Subject Description: This subject will help the students develop their competence in using the English language

through thorough discussions of the rules which should be observed when using the language. The subject also contains selected English-American literary pieces which will serve as a springboard for teaching and learning grammatical structures and language skills. General Objectives: The students should be able to: 1. Write complete sentences and identify their different parts. 2. Have a broader understanding of Western culture through English-American literature. VERBS Verbs- express action or the state of being of the subject of the sentence. Classification of Verbs 1. Action verbs a. Transitive verbs- carry action from the subject to the object of the verb. Sylvia bought a big ball for her little brother. The newly established convenient store sells interesting paperbacks. b. Intransitive verbs- express an action that is complete in itself. Several people walk hurriedly to their working places. Children sleep early every night. 2. Linking Verbs- connect the subject with a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective at or near the end of the sentence. Sometimes, a linking verb is also called the state-of-being verb when it simply points out that something exists.

Is, are, am Was, were Is/are/am being Was/were being Can/could be

May/might be Must be Shall/should be Will/would be Has/have/had been

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Must have been Could have been May/might have been Shall/should have been Will/would have been

Other verbs that can also function as linking verbs are: appear, become, seem, look, sound, grow, feel, smell, taste, remain, stay, get, and turn. Fred seems disappointed about the projects turnout. The old man grew tired and weary from running after his grandson. Note the difference: This flower smells fresh. (linking verb) Martina smelled the fresh flowers. (action verb) 3. Helping verbs/ Auxiliary verbs Has Have Had do Does Did Must May Might Can Could Will Would Shall Should

Voices of the Verbs Active voice- the subject performs the action. Passive voice- the subject receives the action. Tense Present simple Passive Formation Is/are + p.p.
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Present continuous Present perfect Past simple Past continuous Past perfect Future simple Future continuous Future perfect Example: My wife chose the wallpaper. The wallpaper was chosen by my wife.

Is/are being + p.p. Has/have been + p.p. Was/were + p.p. Was/were being + p.p. Had been + p.p. Will be + p.p. Will be being + p.p. Will have been + p.p.

Different Forms of Verbs a. Present b. Past c. Present participle d. Past participle Verbs can be: Regular Verbs- form their past and past participle by adding d or ed to the present form. Irregular Verbs- form their past and past participle in different ways. Tenses of the Verbs A. PRESENT TENSE 1. Present Simple Habitual or routine actions He goes fishing every week. Permanent situations and facts The sun sets in the west
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 Commentaries I think Manny Pacquiao is the best boxer in the world. Directions and instructions Go to your left, then go straight on. Newspaper headlines Stock market falls to all time low. Present stories So I open the door and what I see but a policeman in a pink uniform. 2. Present continuous To talk about an action that is in progress at the time of speaking Please be quiet. Im watching TV. To talk about a temporary action that is not necessarily in progress at the time of speaking I am reading a good book at the moment. To emphasize very frequent actions (always) She is always biting her nails. Background events in a present story So Im standing there when a policeman comes in. To describe developing situations Its getting dark. To refer to a regular action around a point of time Hes not usually working at this time. 3. Present perfect When we talk about finished actions/states that happened at an indefinite time. It refers to general experience without specific detail.
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I have eaten octopus. When we are thinking about completed past actions carried out in an unfinished time period at the time of speaking It has rained a lot today. When we talk about actions/states which began in the past and are still true now in the present time at the time of speaking We have lived in Paris for five years. When we describe past actions which present results I have left my purse at home. 4. Present perfect continuous To communicate an incomplete activity, when we want to say how long it has continued Ive been living here for six years. To describe a recently finished activity which has a present result Im tired because Ive been living hard. B. PAST TENSE 1. Simple past For a past action when the time is given I met him yesterday. When the time is asked about When did you meet him? When the action clearly took place at a definite time even though this time is not mentioned The train was ten minutes late. Sometimes the time becomes a definite as a result of a question and answer in the present perfect Where have you been? Ive been to the opera. Did you enjoy it?
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2. Past continuous For interrupted past action While I was having a bath, the phone rang. Use without a time expression, it can indicate gradual development It was getting darker. It can express an action which began before that time and probably continued after it At eight he was having breakfast. We use the continuous tense in descriptions When I woke up, the sun was shining and the birds were singing 3. Past perfect Actions that occurred before other actions in the past (past in the past) When I got to the car park, I realized that I had lost my bags. She told me she had worked in France and Germany. 4. Past perfect continuous To talk about longer actions or situations in the past that had been going on continuously up to the past moment that we are thinking about

Technically, there are no future tenses in English. The word will is a modal auxiliary verb and future tenses are sometimes called modal tenses. Hold on. Ill get a pen. We will see what we can do to help you. Maybe well stay in and watch television tonight.

C. FUTURE TENSE 1. Present simple To suggest a more formal situation Our new shop opens next month. For timetables and schedules We fly to Hong Kong on Sunday. To suggest a more impersonal tone (often implying an outside compulsion) We start filming tomorrow. 2. Present continuous For definite arrangements We are taking our holidays in July. For decisions and plans without definite arrangements Im going for a drink later. Im leaving you. 3. BE Going + Infinitive Intentions Im going to do it. Predictions based on present evidence I think its going to rain later. Plans (decisions made before speaking) I am going to visit my family in April. 4. Future simple Future facts and uncertainties Hell be 24 in December.
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 Promises Ill put the check in the post. Predictions (based on no present evidence as opposed to be going to) It will rain before morning. Assumptions/ speculations That will be the Bailiffs at the door. Spontaneous decisions (contrast with be going to for planned decision) Ill get my coat. Threats Ill kill you. 5. Future continuous To say something will be in progress at a particular moment in the future This time morning, I will be lying on the beach. To predict the present, to say what we think or guess might be happening now John will be probably having lunch now. For polite enquiries referring to other peoples plans, but not to influence the listeners intentions Will you be coming to the party? To refer to future events which are fixed or decided (without suggesting personal intention) Professor Smith will be giving another lecture at the same time next week. 6. Future perfect Used to say that something will have been done, completed or achieved by a certain time in the future
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The builder says hell have finished the roof by Monday. 7. Future perfect continuous To say how long something will have continued by a certain time By the time you get here, Ill have been working for six hours. Note: The following verbs are not normally used in the present continuous: Like Love Hate Want Need Prefer Wish Know Realize Suppose Mean Understand Believe Remember Belong Fit Contain Consist Seem Appear Hear Owe Own See Smell Taste

Note: You can use can want and mean in the present perfect continuous. Moods of the Verbs 1. Indicative mood- expresses a fact, a truth, or an opinion. I like coffee. I do not like coffee. 2. Interrogative mood- expresses a question.
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Do you like coffee? Why do you like coffee? 3. Subjunctive mood- expresses what is imagined or wished or possible. Omit the s ending in the third person singular of the present tense of the verb The President ordered that he attend the meeting. It is important that he leave early. We are suggesting that she stop smoking. Use were to express a doubt, a wish, a desire, or a contrary-to-factstatement. He wishes he were at the party. 4. Imperative mood- expresses either a command or a request. Sit down! Direct and Indirect Speech Direct Speech Present simple Present continuous Present perfect Present perfect continuous Past simple Past continuous Will Past perfect Past perfect continuous Reported Speech Past simple Past continuous Past perfect Past perfect continuous Past perfect Past perfect continuous Would Past perfect Past perfect continuous

MODALS Modals- are auxiliary verbs used to express special meanings. They dont give complete meanings unless used with another verb. Modals Uses Present/future Past May 1. Polite request May I borrow your pen? 2. Formal permission You may leave the room. 3. Less than 50% certainty Wheres John? He may have been at the He may be at the library. library.
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Might

Less than 50% certainty Wheres John? He might have been at the He might be at the library. library. 2. Polite request (rare) Might I borrow your pen? Should 1. Advisability I should study tonight. I should have studied last 2. 90% She should do well on the night. test. (future only, not She should have done well on present) the test. Ought to 1. Advisability I ought to study tonight. I ought to have done well on 2. 90% She ought to do well on the the test. (but we dont know test. (future only, not yet) present) Must 1. Strong necessity I must go to class today. 2. Probation (negation) You must not open that 3. 95% certainty door. Mary isnt in class. She mustMary must have been sick be sick. (present only) yesterday. Have to 1. Necessity I have to go to class today. I had to go to class yesterday. 2. Lack of necessity I dont have to go to class I didnt have to go to class (negative) today. yesterday. Have got 1. Necessity Ive got to go to class today. to Can 1. Ability/possibility I can run fast. I could run fast when I was 2. Informal permission You can use my car young, but now I cant. 3. Informal polite request tomorrow. 4. Impossibility Can I borrow your pen? That cant have been true! That cant be true. Could 1. Past ability I could run fast when I was a 2. Polite request Could you help me? child. 3. Suggestion I need help at maths. You could talk to your You could have talk to your 4. Less than 50% teacher. teacher. Wheres John? He could have been at home. 5. Impossibility (negative He could be at home. only) That couldnt be true. That couldnt have been true! Be able to 1. Ability I am able to help you. I will I was able to help you. be able to help you. Would 1. Polite request Would you please pass the salt? 2. Preferences I would rather go to the park I would rather have gone to than stay home. the park. 3. Repeated past action When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every weekend.

1.

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NOUNS Nouns - are naming words. Nouns are names of persons, places, and things. Classification of Nouns 1. Proper Nouns- are specific names. Examples: Nike, National Library, Manila Business College 2. Common Nouns- name any of a class of persons, places or things. Examples: pencil, shoes, school 3. Concrete Nouns- can be visible and others can be perceived by our senses. Examples: chair, paper, aroma, music, 4. Abstract Nouns- cannot be perceived by our senses. Examples: love, patience, courage 5. Mass Nouns- cannot be counted and use counters to form their plural. Examples: milk, coffee, oil 6. Collective Nouns- refer to groups of persons, animals or things. 7. Examples: class, army, clan 8. Compound Nouns- consist of more than one word. Examples: sunshine, ice cream, court-martial

Some nouns can be countable and uncountable depending on the sense in which they are used. a. We have a chicken in the fridge. (whole chicken) b. There is a chicken on the menu tonight. (We cannot exactly state how much chicken.)

Cases of Nouns

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1. Nominative or subjective case- noun used as a subject, predicate nominative, appositive, or in direct address. 2. Objective case- noun used as a direct object, indirect object, object of an infinitive, as object of preposition, or as the appositive . 3. Possessive case- noun used to show ownership. PRONOUNS Pronouns are used in place of nouns to avoid tiresome repetition of the noun. Pronouns have antecedents. Antecedents are nouns that pronouns stand for. The pictures on the wall look faded. They need to be replaced very soon. (Pictures is the antecedent of they.) Classification of Pronouns 1. Personal Pronouns- refer to persons names. Persons of Personal Pronouns First person- the person speaking Second person- the person spoken to Third person- the person spoken about Nominative Case Objective Case First Person: Singular I Me Plural We Us Second Person: Singular You You Plural You You Third Plural: SingularShe Her Feminine He Him It It Masculine they Them Neuter Plural Cases of Pronouns a. Pronouns used as subject and subjective complement are in the nominative case. I am a teacher. (subject) Betty and she are in Hong Kong. (subject) The leaders of the production are Mel and he. (subjective complement)
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a. i. ii. iii.

Possessive Case My, mine Our, ours Your, yours Your, yours Her, hers His its Their, theirs

b. Pronouns used as direct object, indirect object, and object of preposition are in the objective case. Fides sent her to the supermarket to buy some seasonings. (direct object) Dennis told me a big lie about his family background.(indirect object) Please deliver these flowers to her. (object of preposition) c. Pronouns used as an appositive (word or group of words that adds information or details to another noun), its case is determined by the function of the noun that it refers to. The winners, Sarah and she, will be awarded during the closing ceremonies. (subject) The cheering squads adviser is always proud of her appointed leaders, Dana and them. (object of preposition) d. Pronouns with the infinitive to be have a subject, use the objective case. If they have no subject, use the nominative case. The plays director thought Dolly to be me. (Dolly is the subject of to be) Andrea has been wishing to be I. (no subject precedes to be) Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement Students leave their things scattered on top of their desks. (plural antecedent) Some of the meat has molds on it. (singular indefinite pronoun) All of us women are casting our votes for Mr. Tan. (plural indefinite pronoun) Angelica or Paolo will come for consultation about his grades. (pronoun should refer to the nearer antecedent) 2. Indefinite Pronouns- do not specify an exact or a particular name of a person, place, or thing. Singular indefinite Pronouns Another Anybody Anyone Anything Each Every Either Everybody
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Everyone Everything Little Much Neither Nobody

No one Nothing One Somebody Someone Something

Plural Indefinite Pronouns Both Many Few Note: We use many and few with plural countable nouns. (many photographs, few things) We use much and little for uncountable nouns. (much shopping, little work) Several Others

Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns All Any More Most None

Note: All, any, more, most, none, and some are singular when they refer to mass nouns.

Some of the cheese enhances the taste of pasta dishes. All the milk on the shelf is close to expiration.
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When all, any, more, most, none, and some refer to count nouns, their meaning depends on the number of the nouns they stand for.

Some of the guests are leaving early. Any girl in the class dances gracefully.

3. Relative Pronouns- are used to introduce relative clauses. They are connecting words to other ideas in sentences. They can be singular or plural depending on the number of their antecedents. Relative Pronouns That Which Who Whom The dog that chases strangers has grown weary. Mildred will visit her grandparents who are sick. 4. Interrogative Pronouns- are used to begin questions. Interrogative Pronouns What Which Who 5. Demonstrative Pronouns- point at persons or objects. Singular This That Plural These Those Whom Whose Whose When Where

6. Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns- The pronouns are reflexive when the action indicated goes back to the subject. They are intensive when they are used to emphasis or reinforcement.
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First person Second person Third person

Singular Myself Yourself Himself Herself Itself

Plural Ourselves Yourselves Themselves

Tina bought herself a new dress. (reflexive pronoun) The team captain himself scored the winning point. (intensive pronoun) 7. Reciprocal Pronouns- indicate a mutual interchange of action. Reciprocal Pronouns Each other- refer to an interchange of action between two people. One another- refer to an interchange of action to more than two.

Much and little are used with countable nouns. Many and few are used with countable nouns. None sometimes uses a singular verb when it means no one or not one. When none means or suggests more than one thing or person use the plural form of the verb. None of them is able to do that job. None are helpless because they can always try.

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives- words that describe, limit, or qualify meaning. Adjectives are words that modify nouns or pronouns. They answer the questions which one?, what kind?, how many?, and how much?. Please give this message to your mother. (which one?) Mario wants to buy a new pair of leather shoes. (what kind?) I have seen two movies this year. (how many?) Cherry does not seem to have much patience with her students lately. (how much?) Usually, adjectives appear before the nouns they modify as seen in the examples above. But they can also come after the noun they modify.
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Gretchens new watch, unique and expensive, is a gift from her mother. Frequently, an adjective is separated from the noun or pronoun by a linking verb. The dolls are absolutely lovely. Nick has been very ill these past few days. They may also come after a noun complements. Many students consider Mr. Johnson strict. The committee declared Monique the most talented. Classifications of Adjective A. Descriptive adjective- words that give quality, size, age, shape, color, origin, and material or kind to a noun or pronoun. B. Limiting adjective- words that point out an object or indicate its number or quantity. 1. Articles-indicate whether the noun is used definitely or indefinitely. a. Use a/an with singular countable nouns b. Do not use a/an with uncountable nouns, but you can use a...of (a bowl of rice) The following nouns are usually uncountable: Accommodation Luck Advice Luggage Baggage News Behaviour Permission Bread Progress Chaos Scenery Damage Traffic Furniture Weather Information Work c. We use the when it is clear in the situation which thing or person we mean. d. We use the when there is only one of something. (the world, the sun, the moon, the earth, at the end of this month, the capital of the Philippines) e. We say: the sky, the sea, the ground, the country, the environment f. We say space (without the) when we mean space in the universe. There are millions of stars in space. I tried to park my car, but the space was too small. g. We say television (without the), but we say the television when it means the television set I watch television a lot. Can you turn off the television? h. We do not normally use the with the names of meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner, etc), but we use a if there is an adjective before them. i. We do not use the before noun + number (page 69, room 143, gate 10) j. We say go to bed/be in bed, etc (without the), but we can say the bed when it means a specific piece of furniture. k. We do not use the with home (go home, come home, arrive home, etc.). l. We say go to sea/be at sea (without the) when the meaning is go/be on a voyage. Keith work on ships. He is at sea most of the time. Id like to live near the sea. m. We do not use the when we are talking about things or people in general.
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n. We use the + adjective (without a noun) to talk about groups of people. These expressions are always plural. The young The disabled The old The unemployed The elderly The blind The rich The deaf The poor The injured The homeless The dead The sick o. You can use the + nationality adjectives that end in ch or sh (the French/ the English/the Spanish, etc). They are always plural. p. You can also use the + nationality words ending in ese (the Chinese/ the Sudanese/ the Japanese, etc.). These are always plural. But they can also be singular (a Chinese/ a Japanese/a Sudanese). Also a Swiss (singular) and the Swiss (plural the people of Switzerland). q. With other nationalities, we do not use the to talk about people in general. r. We do not use the with the names of places (continents, countries, states, islands, cities, towns, mountains, etc). s. We use the in names with Republic, Kingdom, States, etc. t. We use the with the names oceans, seas, rivers, canals, and deserts, but names with Mount and Lake (without the). u. We use the with plural names of people and places People: the Taylors, the Johnsons Countries: the Netherland, the Philippines, the United States Group of Islands: the Canary Island, the Bahamas Mountain Ranges: the Rocky Mountains, the Andres, the Alps v. We use the with North, East, South, West, etc, but Northern, Eastern, Southern, Western, etc. (without the). Also the Middle East/the Far East w. We do not use the in the names of some regions with North/South, etc. (North America, South Africa) x. We do not use the with names of most city/roads/squares/parks, etc. We do not use the with names of airports/stations/universities, etc. We do not use the when the first word is a name of a place or a person. We do not use the with names of companies, airlines, etc. (Sony, IBM) y. We use the with names of hotels/restaurants, theatre/cinemas, museums/galleries, and other buildings (the Empire State building, the White House, the Eifel Tower) We use the with names with of (the Bank of England, the Great Wall of China). We use the with names of newspapers/organizations. 2. Numerical adjective- denotes the exact number, rank, or position of a noun. 3. Pronominal Adjective- may also be used as pronouns: a. Interrogative adjective- question words that modify nouns or pronouns. b. Demonstrative adjective- points out a definite person c. Possessive adjective- denotes ownership of a noun d. Indefinite adjective- points out no particular person, place, or thing. Comparison of Adjectives
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Most adjectives change their forms to express different degrees of quality. This modification is called. Adjectives have three degrees of adjectives: 1. Positive- no comparison is made 2. Comparative- used when two things are being compared 3. Superlative- used when three or more things are being compared Adjectives may be compared in three ways: 1. By adding er in the comparative and est of the positive form of adjectives Positive Comparative Superlative high higher highest bold bolder boldest smart smarter smartest smooth smoother smoothest 2. By adding more(or less) to the comparative and most (or least) to the superlative of the superlative form of irregular adjectives Positive Comparative Superlative cloudy More cloudy Most cloudy convenient More convenient Most convenient comfortable Less comfortable Least comfortable costly Less costly Least costly 3. By changing the form of the positive of irregular adjectives entirely Positive Comparative Superlative little less least Much/many more most good better best The Absolute Adjectives Some adjectives cannot be compared because the positive degree is already the ultimate. Some of these are: Complete Immaculate Conclusive Level Correct Perfect Dead Perpendicular Eternal Perpetual Improper Comparison When making comparisons, make sure the comparison is made only with similar elements. Incorrect: Typhoons that struck the country this year are lesser than last year. Correct: Typhoons that struck the country this year are lesser than last years. Illogical Comparison When comparing a particular person or thing with a group of which is a part, use the comparative degree and the words other or else.
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Incorrect: Myra types faster than any student in the class. Correct: Myra types faster than any other student in the class. (without the word other, this sentence means that Myra types faster than herself) Incorrect: Markey is more honest than anyone I know. Correct: Markey is more honest than anyone else I know. Stringing Adjectives in Order It is important to learn the general pattern for putting together a pair or a series of adjectives in a sentence. Note that using plenty of adjectives is not always the best way to create a picture in your readers or listeners mind. Order of Adjectives 1. Determiners Articles- a, an, the Demonstratives- this, these, that, those Possessive pronouns- my, our, their Indefinite pronoun- some, many 2. Possessive Nouns (Genetives)- Robertos, the scientists 3. Ordinal numbers- first, second 4. Cardinal numbers- one, two, three 5. Adjectives of quality, size, length, shape, width, participle, age, color 6. Origin- Japanese, Italian, Spanish 7. Material- wood, metal, cloth, plastic 8. Noun- mystery, flower, school, art, family, side 9. Denominal (an adjective derived from a noun)- technological, philosophical The order listed is generally accepted by authorities, but there is some disagreement about certain details. The color indicating more variability is the usual areas of disagreement. It is important to understand that we usually use only two or three adjectives together. It is extremely

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rare to use four or more at the same time. The examples in the table are only for the purposes of illustration.

Adjectives are often used in clusters or groups of 2 or 3. In this list form the last one is separated from the others by and. She is tall, dark, and stunning.

Now have a look at this example: She is a tall, dark, stunning teacher. (And has disappeared because a noun has ended our list of adjectives) Hes been to Turkey. (the trip is finished) Hes gone to Turkey. (he is still on his trip)

ADVERBS Adverbs- modify a verb, an adjective, and another adverb. They answer the questions: (1) where, (2) when, (3) in what manner, (4) and to what extent. The old woman spoke nervously while she was being interrogated by the police. (verb) After the accident, Bert has become an extremely cautious driver. (adjective) Mila spoke very loudly that I did not miss anything she had said. (adverb) Classification of Adverbs 1. Pure Adverbs- are formed by adding ly. 2. Simple or Flat Adverbs- are not formed by adding ly. These are commonly used to express time, place, or manner. Above Already Always Anytime Anywhere Everytime Fast Further
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Hard Inside Meantime Meanwhile Never Now Often Seldom Comparison of Adverbs

Sometime Somewhere Soon Still Then Well Yet

1. Positive- by adding er in the comparative and est of the positive form of adverbs. 2. Comparative- by adding more (or less) to the comparative and most (or least) to the superlative of adverbs. 3. Superlative- by changing the form of the positive of adverbs entirely. I. Comparing Using As...As, Other, or Else 1. As... as- when you are making balanced comparison things of balanced proportions. Lea studies as hard as Martha. 2. Other or Else- when comparing one thing to a group of which it is part. Ludwig was more driven than any other student in the class. Dianne talks more sensibly than any else in class. CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions- are words that are used to connect words, phrases, or sentences. They are used to express relationship between ideas. Classification of Conjunctions 1. Coordinating conjunctions- can connect any kind of sentence parts, from words, to phrases, to independent clauses. These conjunctions are: And But

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Yet Or Nor

For So

Coordinating conjunctions connect a noun with a noun, an adjective with an adjective, a prepositional phrase with a prepositional phrase, an adjective clause, and so forth. I always include fruits and juices in my breakfast meals. (nouns) For today, Melanie prefers a tasty yet mouth-watering dessert for lunch. (adjectives) If you want to talk to Mark, you can reach him by phone or through the intercom. (prepositional phrases) The room airconditioner has finally been installed, but we cannot use it until next week. (independent clauses) 2. Correlative conjunctions- come in pairs. Both...and Either...or Neither...nor Not...nor Not only...but also Whether...or Not...but Never...nor Correlative conjunctions connect similar kind of element (a word, a phrase, or a clause) Either Gone with the Wind or The Wuthering Heights is an interesting classic for a reading report. Whether you are at fault or he is, both of you should face the trial.

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The Johnsons own several properties not only in the city but also in the provinces. The announcement was neither made on the public address system nor posted on the bulletin board. 3. Subordinating conjunctions- connect two ideas that are not equal in rank. These are introduced by relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs. a. Relative pronouns- connect words to other ideas in a sentence. That Which Who Whom Whose When Where We need leaders who are honest, efficient, and reliable. She is one girl whom everyone admires. Did you get the book that I sent you? The vase which I broke is an heirloom. b. Conjunctive adverbs-function as connectives. 1st group- consists of words that show relation of time, place, cause and reason, purpose and result, or concession or contrast. i. Time: Before After When Whenever While
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Until Since I will get there before dawn breaks. Whenever it is possible, Ben drops by the house to exchange pleasantries. ii. Place: Where Wherever I want to be where the action is. Dont just go wherever your gang takes you. iii. Cause and reason: Because Since As As if As though As long as Whereas Because he was so excited about the affair, he was not able to sleep the night before. Rich should get the merit for the success of the project since he really was the only one who worked hard for it. iv. Purpose or result: That So So that In order that

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So that Mesh can finish her college degree, she works as a part-timer in a department store. v. Concession or contrast: Although Though Even though Unless Although Frank studied very hard for his exams, he still failed. Clare will not talk to us unless we are ready to tell her the truth. 2nd group- consists of words that connect independent clauses. These words are preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Accordingly Consequently Furthermore Hence However Moreover Nevertheless Otherwise Then Therefore Yet Also If Than Provided that

Carl and Marl went to the clubhouse in the morning to swim; later they spent the entire afternoon playing chess. All the girls attended the assembly; however, not all of them paid attention to the proceedings.

PREPOSITIONS Prepositions- express relationships to a noun, pronoun, and a group of words which is its object to form a prepositional phrase. Classification of Prepositions 1. Simple prepositions- consist of one word that is used to show relationship of location, direction, or association.
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About Above Across After Against Along Among Around At Before Behind Below Beneath Beside Besides Between Beyond But By Down During Except For From In 2. Compound prepositions- consist of two or more words. According to Ahead of Apart from Aside from As of Because of By means of In addition to In back of

Inside Into Like Near Of Off On Onto Opposite Out Outside Over Past Since Through To Toward Under Underneath Until Up Upon With Within Without

In front of In place of In spite of Instead of In view of Next to On account of On top of Out of

3. Idiomatic prepositions- are used to express idioms or words which when taken together have different meanings.

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At

at any rate: whatever happens or is happening at one's disposal: available for ones use at fault: causing a problem or accident at first: in the beginning at last: finally, after some delay (connotes a feeling of exhaustion after a long period of waiting) at a loss: unsure of what to do or say; speechless

Behind behind the scenes: influencing events secretly; unseen Beside

beside the point: irrelevant by accident: not on purpose by all means: by any possible method by hand: without the use of machinery by heart: from memory by mistake: accidentally by oneself: alone by the way: incidentally (used to introduce a new, unrelated topic) for good: permanently for a living: as a profession for one thing: because of one reason (out of several) for sale: intended to be sold for sure: definitely for now/ for the time being: until some other arrangement/decision is made for a while: for a period of time from scratch: from raw ingredients/materials; without anything pre-made from time to time: occasionally in advance: before something begins; early in any case: whatever happens
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By

For

From

In

in charge: in command; responsible for in common: shared by two or more people in danger: likely to be harmed (opposite: out of danger/out of harms way) in a daze: unable to think clearly; confused in debt: owing money (opposite: out of debt) in demand: wanted by many people in the end: after everything is finished (describes a final outcome) in fact: in reality; really in a hurry: doing something quickly in itself: without anything else in the long run: in the end; eventually in mint condition: perfect; as though brand-new in a minute/moment/second: soon; quickly (used to tell how much longer it will be until something happens) in no time: very soon; very quickly (used to tell how quickly something happened) in season: (fruit or vegetables) ripe and available for sale at that time of year (opposite: out of season) in trouble: blamed or punished for doing something wrong; in a difficult situation (opposite: out of trouble) in vain: without success in the wrong: responsible for an error; guilty inside out: with the inner side out of course: certainly; as one would expect; as everyone knows

Inside

Of

Off

off and on: (describes a situation that exists at some times, but not others, over a period of time) on account of: because of on the air: in the process of broadcasting (on radio or television) on all fours: (people) on hands and knees; (animals) on all four feet
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On

on demand: when requested or demanded on fire: burning; in flames (not burning as in turning black from staying in the oven too long) on hand: available; in stock on the lookout: watchful on the one hand: (used to introduce the first side of an argument) on one's own: alone; without assistance on the other hand: alternatively (used with on the one hand to introduce a contrasting side of an argument) on purpose: deliberately on sale: being sold at a reduced price on second thought: after thinking further on a shoestring: with very little money on the spur of the moment: spontaneously; on a sudden impulse on time: at the correct time on the verge of: very close to (an achievement) out of the blue: unexpectedly out of breath: panting from a shortage of oxygen (usually due to physical exertion) out of character: different from a person's known character out of order: not functioning out of the ordinary: unusual out of practice: unable to do something as well as one once could because of lack of recent practice out of the question: not to be considered; not an option out of shape: not in top physical condition because of lack of exercise (opposite: in shape) out of sight: not able to be seen; hidden (opposite: in sight) out of town: not in the city/town where one normally resides (opposite: in town) out of tune: (of music/musical instruments) not at the correct pitch (opposite: in tune) out of work: unemployed

Out

To
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to a certain extent: partly under one's breath: in a whisper; not intending to be heard under the circumstances: because of the current situation/circumstance under control: able to be controlled or influenced (opposites: out of control/out of hand) under fire: being shot at; being criticized under the impression that: having the idea/belief that under the influence of: affected by (usually alcohol or drugs) up in the air: uncertain (with regard to the outcome of a situation)

Under

Up With with the naked eye: without the use of a lens with regard/respect to: concerning; about with a vengeance: more than usual; angrily

Within within reason: that is reasonable INTERJECTIONS Interjections- are used to express strong emotions such as joy, surprise, pain, impatience, and hesitation. interjection meaning ah expressing pleasure expressing realization expressing resignation expressing surprise alas expressing grief or pity dear expressing pity expressing surprise eh asking for repetition expressing enquiry expressing surprise inviting agreement expressing hesitation expressing greeting expressing surprise calling attention example "Ah, that feels good." "Ah, now I understand." "Ah well, it can't be heped." "Ah! I've won!" "Alas, she's dead now." "Oh dear! Does it hurt?" "Dear me! That's a surprise!" "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today." "What do you think of that, eh?" "Eh! Really?" "Let's go, eh?" "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru." "Hello John. How are you today?" "Hello! My car's gone!" "Hey! look at that!"
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er hello, hullo hey

hi hmm oh, o ouch uh uh-huh um, umm well

expressing surprise, joy etc expressing greeting expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement expressing surprise expressing pain expressing pleading expressing pain expressing hesitation expressing agreement expressing hesitation expressing surprise introducing a remark

"Hey! What a good idea!" "Hi! What's new?" "Hmm. I'm not so sure." "Oh! You're here!" "Oh! I've got a toothache." "Oh, please say 'yes'!" "Ouch! That hurts!" "Uh...I don't know the answer to that." "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." "85 divided by 5 is...um...17." "Well I never!" "Well, what did he say?"

Processed Words New words may be formed by compounding, blending, acronyming, abbreviating, reduplicating, and affixing (Mazon, 1995). 1. Compounding- combines two or more words to build a new one with an entirely new meaning. Ball + room= ballroom Short+ story= short story Editor + in + chief= editor-in-chief 2. Blending- fuses two words to coin a word in which both words partly get into each other. Splash+ surge= splurge Smoke+ fog= smog Chill+ relax= chillax Fantastic+ fabulous= fantabulous 3. Clipping- shortens words for ease and breezes of speech. Advertisement= ad Fraternity= frat Examination= exam Recapitulation= recap
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4. Acronyming- involves coining new words from several words, specifically by deriving a combination of their first two letters. Official Receipt= OR Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology= PHIVOLCS 5. Abbreviating- is a process of shortening a long word into a cluster of letters. Ribonucleic acid= RNA Deoixyribonucleic acid= DNA Diclorodiphenyltrichloroethane= DDT 6. Reduplicating- produces new words by repeating part of a word, resulting in a playful rhythmical pair. Nitty-gritty Topsy-turvy Wishy-washy Mish-mash 7. Affixing- forms new words by prefixing or suffixing, that is, adding syllables at the beginning and end of a word. Ir+ regular= irregular Ascend+ ant= ascendant Dilly-dally Helter-skelter Hanky-panky

PHRASES Phrase- is a group of words without a subject and a verb. Phrases have several kinds. 1. Prepositional Phrase- consists of a preposition and its object. Its object which is always a noun, a pronoun, or a group of words used as a noun may have one or more modifiers. Prepositional phrase acts as adjective or adverb phrase in the sentence. a. As an adjective phrase, it modifies a noun or pronoun. It usually comes after the noun or pronoun it modifies. Rica is the one on the magazine cover. Every village in the area experiences low water supply.
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b. As an adverb phrase, it modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. After the festivities, the townspeople quietly trooped back home. I sneaked quietly into the bedroom. Please answer the question in your most honest opinion. 2. Appositive Phrase- is a noun or pronoun with modifiers coming after it, and adds information or details to another noun. Mr. Johnson, a respected businessman, is now residing abroad. The class has chosen Katherine, the brightest in the class, year level chairman. 3. Participial Phrase- consists of either a present or past participle form of the verb plus its subject, object and modifiers and is used as an adjective in a sentence. Sitting quietly under the tree, Phoebe read her newly bought bestseller with contentment. Mr. Thomas, looking harassed, rushed to the airport to catch his plane to New York. 4. Gerund Phrase- consists of any verb phrase with an ing form of the verb with objects and complements and functions as a noun. As a noun, it can act as subject, direct object, subjective complement, object of preposition, or appositive in a sentence. Laughing boisterously is very unbecoming of a young lady. (subject) Jakes favourite pastime is assembling model airplanes. (subjective complement) Many people nowadays dislike smoking cigarettes. (direct object) In keeping with the times, people end up with hypertension or heart ailments. (object of preposition) My usual weekend routine, doing household chores, is also of my co-workers routine. (appositive) 5. Infinitive Phrase- consists of to as part of the verb with objects and complements and functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb is an infinitive. To speak with eloquence is a valuable social asset. (noun) To teach effectively, teachers need to employ innovative teaching strategies. (adjective) Many parents are not willing to pay additional tuition fees. (adverb) CLAUSES

Clause- is a group of words with its own subject and verb. There are two types of clauses: 1. Independent Clause (main clause)- is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. It can stand by itself. It is a complete sentence. The working conditions in the faculty study area have greatly improved. 2. Dependent Clause (subordinating clause)- cannot stand by itself even if it contains a subject and a verb. It is introduced by a subordinating conjunction that prevents it from standing alone. In order to complete the meaning, a dependent clause needs to be combined with an independent clause. Whenever you are around, everything seems to go right. There are three kinds of dependent clauses:
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1. Adjective Clause- is introduced by a relative pronoun that modifies a noun or pronoun. The modified noun or pronoun is the antecedent of the relative pronoun. One thing that annoys many people is noise. 2. Adverb Clause- is introduced by subordinating conjunctions and they modify verb, adjectives, or adverbs. When Mark received my letter, she was overjoyed. 3. Noun Clause- is introduced by words what, when, how, why, or that. Most often, they function as subjects or objects. Why she does not speak to anyone should be the concern of her parents. (subject) Celine is worried about what others would think of her speech. (object of preposition) Enrique does not like how the girls accomplished the project. (direct object) SENTENCES Sentence- expresses a complete thought. It begins with a capital letter and ends with an appropriate punctuation mark. Two Parts of a Sentence 1. Subject- is the word or group of words that tells us what or whom the speaker or writer is talking about. 2. Predicate- is the part of the sentence that makes a statement about the subject. The predicate usually tells what the subject is doing, or what is happening to the subject. My friend lives in New York. The letter contains exciting news.

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate The ambassador attended a conference. (simple subject and predicate) Compound Subject and Compound Predicate Alice and Jane washed the curtains and ironed them. (compound subject and predicate)

Types of Sentences According to Function Sentences function in four ways:

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1. Declarative Sentence- expresses or states an idea, a fact, or an opinion and ends with a period. January is the first month of the year. 2. Interrogative Sentence- seeks information for an answer or asks questions and ends with a question mark. How do you feel today? 3. Imperative Sentence- makes a command or request and ends with either a period or an exclamation point. Please be quiet. 4. Exclamatory Sentence- conveys strong emotions (shock, surprise, disgust, joy) and ends with an exclamation point. How dare you say that! Types of Sentences according to Form All sentences are classified according to the number and kinds of clauses: 1. Simple Sentence- contains only one independent clause. Its subject and predicate may be simple or compound and may also be accompanied by phrases and complements. Dainty flowers have been arranged beautifully in a native vase. The small dainty flowers and twigs are displayed on the show-window of the flower shop. Mont bought dainty flowers from the flower shop and gave them to Lenny as a birthday gift. Mont and Noel bought dainty flowers from the flower shop and gave them to Lent on her birthday. 2. Compound Sentence- consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a comma or semicolon and coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, nor, so, yet. She loves to shop but she has little to spend these days. My tooth aches but I do not want to see a dentist. 3. Complex Sentence- contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Just before the bell rang, the students proceeded to their respective classrooms. Please call me as soon as you get home. 4. Compound Sentence- consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Kate bought a blouse on sale and I thought that it was a good buy; but I finally inspected the item, I discovered that its fabric had damage on it. Basic Sentence Patterns Any sentence in English, whether written or spoken, always suggests a pattern or an arrangement of words which every Filipino student should learn to master in order that he may understand, speak, and write English well. There are six basic patterns in English: 1. Subject-Intransitive Verb (S-IV) John works. 2. Subject-Transitive Verb-Direct Object (S-TV-DO) Amateur speakers usually experience stage fright.
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3. Subject- Transitive Verb- Indirect Object- Direct Object (S-TV-IO-DO) Ricky has found Mommy a beautiful purse. 4. Subject- Transitive Verb- Direct Object- Object Complement (S-TV-DO-OC) The excited parents named their first born son Vincent Carlo. Danny finds Kristine very attractive. 5. Subject- Linking Verb- Complement Noun or Predicate Nominative (S-LV-CN) My neighbours are cousins. 6. Subject-Linking Verb-Complement Adjective or predicate Adjective (S-LV-CA) The oranges are very sweet. Questions Questions in terms of responses can be classified into: 1. Yes-No Questions- are answerable by yes or no. They are spoken with a rising intonation. Have they studied many poems? 2. Wh Questions- are questions which seek information. We use the falling intonation when we ask this kind of question. When was the last time you cried? 3. Tag Questions- are questions attached to statements. a. If the statement is affirmative, the tag question is negative. If the question is negative, the tag question is affirmative. She is a basketball enthusiast, isnt she? The players have not gone home, have they? b. The tag question and the short response observe the same tense and the number of the verbs in the statement. He did not watch the game, did he? Subject-Verb Agreement Agreement- means to make words alike in some way. The general rule regarding agreement is that a predicate must agree in number and person with the subject of the sentence. 1. The indefinite pronouns another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, every, either, everybody, everyone, everything, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something are singular in meaning and, therefore, require singular verbs and pronouns. Every girl in the room is busy doing her work. Neither of the boys wants cream on his coffee. 2. The indefinite pronouns both, many, few, several, and others are plural in meaning and, therefore require plural verbs and pronouns.

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Only a few have their prom dresses ready for the occasion. Others believe in ghosts. 3. All, any, more, most, none and some may be singular in meaning depending on the noun or pronoun they refer to. a. When they refer to mass nouns None of the milk has been delivered till now. (singular with mass noun) b. When they refer to count nouns, their meaning depend on the number of the nouns they stand for. Most of us are not happy about the announcement. (plural) All the mail has torn envelopes. (singular) 4. The expression more than one requires a singular predicate. More than one car has been towed for illegal parking. More than one student cheats during tests and exams. 5. Compound subject joined by and and both-and usually take a plural predicate. Fruits and vegetables are always part of my diet. The recorder and the microphone are ready use. 6. When a compound subject joined by and denotes the same person or thing, a singular predicate is required. Fresh fruits and cream is my favourite desserts. My best friend and colleague is dining with the family tonight. Note: when the parts of a compound subject connected by and are each preceded by noun determiner (the, a, an, my, some, etc.) the subject is plural. It is singular when the noun determiner is found only on the first noun. My best friend and my colleague are dining with the family tonight. 7. When a compound subject joined by and is modified by each, every, or many a, a singular predicate is required. Every girl and boy in town is invited to the party.

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Many a man and woman has become successful in life. 8. When parts of a subject are joined by words or, nor, either...or, neither...nor, or not only...but also, the predicate should be singular if both parts of the subject are singular; but it should be plural if both parts of the subject are plural. Either a boy or a girl is fit for the plays supporting details. The boys nor the girls in the class have seen the assigned play. 9. When the parts of a compound subject connected by or, nor, either...or, neither...nor, or not only...but also differ in number, the verb agrees with the nearer antecedent. Not only the vegetables but also the fish tastes good. The cotton dress or the jeans in the new shopping mall cost a little less expensive than in any other mall in town. 10. A collective-noun subject requires a singular predicate when the group is thought of as a unit or acting as a whole. It takes plural predicate when the individuals composing the group are thought as of acting separately. The choir sings beautifully that people come to church just to listen to it. The class study their lessons during the supervised study period. 11. When the subject is followed with intervening expressions such as those given below, the entire expression is considered parenthetical and, therefore, does not affect the number of the predicate. And not Accompanied by As well as But not Especially In addition to Including In fact Much less
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No more than Not even Particularly With, together with

Ricky, together with his friends, has flown to Hong Kong for the Holidays. My daughter, and not her classmates, is in the picnic. 12. An intervening phrase or clause that separates the subject from the verb does not affect the subject-verb agreement. The leader of the protesters raises his arm. The siblings who the crowd saw inside the office make their way to the court. 13. When a sentence is introduced by the word there or here, the subject comes after the verb. There in the distance stands the majestic mountain. Here are the goods you asked me to buy. 14. The expression the number requires a singular predicate, a number requires a plural verb. The great number of customers is highly satisfied with our service. A small number of piglets are being transported to the city these days. 15. When a simple subject is a word that indicates a part, a portion, a percent or a fraction of a whole, the number of the predicate is determined by the word or words that complete the meaning of the simple subject. A portion of the farm has been sold. One-fourth of our stocks are already in the store. 16. Words or phrases that express periods of time, weights, measurements, and amounts are usually regarded as singular. One thousand pesos these days is not enough to buy grocery goods to last for three days.
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Three hundred pages is too much to read for a home reading home. Ten kilos of rice has been delivered to Mrs. Curry. 17. Title of books, plays, stories, or musical compositions and groups of words such as phrases or clauses referring to a simple thought are regarded as singular. Shakespeare Sonnets is one of my precious classic collections. Watching a movie or two during weekends has become monotonous for Ella. Capitalization in Titles 1. Always capitalize the first and the last word. 2. Capitalize all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions ("as", "because", "although"). 3. Lowercase all articles, coordinate conjunctions ("and", "or", "nor"), and prepositions regardless of length, when they are other than the first or last word. Capitalize prepositions of five characters or more ("after", "among", "between").) 4. Lowercase the "to" in an infinitive. Comma 1. A comma separates main clauses joined by coordinating conjunction, such as and, but, or, nor, so. The trial lasted for nine months, but the jury took only four hours to reach its verdict. 2. When one or both of the clauses are short or closely related in meaning, the comma is often omitted. They said goodbye and everyone hugged. 3. If commas set off another phrase that modifies the whole sentence, the comma between main clauses is often omitted. Six thousand years ago, the top of the volcano blew off in a series of powerful eruptions and the sides collapsed into the middle. 4. Commas are sometimes used to separate short and obviously parallel main clauses that are not joined by conjunctions. One day youre a successful corporate lawyer, the next day youre out of work. Note: The use of a comma to join clauses that are neither short nor obviously parallel, called comma fault or comma splice, is avoided. Clauses not joined by conjunctions are normally separated by semicolon. 5. If a sentence is composed of three or more clauses that are short and free of commas, the clauses are occasionally all separated by commas even if the last two are not joined by a conjunction. If the clauses are long or punctuated, they are separated with semicolons; the last two clauses are sometimes separated by a comma if they are joined by a conjunction. Small fish fed among the marsh weed, ducks paddled along the surface, an occasional muskrat ate greens along the bank.
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The kids were tired and whiny; Napoleon, usually calm, was edgy; Tabitha seemed to be young into heat, and even the guinea pigs were agitated. 6. Commas are not normally used to separate the parts of a compound predicate. The firefighter tried to enter the burning building but was turned back by the thick smoke. 7. However, they are often used if the predicate is long and complicated, if one part is being stressed, or if the absence of a comma could cause a momentarily misreading. The board helps to develop the financing and marketing strategies for new corporate divisions, and issues periodic reports on expenditures, revenues, and personnel. I try to explain to him what I want him to do, and get nowhere. 8. Adverbial clause4s and phrases that begin a sentence are usually set off with commas. Having made that decision, we turned our attention to other matters. 9. If the sentence can be easily read without a comma, the comma may be omitted. The phrase will usually be short--- four words or less--- but even after a longer phrase the comma is often omitted. As cars age, they depreciate. If nobody comes forward by Friday I will have to take further steps. 10. Adverbial clauses and phrases that introduce a main clause other than the first main clause are usually set off with commas. If the clause or phrase follows a conjunction, one comma often precedes the conjunction and one follows the clause or phrase. Alternatively, one comma precedes the conjunction and two more enclose the clause or phrase, or a single comma precedes the conjunction. Short phrases, and phrases in short sentences, tend not to be enclosed in commas. They have redecorated the entire store, but [,] to the delight of their customers, it retains much of its original flavour. We havent left Springfield yet, but when we get to Boston well call you. 11. A comma is not used after an introductory phrase if the phrase immediately precedes the main verb. From the next room came a loud expletive. 12. A subordinate clause or phrase that modifies a noun is not set off by commas if it is restrictive (essential)--- that is, if its removal would alter the nouns meaning. . If the meaning would not be altered by its removal, the clause or phrase is considered non-restrictive (nonessential) and usually is set off by commas. The man who wrote this obviously had no firsthand knowledge of the situation The new approach, which was based on team teaching, was well received. 13. Commas set off an adverbial clause or phrase that falls between the subject and the4 verb. The Clapsaddle sisters, to keep up appearances, rode to the park every Sunday in their rented carriage. 14. Commas set off modifying phrases that do not immediately precede the word or phrase they modify. The negotiators, tired and discouraged, headed back to the school.

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15. An absolute phrase (a participial phrase with its own subject that is grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence) is set off with commas. Our business being concluded, we adjourned for refreshments. Im afraid of his reaction, his temper being what it is. 16. Commas set off a word, phrase, or clause that is in apposition to a preceding or following noun and that is non-restrictive. Restrictive appositives are not set off by commas. Aleister Crowley, Britains most infamous Satanist, is the subject of a remarkable new biography. Longfellows poem Evangeline was a favourite of my grandmothers. 17. Commas set off transitional words and phrases. The second report, on the other hand, shows a strong bias. 18. When such words and phrases fall in the middle of a clause, commas are sometimes unnecessary. They thus have no chips left to bargain with. The materials had indeed arrived. 19. Commas set off parenthetical elements, such as authorial asides. All of us, to tell the truth, were completely amazed. 20. Commas are often used to set off words or phrases that introduce examples or explanations, such as namely, for example, and that is. Such introductory words and phrases may also often be preceded by a dash, parenthesis, or semicolon. He expects to visit three countries, namely, France, Spain, and Germany. 21. Commas set off words in direct address. The facts, my fellow Americans, are very different. This is our third and final notice, Mr. Johnson. 22. Commas set off mild interjections or exclamations. Ah, the mosaics in Ravenna are matchless. Semicolon 1. The semicolon is used to separate independent coordinate clauses closely connected in meaning when no coordinate conjunction is used. a. The sale staff meets every other Tuesday; the production staff meets only once a month. b. He would not approve the art layout as presented; he suggested several drastic changes. 2. The semicolon is used between coordinate clauses of a compound sentence when they are joined by transitional words and phrases. When you use a semicolon in place of a comma before the transitional word, you usually put a comma after the transitional word. However, when the transitional word retains its adverbial force and is not regarded as an independent element, it is seldom set off with a comma.
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a. The members of the board of directors approved the change in distribution; consequently, you should appeal to them. b. The weather was cold and icy; therefore we didnt go. 3. The semicolon is used before a coordinate conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) between two independent clauses when either one or both have internal punctuation. a. The president, a well-read man, predicted a cost of living increase for the first of the year; but his prediction, which spread throughout the planet, proved to be wrong. b. The staff housekeeper ordered carpets, divans, lamps, tables, and chairs; but her order was incorrectly filled. 4. The semicolon is used before such words as for example, for instance, that is, and namely that introduce an example, enumeration, or a list in a sentence. A comma is placed after such words. a. These special artists pencils are available in three colors; namely, red, green, and blue. b. Many of our policies will be changed this year; for example, salesman will be paid a commission instead of a salary. 5. The semicolon is used in lists where a comma is insufficient to separate the members clearly. a. Guests at the convention were Leonard Key, the past president of the corporation; Mrs. F. K. Small, the wife of the founder; and Paul Wells, the speaker of the evening.

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