of neurosciences information. Journal of Medical Education, 48 (9), 867-869. Loschen, E. L. (1991). An alternative curriculum for the basic sciences. Educacao Mdica (Portugal), 2(2), 14-20. Macias-Guarasa, J., San-Segundo, R., Montero, J.M., Ferreiros, J., Cordoba, R., (2005). Tools and strategies for improving PBL laboratory courses with a high student-to-faculty ratio, Frontiers in Education, 2005. FIE '05. Proceedings 35th Annual Conference, F2C - 7-12 Magill, M.K. et al. (l988). A computer-assisted system for analysis of interaction in problem-based learning groups. Evaluation and the Health Professions, ll(3), 318-332. Margetson, D. (l99l). Is there a future for problem-based education? Higher Education Review, 23(2), 33-47. Martenson, D. (1993). Is problem-based learning beneficial? A research overview. Educaco Mdica, 4:2-9. Marton, F. and Saljo, R. (1976). On Qualitative Differences in Learning: I-Outcome and Process. British. Journal of. Educational Psychology, 46, 4-11. Martz, B., Shepherd, M., 2005, Problem-Based Learning and the Business School Environment, System Sciences, 2005. HICSS '05. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Hawaii International Conference on, 40a - 40a Maudsley, G. (1999). Do we all mean the same thing by "Problem-based Learning"? A review of the concepts and a formulation of the ground rules. Academic Medicine, 74(2);178-185. McCloskey, M., Caramazza, A., Green, B. (l980). Curvilinear motion in the absences of external forces. Naive beliefs and the motion of objects. Science, 210 (4474), 1139-41. McGaghie, W. C. (l99l). Professional Competence Evaluation. Educational Researcher,18 (2), 511. McGrew, M.C., Skipper, B,, Palley, T. and Kaufmann, A. (1999). Student and faculty perceptions of problem-based learning on a faculty medicine clerkship. Family Medicine, 31(3): 171-176.
32

Mennin, S.P., Kalishman, S., Friedman, M., Pathak, D. and Snyder, J. (1996) A Survey of Graduates in Practice from the University of New Mexico's Conventional and Community-oriented, Problem-based Tracks. Academic Medicine, Vol 71 (10) 1079-1089 Messick, S. (1989). Meaning and Values in Test Valuation. Educational Researcher, 20(l), 3-9. Miao, Y., Haake, J.M., (2001). supporting problem-based learning by a collaborative virtual environment: a cooperative hypermedia approach, System Sciences, Proceedings of the 34th Annual Hawaii International Conference on, 10 pp. Mitchell, R., (1994). The Development of the Cognitive Behavior Survey to Assess Medical Student Learning. Teaching and Learning in Medicine , Vol 6, No. 3, 161-167. Mochizuki, T., Kato, H., Nishimori, T., Hisamatsu, S., Yaegashi, K., Ozawa, S., (2005). A design of self-assessment environment in project-based learning: monitoring and reorganizing tasks and division of labor, Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training, 2005. ITHET 2005. 6th International Conference on, Page(s):F2D/1 - F2D/6 Moore, G.T., Block, S.D., Style, C.B., and Mitchell, R. (1994). The influence of the new pathway curriculum on Harvard Medical Students. Academic Medicine., 69, 983-989. Moss, G.D., McMillan, D. (1980). A strategy for developing problem-solving skills in large undergraduate classes. Studies in Higher Education, 980,5(2), l6l-71. Moust, J.H.C., and Schmidt, H.G. (1994). Effects of staff and student tutors on student achievement. Higher Education, 28, 471-482. Moust, J.H.C., and Schmidt, H.G. (1994). Facilitating small-group learning: A comparison of student and staff tutors behavior. Instructional Science, 22, 285-299. Myers, A. (1990). Cognitive science insights for professions' education. Journal of Optometric Education, 15(4). 105-110. Nash, P.P. et al. (l99l). A student centered, Problem-based surgery clerkship. Academic Medicine,66(7), 415-417. Needham, D. R., Begg, I. M. (1991). Problem-oriented training promotes spontaneous analogical transfer: Memory-oriented training promotes memory for training. Psychonomic Society, Inc. 19(6), 543-557. Newble, D.I. and Clarke R.M. (1986). The Approaches to Learning of Students in a Traditional and in an Innovative Problem-based Medical School. Medical Education, 20, 267-273 Nisbett, R.E., Fong, G.T., Lehman, D.R., Cheng, P.W. (1987).Teaching reasoning. Science, 238(4827), 626-631. Norman, G.R. (l988). Problem-solving skills, solving problems and problem-based learning. Medical Education, 22, 279-286. Norman, G. R., PhD. and Schmidt, H. G., Ph.D.(1992). The Psychological Basis of Problem-Based Learning; A Review of the Evidence. Academic Medicine,67(9),557-565. Norris, S. P. (l989). Can We Test Validly for Critical Thinking. Educational Researcher l8,(9), 2126.
33

Palincsar, A.S., (1989). Less Charted waters. Educational Researcher,8, 5-12. Patel, V. et al. (l99l) Effects of conventional and problem-based medical curricula on problem solving. Academic Medicine, 66(7), 380-389. Perfetto, G.A., Bransford, J.D., Franks, J.J. (1983). Constraints on access to a problem solving context. Memory and Cognition. ll(L), 24-31. Perkins, D. et al. (l990). Teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Journal of Structural Learning, 10(4), 285-303. Perkins, D.B., Salomon, G. (1989). Are cognitive skills context-bound? Educational Researcher 18(l), 16-25 Prawat, R.S. (l993). The value of ideas: Problems versus possibilities in learning. Educational Researcher, August-September, 5-16. Pucher, R., Mense, A., Wahl, H., (2002). How to motivate students in project based learning, Africon Conference in Africa, 2002. IEEE AFRICON. 6th, Page(s):443 - 446 vol.1 Qiu, L., Riesbeck, C.K., (2004). An incremental model for developing computer-based learning environments for problem-based learning, Advanced Learning Technologies, 2004. Proceedings. IEEE International Conference on, Page(s):171 175 Ramsey, P.G., Carline, J.D., et al. (1991) Changes over time in the knowledge base of practicing internists. Journal of American Medical Association, 266(8); 1103-1107. Regan-Smith, M.G., Obenshain, S.S., Seitz, H., Richards, B., Woodward, C., and Small, P.A. (1994). Rote Learning in Medical School. Journal of American Medical Association, 272(17), 13801381. Regan-Smith, M. G., M.D., Ed.D. (1993). Student Learning through Rote Memorization in Traditional Compared to Problem-Based Schools: Is it Different? Paper presented at the 32nd annual RIME Conference of the Association of American Medical Colleges. Regehr, G. and Norman, G.R. (1996). Issues in cognitive psychology: Implementations for professional education. Academic Medicine., 71, 988-1001. Regnier, D.P., Welsh, J.L., Quarton. (l994). The Problem-based Learning Curriculum At Southern Illinois University School of Medicine: A Student Perspective. Annals of Community-Oriented Education, 7, 259-266. Richards, B.F., Ober, P., Cariaga-Lo, L., Camp, M.G., et al. (1996). Ratings of Students' Performances in a Third-year Internal Medicine Clerkship: A Comparison between Problem-based and Lecture-based Curricula. Academic Medicine, Vol. 71, No 2, February 1996, 187-189. Romey, W. (1975). Transdisciplinary, problem-centered studies. School Science and Mathematics, 76(l), 30-38. Sackett, D.L. Haynes, R.B. (1976). Determinants of the decision to treat. Presentation to the Society for Epidemiological Research, Toronto, Canada, June 15-18, 1976. Sallaberry, C., Nodenot, T., Laforcade, P., Marquesuzaa, C., (2005). Model Driven Development of Cooperative Problem-Based Learning Situations Implementing Tools for Teachers and Learners
34

from Pedagogical Models, System Sciences, 2005. HICSS '05. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Hawaii International Conference on, Page(s):40c - 40c Savery, J. R., Duffy, T. (l994). Problem-based Learning: An Instructional Model and It's Constructivist Framework. Educational Technology, Sept-Oct, 1995, 31-38. Schmidt, H.G. (1984), Activatie van voorkennis en tekstverwerking (Activation of prior knowledge and text processing). Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Pshchologie,39, 335-347. Schmidt, H.G. (1994). Problem-based learning: An introduction. Instructional Science, 22, 247-250. Schmidt, H.G. (1994). Resolving inconsistencies in tutor expertise research: Does lack of structure cause students to seek tutor guidance? Academic Medicine, 69-656-662. Schmidt, H.G. (l983) Problem-based learning: rationale and description. Medical Education,(17), 11-16. Schmidt, H.G. et al. (l993). Peer Versus Staff Tutoring in Problem-based Learning. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Schmidt, H.G. Norman, G., and Boshuizen. (l990). A cognitive perspective on medical expertise. Academic Medicine, 65(10), 611-621. Schmidt, H.G., and Moust, J.H.C. (1995). What makes a tutor effective? A structural equations modeling approach to learning in problem-based curricula. Academic Medicine, 70-708-714. Schmidt, H.G., Dolmans, D.H.J.M., et al. (1995). Theory-guided design of a rating scale for course evaluation in Problem-Based curricula. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 7, 82-91. Schmidt, H.G., Machiels-Bongaerts, et al. (1996). The development of diagnostic competence: A comparison between a problem-based, an integrated, and a conventional medical curriculum. Academic Medicine, 71, 658-664. Schmidt, H.G., Van der Arend, A., et al (1994). Peer versus staff tutoring in problem-based Schwandt, T. A. (l989). Recapturing Moral Discourse in Evaluation. Educational Researcher, l8(8), 11-16. Schmidt, H. G. (1993). Foundations of Problem-Based Learning: Some Explanatory Notes. Medical Education, (27), 422-432. Schmidt, W.H.O. (l965). Process of learning in relation to different kinds of material to be learned. Medical Education in South Africa. Reid, J.B.O. and Wilmot, A.J. (Eds.). Peitermaritzburg, So. Africa: Natal University Press. Shahabudin, S.H. (l987). Content coverage in problem-based learning, Medical Education, 21, 310-313. Shen, V.R.L., Tong-Ying J., (2006). A Web- and Problem-Based Learning System in Artificial Intelligence, Computer and Information Science, 2006. ICIS-COMSAR 2006. 5th IEEE/ACIS International Conference on, 299 - 304 Shin, J. H., Haynew, R. B., and Johnston, M. E. (1993). Effect of problem-based, self-directed undergraduate education on life-long learning. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 148(6).

35

Shoemaker, H.A. (1960). The functional context method of Instruction. Human resources research office IRE Transactions on Education , 3(2), 52-7. Alexandria, VA: George Washington University. Smordal, O., Gregory, J., Langseth, K.J., (2002). PDAs in medical education and practice, Proceedings of IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education, 2002, Page(s):140 146 Solomon, G., Perkins, D. (1989). Rocky roads to transfer: Rethinking Mechanisms of a neglected phenomenon. Educational Psychologist 24(2) 113-142. Spiro, R.J., Coulson, R.L., Feltovich, P.J. and Anderson, D.K. (1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Proceedings of the 10th annual conference of the cognitive science society. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., Hillsdale NJ. Stepien, W. and Gallagher, S. (l993). Problem-based learning: As authentic as it gets. Educational Leadership, 50(7), 25-28. Stepien, W., Gallagher, S., and Workman, D. (l993). Problem-based learning for traditional and Interdisciplinary classrooms. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, l6(d4), 338-357. Sternberg, R.J., Wagner, R.K., Williams, W..M., and Horvath, J.A. (1995). Testing Common Sense. American Psychologist, Vol. 50, No. 11, 912-927. Sternburg, R. (l982). Teaching scientific thinking to gifted children. Roeper Review, 4(4), 4-6. Stinson, J.E. (l990). Integrated Contextual Learning: Situated Learning in the Business Profession. ERIC Document ED319330. Szekely, L. (l950). Productive processes in learning and thinking. Acta Psychologica, 7, 388-407. Tamblyn, R.M., Barrows, H.S. and Gliva, G. (1980) An initial evaluation of learning units to facilitate problem-solving and self-directed study (portable patient problem pack). Medical Education, 14: 394-400. Tans, R.W., Schmidt, H.G., Schade'-Hoogeveen, B.E.J., Gijselaers, W.H. (1986). Sturing van het onderwijsleerproces door middel van problem. Een vildexperiment (Problem-based learning: A field experiment). Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsresearech, ll(l), 35-46. Van Berkel, H.J.M., Nuy, H.J.P. and Geerlings, T. (1995). The influence of progress tests and block tests on study behavior. Instructional Science, 22, 317-333. Vernon, D. and Blake, R. (1993). Does problem-based learning work? A meta-analysis of evaluative research. Academic Medicine, 7, 550-563. Wales, C. E. (l979). Does how you teach make a difference? Engineering Education, February, 394-398. Washington, E.T., Tysinger, J.W., Snell, L.M. and Palmer, .LR. (1998). Implementing problembased learning in a family medicine clerkship. Family Medicine, 30(10): 72072-6. Waters, R., McCracken, M., (1997). Assessment and evaluation in problem-based learning, Frontiers in Education Conference, 1997. 27th Annual Conference. 'Teaching and Learning in an Era of Change'. Proceedings., Volume 2, 5-8 Nov. 1997 Page(s):689 - 693 vol.2

36

Westcott, M.R., Ranzoni, J.H. (1963). Correlates of intuitive thinking. Psychological Reports,12(2), 595-613. Wilkerson, L. (l993). Tutors, Strategies for Promoting Problem Solving in a Problem-based Tutorial. Paper presented at the annual American Education Research Association meeting. Wilkerson, L., Feletti, G. (l989). Problem-based learning: One approach to increasing Student participation. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, Spring(37), 51-60. Willems, J. (l981). Problem-based (group) teaching: A cognitive science approach to using available knowledge. Instructional Science, 10(l), 5-21. Williams, S. M. (1992). Putting Case-Based Instruction Into Context: Examples From Legal and Medical Education. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2 (4), 367-427. Williams, S. M. (l992). Putting Case-Based Instruction Into Context: Examples From Legal and Medical Education. The Journal of the Learning Sciences,2(4), 367-427. Woods, D. (l985). What about problem-based learning? Journal of College Science Teaching,15(l), 62-64. Yu, W.D., 2005, Work in progress - a mobile computing collaborative framework for problem-based learning environment,Frontiers in Education, 2005. FIE '05. Proceedings 35th Annual Conference, F4E - 12-13 Yueh Hsiu-Ping; Lin Wei-Jane, (2005). Design of the information sharing mechanism in supporting students' collaborative learning in PBL environment, Advanced Learning Technologies, 2005. ICALT 2005. Fifth IEEE International Conference on, Page(s. :305 307 Books and Chapters Abercrombie, M.L.J. (1970). Aims and Techniques of Small Group Teaching. London: Society for Research in Higher Education. Alavi, C. (Ed). (1995). Problem-based Learning in a Health Sciences Curriculum. Routledge Allen, D., and Duch, B., (1998). Thinking Toward Solutions: Problem-Based Learning Activities for General Biology, Harcourt College Publishing Anderson, J. E., Ridley, T. (l977). Cool School: An Alternative Secondary School Experience, Toronto, Ontario:.Institute for Studies in Education. Barkley, E.F., Cross, K.P., Major, C. H., (2005). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA Barrows, H. (1985). How to Design a Problem-based Curriculum for Pre-clinical Years. New York. Springer Publishing Co. Barrows, H. (2000). Problem-Based Learning Applied to Medical Education, Springfield, IL. SIU School of Medicine. Barrows, H. (l988). The Tutorial Process. Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine.

37

Barrows, H. (l994). Practice-Based Learning: Problem-Based Learning Applied to Medical Education, Springfield, IL. Southern Illinois University School of Medicine. Barrows, H. (l996). What Your Tutor May Never Tell You, Springfield, IL. SIU School of Medicine. Barrows, H. S., Tamblyn, R.M. (1980) Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to Medical Education. New York. Springer Publishing Company. Barrows, H.S., Pickell, G.C. (1991). Developing Clinical Problem-solving Skills: A Guide to More Effective Diagnosis and Treatment. New York, London, Norton Medical Books, W. W. Norton and Co. Boud, D., Feletti, G. (1991). The Challenge of Problem-based Learning. London. Kogan. Bridges, E., Hallenger, P. (l992). Problem-based Learning for Educational Administrators. Oregon. ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management. Cornell,J., Eskin,F., Published (2003), Problem- Based Learning for Health Improvement: practical public health for every professional, Radcliffe Publishing. Cranton, P., (1998), No One Way: Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Wall & Emerson, Inc., Dayton, OH. Dave, S., Knowlton, D., Charp, C., (2003), Problem-Based Learning in the Information Age, Whiley Periodicals, Inc. ,Hoboken, NJ. Duch, B., Gron, S., and Allen, D., L.L.C. (2001), The Power of Problem-Based Learning, A Practical "How To" For Teaching Undergraduate Courses in Any Discipline, Stylus Publishing Elstein A.S., Shulman LS, Sprafka SS. (1978). Medical Problem-solving: An Analysis of Clinical Reasoning. Harvard University Press Cambridge, MA and London. Evensen, D.E., Hmelo-Silver, C.E., (2000), Problem-Based Learning: A Research Perspective on Learning Interactions, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Feletti, G.I., Boud, D., (1998). The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning, Routledge. UK. Glasgow, N. A. (1997). New Curriculum for New Times: A Guide to Student-Centered, Problembased Learning. Corwin Press, Inc. Johnson, M.L. (l943). The Anatomy of Judgment. London: Penguin Books. Katona, G. (1940). Organizing and Memorizing: Studies in the Psychology of Learning and Teaching. New York: Columbia University Press. Knowles, M.S. (l975). Self-directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. New York: Association Press. Koschmann, T., Kelson, A.C., Feltovich, P.J., and Barrows, Howard S. (1996), "ComputerSupported Problem-Based Learning: A Principled Approach to the Use of Computers in Collaborative Learning" in CSCL: Theory and Practice of an Emerging Paradigm, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Lambros, (2004), Problem-Based Learning in Middle and High School Classrooms: A Teacher's Guide to Implementation, Ann Corwin Press.
38

Lieux, E. and Luoto, P., (2000), Exploring Quantity Food Production and Service through Problems, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, 134 pages. Mager, R.F. (l973). Measuring Instructional Intent: Or, Got a Match?. Belmont, CA. Fearon Publishers. McKeachie, W.J., (1999), Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA. Medawar, P.B. (l969). Introduction and Intuition in Scientific Thought. London. Metheun. Menges, R.J., Weimer, M.E., and Associates, Teaching on Solid Ground: Using Scholarship to Improve Practice, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA. Michaelsen, L.K., Knight,A.B., Fink, L.D.,(2002), Team-Based Learning: A Transformative Use of Small Groups, Praeger, Westport, CT. Nickerson, R. and Zodhiates, P. (l988). Technology in Education: Looking Toward 2020. Hillsdale, NJ. Erlbaum Associates. Nickerson, R.S., Perkins, D.N., Smith, E.E. (1985). The Teaching of Thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, London. Rideout, E. (2001), Transforming Nursing Education Through Problem-based Learning, Jones and Bartlett Publishers Rowntree, D.(1977). Assessing Students: How Shall We Know Them? New York: Harper and Row Publishers. Savin-Baden, M., (2003), Facilitating Problem-based Learning, Division: Open University Press. Schon, D.A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Sinnot, J. (l988). Everyday Problem Solving. New York. Praeger. Shulman, L.S., Hutchings, P., (2004), Teaching as Community Property: Essays on Higher Education, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA. Schwartz, P.L., Webb,G., Mennin,S., Published (2001), Problem-Based-Learning: Case Studies, Experience and Practice, Routledge, UK. Tate, M.L., (2004), Sit and Get Won't Grow Dendrites: 20 Professional Learning Strategies That Engage the Adult Brain, Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, CA. Uden, L., Beaumont,C. (2005), Technology And Problem-Based Learning, Idea Group Inc (IGI). Wilkerson, L., and Gijselaers, W.H. (eds) (1996). Bringing Problem-Based Learning to Higher Education: Theory and Practice, San Francisco. Jossey-Bass Publishers Woods, D. R. (1994). Problem-based Learning: How to Gain the Most from PBL. Hamiltion, Ontario, Canada. Donald R. Woods Publisher.

39

APPENDIX: WEB RESOURCES Problem-based Learning Initiative at Southern Illinois University The Problem-based Learning Initiative at Southern Illinois University concentrates mainly on Medical education but is very useful for the basics such as the essential requirements for PBL. It contains a range of books, videos, PBL modules and patient simulations to buy in medical education. The bibliography is very comprehensive. http://www.pbli.org/core.htm http://www.pbli.org/bibliography/articles.htm http://www.pbli.org/bibliography/books.htm University of Samford Center for Problem-Based Learning The University of Samford Center for Problem-Based Learning organizes their site under headings, e.g. Who?, What?, When?, Where?, Why? and all subsections are fairly standard stuff. The section which deserves a closer look is How? which provides free access to the in-house journal PBL Insight which is a source of some useful articles and invites submissions from authors. http://www.samford.edu/pbl/index.html San Diego State University Distributed Course Delivery for PBL The San Diego State University Distributed Course Delivery for PBL site provides an on-line workshop in PBL which could form the basis of do-it-yourself staff development. This could be another good starting point for academics new to PBL. The Learning Tree section provides comprehensive coverage of the subject and is particularly strong on assessment, implementation and overcoming barriers and obstacles. The site also includes an extensive bibliography. http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/home.html University of Delaware The University of Delaware site is extremely useful. The list of books links directly to reviews or publishers. There are several full-text articles as well as back-issues of the in-house journal About Teaching which features many articles on PBL. There are also a number of sample problems taken mainly from the sciences. By far the most useful feature of this site is the PBL Clearinghouse which is a searchable collection of many peer reviewed problems. The Clearinghouse is accessed via an email user name and password but these are available easily and you can be signed up within minutes. Once into the Clearinghouse users can search by keyword, author or discipline. There is also an invitation to become an author or reviewer. http://www.udel.edu/pbl McMaster University McMaster University in Canada has a long tradition in PBL. One staff member, PK Rangachari, has some very useful advice related to writing problems in his Writing Problems: A Personal Casebook. This casebook discusses the many aspects of writing good quality problems and includes many examples drawn mainly from the biomedical and biological sciences. http://www.fhs.mcmaster.ca/pbls Queens University Ontario School of Medicine The Queens University Ontario, School of Medicine PBL site contains a downloadable version of The PBL Handbook which is a useful guide to many aspects of PBL. Although the examples used to illustrate the handbook are drawn from medicine, the book is generic enough to ensure that this is widely applicable and could be potentially useful to those new to the subject. http://meds.queensu.ca/medicine/pbl/pblhome.htm http://www.queensu.ca/ctl/goodpractice/problem/course.html Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction

40

The Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction hosts a searchable database of links which is more useful than most as the search can be refined so producing a sensible number of more relevant links. http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/pbl/problem.html Problem-Based Learning Directory at University of Brighton The Problem-Based Learning Directory at the University of Brighton aims to provide information about how PBL is managed by various departments/disciplines, in many countries, in order to facilitate international collaboration. The site does not yet contain much information relevant to physical sciences but it could grow into a useful resource. http://interact.bton.ac.uk/pbl Project LeAP Project LeAP (Problem-Based Learning in Astronomy and Physics) is a three-year project. The project aims to increase the profile of problem-based learning (PBL) in university Physics and Astronomy courses. The University of Leicester heads the project consortium, with the Universities of Hertfordshire, Reading, and Sheffield as partners. The site includes a comparative analysis of PBL within physics, case studies, exemplar support materials for students and tutors, and original PBL problems. http://www.le.ac.uk/leap Central Queensland's Problem-Based Learning Web Portal Central Queensland's Problem-Based Learning Web Portal contains comprehensive information on problem-based learning and is designed to support students, coaches and course developers. The e-board is part of CQU's new Problem-Based Learning Portal and will serve as a virtual meeting place for staff and students interested in discussing and learning more about this incredibly effective approach to learning http://www.pbl.cqu.edu.au/index.html Temasek Polytechnic PBL Center Temasek Polytechnic PBL Center in Singapore has a portal aiming at providing a single point entry access to an integrated, online support services that complement face-to-face delivery and support of PBL-related content and resources. It also aims at building a community of practice among PBL practitioners. http://pbl.tp.edu.sg/default.aspx UNESCO CHAIR for Problem-Based and Project-Based Learning in Engineering at Aalborg University UCPBL at Aalborg University web site has a comprehensive PBL library. http://www.ucpbl..net http://www.ucpbl.org IST Learning Initiatives at Penn State (Problem-Based Learning) http://www.man.ac.uk/ http://pbl.ist.psu.edu/pbl/ Centre for Excellence in Enquiry-Based Learning at University of Manchester http://www.campus.manchester.ac.uk/ceebl/ Center for Educational Development at Republic Polytechnic http://www.rp.sg/schoolscentres/ced.asp Problem-Based Learning at The Australian Correspondence Schools http://www.acs.edu.au/pbl/pblhome.asp Problem-Based Learning Web Portal at Central Queensland University
41

http://pbl.cqu.edu.au/ http://cqu.edu.au/ PBLE: Project-Based Learning in Engineering The PBLE Guide: Educating Engineers using Projects http://www.pble.ac.uk/index.html http://www.pble.ac.uk/guide.html PBL Directory at University of Brighton http://interact.bton.ac.uk/pbl/ PBL Faculty Institute at University of California, Irvine http://www.pbl.uci.edu/ http://www.uci.edu/ Distributed Course Delivery for PBL from EdWeb at San Diego State University (see The Learning Tree) http://edweb.sdsu.edu/clrit/home.html Case Study Teaching in Science, SUNY Buffalo http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/case.html http://wings.buffalo.edu/ PBL at the Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/pbl/ P5BL at the Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Stanford http://pbl.stanford.edu/ http://www-ce.stanford.edu/ Project-Based Instruction in Mathematics for the Liberal Arts University of South Carolina, Spartanburg http://faculty.uscupstate.edu/mulmer/PBI_Index.shtml http://www.uscupstate.edu/ Problem Writing Casebook in Health Sciences at McMaster University http://www.fhs.mcmaster.ca/ http://www.mcmaster.ca/ Pebbles Project at the Chemistry Department at Emory University http://www.emory.edu/CHEMISTRY/ PBL Teacher Pages from Exploring the Environment / Classroom of the Future at Wheeling Jesuit University http://www.cotf.edu/ete/teacher/teacherout.html http://www.wju.edu/ The Samford PBL Initiative at Samford University PBL Course Porfolios http://www.samford.edu/pbl/ http://www.samford.edu/pbl/portfolios.html An Integrative Curriculum Approach to Mathematics and the Health Professions Using PBL at Allegany College of Maryland http://www.ac.cc.md.us/Department/math.html/fipse.html PBL in the Core Curriculum at Southern Illinois University
42

http://mccoy.lib.siu.edu/corecurr/pbl/ http://www.siu.edu/ PBL Initiatives at Coventry University http://www.hss.coventry.ac.uk/pbl/ http://www.coventry.ac.uk/ Project on the Effectiveness of PBL at Middlesex University http://www.hebes.mdx.ac.uk/teaching/Research/PEPBL/ http://www.mdx.ac.uk/ Lausnaleitarnm PBL Upplsingavefur (Iceland) http://www.pbl.is/ PBL at the Faculty of Health Sciences at McMaster University Programme for Faculty Development http://www-fhs.mcmaster.ca/mhsi/problem-.htm http://www.mcmaster.ca/ PBL at University of Maastricht http://www.unimaas.nl/pbl/ PBL in the School of Medicine at Queen's University http://meds.queensu.ca/medicine/pbl/pblhome.htm , http://meds-ss10.meds.queensu.ca/medicine/ http://www.queensu.ca/ PBL Initiative at the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine http://www.pbli.org/ http://www.siumed.edu/ PBL Curriculum at the College of Veterinary Science of Mississippi State University http://pbl.cvm.msstate.edu/ http://www.cvm.msstate.edu/ http://www.msstate.edu/ PBL at the School of Pharmacy at University of Mississippi Journal of Clinical ProblemBased Learning http://www.olemiss.edu/courses/pbl/ http://www.jclinpbl.org/ http://sunset.backbone.olemiss.edu/depts/pharm_school/ Bio-Science Medical PBL at the School of Medicine at University of Nevada, Reno http://www.unr.edu/sb204/pbl/ http://www.unr.edu/med/ PBL in Law at the UK Centre for Legal Learning at University of Warwick http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/pbl/ http://warwick.ac.uk/ Make It Happen Supports PBL in offering students, teachers, and parents resources to help them be successful at doing projects http://www.makeithappen.ws/ Buck Institute for Education
43

Non-profit, research and development organization dedicated to improving the practice of teaching and the process of learning, in particular PBL http://www.bie.org/ PBL and Teacher Training at Augusta State University http://www.aug.edu/teacher_development/PBL/pblwelcome.html USC California Science Project http://www.usc.edu/hsc/dental/ccmb/usc-csp/ Center for the Advancement and Renewal of Learning and Teaching in Mathematics, Science, and Technology at the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy http://www.imsa.edu/center/ The Problem Log, research articles on PBL http://www.imsa.edu/team/cpbl/learning/problemlog.html , Problem-Based Learning: How to Gain the Most from PBL, McMaster University Available online in its entirety. http://chemeng.mcmaster.ca/pbl/pbl.htm The Aalborg Experiment at Aalborg University http://www.auc.dk/fak-tekn/aalborg/engelsk/ http://www.auc.dk/

44