52 INTERPRETASI LINGKUNGAN PENGENDAPAN Lingkungan pengendapan dapat diinterpretasikan dari: 1. Geometri dan distribusi depositional unit 2.

Struktur sedimen dan asosiasi litologi 3. Asosiasi fosilnya Foraminifera sebagai indikator paleoenvironment Microfossils in general, and forams in particular, can be used to discriminate broad marine environments in a number of ways: a. Quantitative: Species diversity (i.e. alpha index), M-R-T Ternary diagram, similarity, dominance: - Diversity, ( Fisher plot :) Species richness (diversity) of foram assemblages is known to vary considerably depending on salinity, temperature, substrate etc. By plotting the number of species against the number of individual forams on a logarithmic scale, you get a measure of diversity called the (a= alpha) value for the assemblage (see Murray 1973): In general, values of a < 5 indicate brackish or hypersaline marginal marine environments (though it may also indicate normal marine conditions with a high dominance of a single species). Where a > 7 (up to 25 or more), normal marine shelf to slope or hypersaline shelf are indicated. - Wall structure ( Miliolid-Rotalia-Textulariina/ Agglutinated Ternary diagram) Although there is some overlap of environments, this type of analysis is particularly useful for discriminating shallow-water environments. The porcelaneous component exceeds 20% only in normal marine and hypersaline lagoon and marshes and is normally < 20 % in shelf areas. Agglutinated forms dominate in brackish and abyssal zones (below CCD).

-.Test form and the environment Test form in benthic foraminifera is a compromise between a complex array of selective pressures, but it is true that there is often a good correlation between form of the test and the environment in which the foram lives. Hypersaline and brackish environments exhibit a smaller range of morphological variety (dominated by planispiral, trochospiral, miliolid and annular tests). Uniserial, biserial and fusiform tests are generally absent in these environments. Uniserial tests generally only occur in low energy zones associated with shelf, slope and bathyal environments. Milioline tests are mainly found on the shelf, and rarely found in slope and deep sea environments

Agglutinated foraminifera can be classified into four morphogroups and these have a distinctive distribution in modern environments:

"

53 Morphogroup A (unilocular, tubular or branching) are characteristic of the deep sea. Morphogroups B1 (globular) & B2 (coiled flattened) represent only a small % in most assemblages but they are more common in deeper water environments Morphogroup B3 (multilocular, planispiral/trochospiral, lenticular) are particularly common in shelf and marginal marine environments. Morphogroup C1 (elongate) is absent in marsh and lagoon environments, but can dominate shelf and upper bathyal (to 1000 m) environments Morphogroups C2 (elongate quinqueloculine) and D (trochospiral conical) are characteristic of marshes and lagoons.

b. Characteristic foraminiferal assemblages Modern and ancient environments (from marginal marine to abyssal) can also be identified based on charateristic foraminiferal assemblages (i.e. the biotope concept). Identification of these characteristic assemblages is obviously dependent of specialist taxonomic knowledge (at least to genus level). Interpretasi berdasarkan asosiasi mikrofosil foraminifera, harus didasarkan atas keseluruhan dari asosiasi foraminieranya. Interpretasi tersebut harus didasarkan ciri-ciri keseluruhan seperti bagaimana kehadiran (persentasi) plangtonik, milolid, arenaceous form, foram besar dan tentunya juga asosiasi calcareous bentoniknya. selain itu harus diperhatikan pula kelimpahan dan keragamanya, apakah ada dominasi fauna tertentu (misal. genus tertentu, kelompok tertentu (misal kelompok miliolid, arenaceous atau foram besar), preservasi, ukuran dan bentuk test dll. Berikut ini adalah penjelasan singkat, sebagai dasar dalam menginterpretasi lingkungan pengendapan beradasarkan asosiasi formainiferanya (diambil dari Rawenda dkk, 1983. Robertson Research Indonesia) ECOLOGY OF RECENT FORAMINIFERA The distribution of foraminiferal taxa is influenced by many different factors. Although many authors consider water depth the most significant one, water depth specifically is not the main variable, the controlling factors being the various physical and chemical conditions associated with depth. Typical factors are temperature and temperature variability, light availability, sedimentation rate, bottom characters, energy conditions and pressure. Studies of recent foraminiferal ecology have provided numerous distinct criteria by which many depositional environments can be characterised and which can be applied to fossil assemblages from sedimentary rocks. Some of the main variables can be summarised as follows: 1. The total number of species and of individuals increases away from the shoreline, and with increasing depth of water, to maximum values on the outer shelf and in the upper bathyal zone. 2. Porcelaneous forms show their present diversity in shallow, nearshore environments. 3. Arenaceous foraminifers with simple interior wall structure become dominant in shallow waters or in intertidal areas. The percentage occurrence of these arenaceous forms reaches a maximum near the effluence of rivers. 4. Calcareous foraminiferal tests become smaller and thinner near sources of fresh water. In carbonate rich environments, tests may reach a large size and be very robust. 5. The percentage occurrence of the most common species in a foraminiferal population relates to the variability of the environment. As marginal marine conditions are approached, environmental parameters become more pronounced resulting in a tendency towards single species dominance in the most unfavourable environments. 6. Planktonic forms occur most abundantly within the outer shelf and deeper water. Under ideal sedimentation contitions, especially in clastic deposit, planktonic foraminifers can show a more or less regular increase in abundance with depth. 53

54 7. Arenaceous taxa with labyrinthic wall structures occurs most abundantly in bathyal or deeper waters. In sediments deposited below the calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD) these forms may become dominant since the calcareous shells of other foraminifers are dissolved.

INTERPRETATION OF SEDiMENTARY ENTVIROMENTS ON THE BASIS OF MODERN FORAMINIFERAL DISTRIBUTIONS The following is a brief summary of how specific depositional environments may be recognised by means of their foraminiferal content. 1. Non-marine (supralittoral) environments e.g. delta top, alluvial plain.These environments are barren of foraminifers. Palynological analysis is essential to obtain a detailed interpretation. 2. Transitional environments (marginal marine, littoral, intertidal)brackish water. Again palynological studies are of major importance in assessing these environments. The following subdivision of these environments and their faunal characteristics can be made. 2a. Sandy beaches The microfauna inhabiting this environment is little diagnostic. The species diversity is low, and planktonic, larger foraminiferal and attached calcareous benthonic forms are absent. As most high energy sandy beaches face open sea, salinities are generally normal. : Characteristic species are Quinquetoculina sp. Miliolinella sp, Ammonia beccarii Elphidium spp. Fossil sandy beaches can be recognised by poorly preserved abraded specimens. However, due to continuous transport of the tests after death many small or thin-shelled specimens may be destroyed, and foraminifers are sometimes completely absent from an exposed beach sand. A further complication in determining an ancient sandy beach is, that many alochnous forms may have been washed in. 2b. Marshes and, mangrove swamps Tidal marshes and mangrove swamps represent transitional regions between marine/brackish water and terrestrial environments. Tidal marshes occur in temperate areas, whereas the mangrove swamp is characteristic for the tropics. Tidal marshes can be subdivided in three groups according to salinity: 1)Hyposaline marshes 2)Normal marine marshes ) difficult to distinguish 3)Hypersaline marshes Species diversity is highest in hyposaline marshes, although the general diversity is low. The hyposaline marshes are characterised by the predominance of arenaceous species (Miliammina sp., Ammotiurn sp., Trochammina inflata) and rotalids (Elphidium spp.) and the absence of miliolids. Normal marine marshes are inhabited by dominantly arenaceous species with minor miliolids (Quinqueloculina) and rotalids (Elphidium spp., Ammonia beccarii). In hypersaline marshes the percentage of arenaceous species, miliolids and rotalids is about equal. Typical cosmopolitan marsh species are: Ammotium salsum Areno parrella mexicana Miliammina fusca Trochammina macrescens T. polystoma Interpreting an ancient marsh environment may be difficult. Due to reducing conditions calcareous tests are easily destroyed after death. After complete solution of calcareous species, it is impossible to distinguish between the various marsh environments. Only the low.diversity and an assemblage consisting of small arenaceous species such as Trochammina sp. , Haplophragmoides sp., Amobaculites sp. points to a marsh origin. If Miliammina sp. is present in this assemblage, a hyposaline lagoon could also be indicated

55 The lithology of a marsh deposit consists of dark grey highly organic clay and silt, containing abundant roots and other in determining an ancient plant debris. This can often help marsh deposit. Pyrite is common, due to the reducing conditions. Faunal distribution in a mangrove swamp is similar to that of marshes. Typical taxa in a Southeast Asian mangrove are as follows: Haplophragmoides salsun Haplophragmoides wilberti Miliammina pariaensis Arenoparella mexicana Trochammina laevigata 2c. Tidal flats Tidal flats develop along gently dipping sea coasts, with marked tidal rhythms, where enough sediment is available and strong wave action is not present. This may be the case in estuaries, lagoons, bays, or behind barrier islands or other sand bars. Characteristic foraminifers inhabiting this environment are: Ammonia beccarii Elphidiun spp. (Quinqueloculina sp.) Rotalids predominate in tidal flat assemblages, miliolids are rare to absent, and arenaceous species not common. 2d. Estuaries An estuary is the wide mouth of a river or arm of.the sea where the tide meets the river currents, or flows and ebbs. Estuaries are hyposaline in character, and can be subdivided into an upper part, subject to the greatest freshwater influence and a lower part connected with the sea. This differences in salinity is reflectedinthe faunas of both parts: upper estuary Miliammina sp. Amobaculitessp. lower estuary Miliammina sp. Ammobaculites sp. Ammonia beccarii Elphidiun spp.

2e. Lagoons A lagoon is a shallow lake or sheet of water, connected with the sea or a river. Coastal lagoons are shallow water bodies, running parallel to the coast, and connected to the sea with an outlet. They are separated from the sea by sand bars or barrier islands. Based on the amount of seawater entering through the inlet, and the amount of freshwater contributed by river, the following subdivision of lagoons can be made: a) hyposaline : freshwater seawater b) normal marine lagoons c) hypersaline : no freshwater comes into the lagoons A characteristic feature of modern lagoons is their low foraminiferal species-diversity. The relatively highest diversity is found in normal marine lagoons. Despite the fact that literature on lagoonal assemblages is scarce, the following genera to some extent may characterise the three types:

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56 Genus Ammotium Millammina fusca Quinqueloculina Triloculina Miliolinella Peneroptids Glabratella Ammonia beccarii Elphidium Protelphidium Hyposaline xxx xxx Normal marine xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx Hypersaline xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx xxx

xxx xxx xxx

2f. Deltas With respect to foraminiferal assemblages deltas require special comments since in these environments certain species behave abnormally,especially within the prodelta region. Three major environmental systems can be distinguished within a delta as follows: A) The delta plain The delta plain consists of an intertidal or supratidal covered with Nipah and mangrove vegetation. Palynological studies are most useful in assessing delta top environments. B)The delta front The delta front consists of an intertidal to shallow subtidal platform fringing the delta plain. The inner zone of the delta front consists of extensive tidal flats. Foraminiferal assemblages relate to local sub-envirorments which have already been discussed under 2a-e. C) Prodelta The prodelta consists -of the smooth, steep slope seaward of the edge of the delta front platform, marked by an abrupt slope break at the 5 meter isobath. The outer limit of the prodelta appears to coincide with the 6070m,isobath. It is important to mention the "delta effect" (e.g. Pflum & Frerichs, 1976), that is,a variable upper depth limit of certain species. They call these species heterobathyal species, as opposed to isobathyal species (which have a more or less consistant upper depth limit). It is possible to distinguish delta elevated and delta depressed species. Delta elevated species are species with a shallower upper depth limit in the delta area. (For instance Sigmoilopsis schlwnbergeri and Martinotiella occidentalis). Delta depressed species have a lower upper depth limit in a delta area. Examples are Pullenia quinqueloba, Melonls barleeanus, Hoglundina elegans and Bulimina aculeata. However care must be taken in applying these data to ancient environments. 3. Marine Environments A widely used tool for distinguishin- marine environments is the planktonic/benthonic ratio. In general it is believed that increasindepth will imply an increase in the percentage of planktonic species. The system was developed initially by Grimsdale and van Morkhoven (1955) who found that it lacked the precision that they had hoped for. They suggested the following relationship: Environment Inner Shelf Middle Shelf Outer Shelf Upper Slope Lower Slope Depth in Ifeters 0- 20m 20- 100m 100- 200M 200-1000m 1000-4000m % Pelagic/Benthonic Ratio 0-20% 20-50% 20-50% 30-80'/7. 70-100%

However, it is extremely dangerous to rely on the planktonic percentage alone. In a case of 90% planktonics for instance, it is important to determine how many planktonic species are present, if there are only a few, the environment may be quite shallow. It is also important to note size sorting. Bearing these points in mind, and also noting the distribution of calcareous benthonic, arenaceous and larger foraminifers the following marine environments may be characterised:

57 3a.Inner Shelf (low tide -20m) inner neritic, shallow inner sublittoral. This environment has its lower boundary at the base of the turbulent zone. Within this depth range many sub-environments can be recognised, depending on wave energy, substratum etc., and hence many different populations can be found. Characteristic for inner shelf environments is the low species diversity, with one or two species dominating the faunas. Planktonic foraminifers may occur in frequencies of 0-20%. Larger foraminifera such as Operculina and Amphistegina may be locally abundant, other forms may be abundant only in carbonate sediments. The following taxa are typical of inner shelf environments. It must be stressed that this is not a complete list and that the taxa indicated are not restricted to this environment. Southeast Asia Planorbulinella sp. Massilina sp. Cibicides tobatulus Pseudorotatia spp. Cellan thus craticulatus Loxostom limbatum Elphidium spp. 3b. Middle Shelf (20-100m), middle neritic, inner sublittoral The middle shelf can be subdivided in two parts: 1) Shallow middle shelf (20-50m). The lower boundary of this zone is the base of the photic zone and the storm wave base. 2) Deep middle shelf (50-100m). The lower boundary of this zone is the base of the seasonal temperature changes. Shallow Middle Shelf The diversity of species increases here. Larger foraminiferal species (opercuzina spp. and Amphistegina spp. particularly A. quoyi are common to abundant locally, and the same calcareous benthic assemblage of the inner shelf is present, but their tests are generally more robust. Planktonic foraminifers can make up 20-30% of the total assemblages, but their diversity is low, and restricted to forms such as Globigerinoides spp. and Globigerina bulloides. Deep Middle Shelf Rich assemblages are generally present in this environment. 'The typical inhabitants of the inner and shallow middle shelf are still present , but they are rare ( Operculina spp., Amphistegina spp., Elphidum spp ., Pseudorotatia spp .) -Planktonic foraminifers can make up to :40-50% of the total assemblages. Typical middle shelf taxa in Southeast Asia are as follows: Operculina spp. Amphistegina spp.(A. bicirculata and A. papillosa) Bolivina spp. Florilus spp. Anomalinella Cassidulina laevigata Cassidulina oblonga Heterolepa praecinctus Dentalina spp. 20-40% Planktonic foraminifers +10 species. 3c. Outer Shelf (100-200m) outer neritic, outer sublittoral The lower boundary of this zone is the shelf edge. The species diversity in this environment is high. Planktonic foraminifera make up to 40-80% of the total assemblages and their diversity is high (moreless 20 species in recent samples). Larger foraiainifera are absent. Most of the calcareous benthic species of the deep middle shelf are present. Typical taxa of the outer shelf are as follows: 57 Baggina inflata Bigenerina nodosaria Praeglobobulimina pupoides Siphonina pulchra Cancris auriculus Nodosaria spp. Uvigerina spp Loxostomum spp. Lenticulina spp. Chrysalidinella limbatum Asterorotatia spp. Cymbaloporetta squamosa Bacutogypsina sphaerulata Amphistegina lessonii Ammonia spp.

58 Gyroidina acuta Gyroidina soldanii Hoglundina elegans Cassidulina spp. Fursenkoina spp. Pulllnia quinquezoba Uvigerina soendaensis Bulimina striate Bulimina marginata Sphaeroidina bulloides

Bathyal and Abyssal Environments On most shelves the inclination of the seafloor increases at about 180-200m depth, and this corresponds with the continental slope. In the deeper waters below 200m conditions are very stable as compared to shallower environments. No major changes in temperature and salinity occur. Because of these stable conditions many of the species living in these environments will be cosmopolitan. However, with increasing depth, the solubility of calcium carbonate will increase. The critical depth is called the calcium carbonate compensation depth, which lies in modern oceans between 4000-5500m. Below this depth calcareous tests will be dissolved. In general, we will find with increasing depth a decrease of calcareous benthic species, and an increase in arenaceous species. An interesting factor is that the size of many deep water benthic forms shows increase with depth. Many taxa here have very specific depth limits and are termed isobathyal species. These are particularly helpful in determining environments. 3d. Upper slope (upper bathyal) 200m-1000m water depths Species diversity and abundance is usually very high in this environment. The planktonic percentage increases to 50-95%. Robust arenaceous species such as Martinotiella comminis, Karreriella sp., Tritaxilina sp., Dorothia and Haplophragmoides sp. occur frequently. Typical upper slope taxa are as follow: Martinotiella communis KarrerietLa sp. Pullenia bulloides Chilostomella oolina Globocassidulina subglobosa 50-95% Planktonics Sphaeroidina bulloides Tritaxitina sp. Uvigerina peregrina Gavelinopsis translucens

Isobathyal (-cosmopolitan) species with their highest depth limit within zone are as follows: Bolivina albatrossi Bulimina striate mexicana Chilostomell,a oozina Eponides reguza Gyroidina altiformis cushmani Discorbis transluucens Uvigerina peregrina Bulimina acuzeala Bulimina rostrata alazanensis Osangularia rugosa Uvigerina peregrina dirupta Uvigerina peregrina mediterranea cibicides bantconensis Gyroidina orbicularis Reticulophragmium venezuelanum Cyclammina cancellata Cibicides kullenbergi Cibicides rugosus Eponides polilus Oriidorsalis tener umbonatus Osangularia culter Pleurostomella bolivinoides ) highest ) occurrence ) at 200m )

) highest ) occurrence ) at 300m ) ) ) highest occurrence at 400-500m ) ) ) highest ) occurrence ) at 700 - 800 m )

3e. Lower Slope, lower bathyal (1000-4000m) Planktonic foraminifers are generally very abundant in this environment (90%). However, as the lower limit of this environment is close to the calcium carbonate compensation level, solution prone species such as

59 Orbutina sp. and Globigerinoides spp. may be absent. A conspicuous decrease of calcareous benthic forms is noted. Robust arenaceous species such as Cyclammina cancelata and Tritaxia sp. may predominate the faunas. Typical lower slope taxa are as follows: Mellonis pompiliolides Laticarinina pauperata Oridorsalis umbonatus 90% Planktonics Cyclanmina cancelata Cibicides wuellerstorfi Globocassidulina subglobosa

Isobathyal (cosmopolitan) species with their highest'depth limit within zone are as follows: Anomalina globulosa ) highest ) occurrence ) at 1000-1300 m ) ) ) upper depth limi t 1600m pper depth limit 2000m upper depth limit 2200m

Siphotextularia rozshauseni UVigerina ampulacea Uvigerina senticosa u Melonis pompilioides 3f. Abyssal environments (4000 m and deeper)

Assemblages from this depth are generally rare and little-diverse. The calcium carbonate compensation level (40OOm-5500m) causes the solution of calcareous tests below this depth. Consequently, the faunas below 4000-5500m, will consist of large, simple arenaceous species such as Ammodiscus sp., Rhabdamina sp. and Rathysiphon sp. Above the calcium carbonate compensation level the calcarous benthic fauna from the bathyal environments, and thick walled, solution resistant planktonics ( Sphaeroidinellopsis sp., Globorotalia spp.) are still present.

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60 15. NON-FORAM A. MIKROFOSIL NON FORAM (some part taken from: Pamela J. W. Gore Department of Geology, Georgia Perimeter College Clarkston, GA 30021) 15.1 . PROTISTS (unicellular organisms) A. Animal-like protists RADIOLARIA Geologic range: Cambrian to Recent Shell composition: Silica (amorphous, opaline silica) Size: 0.1 - 2.0 mm Significance: Useful in biostratigraphy; they accumulate to form radiolarian ooze on the abyssal plain. Morphology: Microscopic spiny globes with large, lace-like pores, or helmet-shaped (or space-ship shaped) with large, lace-like pores. Very transparent and glassy. Environment: Marine only; planktonic.

Radiolaria B. Plant-like protists 1. DIATOMS Geologic range: Cretaceous to Recent Shell composition: Silica Size: Most are 0.05 - 0.02 mm (some up to 1 mm) Significance: Useful in biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental interpretation; major constituent of diatomite or diatomaceous earth; an integral part of the food chain (phytoplankton). Most abundant phytoplankton in the modern ocean. Morphology: "Pillbox" shape, consisting of two valves (shells) which may be circular, triangular, or elongate. Circular forms have radial ornamentation. Elongate forms have transverse markings. They are covered with pores. Environment: Both marine and non-marine. Planktonic or attached.

Diatoms "Twenty five forms circle" prepared by K. D. Kemp, Services, Somerset, England. Photos by Bill Turner and Thom Hopen, MVA, Inc., Norcross, GA. This image contains twenty five diatoms of various shapes which have been assembled into the shape of a star.

15.2. MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS A. Animals 1. OSTRACODES (Phylum Arthropoda)

61 Geologic range: Cambrian to Recent. Shell composition: Calcareous (some organic) Size: 0.5 - 3.0 mm (some larger) Significance: Useful in biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental interpretation. Morphology: Microscopic shrimp-like animal inside a clam-like shell consisting of two valves (shell halves), with a dorsal hinge. Environment: Marine and non-marine (fresh, brackish and hypersaline); most benthic.

Ostracodes 2. CONODONTS (Phylum unknown) Geologic range: Cambrian to Late Triassic. Conodonts are extinct, and the organism from which they came is not known with certainty. Composition: Phosphate (calcium fluorapatite) Size: Most are 0.5 - 1.5 mm (some up to 10 mm, and some as small as 0.1 mm) Significance: Useful in biostratigraphy and marine paleoenvironmental interpretation; their color is a good indicator of the temperature to which the enclosing rock has been subjected (this is important in determining whether oil or gas may be present in the rock). Morphology: Parts of a larger organism which resemble cone-shaped teeth, or consisting of bars with rows of tooth-like denticles, or irregular knobby plates called platforms. Environment: Marine, free-swimming. Conodonts

Images courtesy of Anita Harris, U. S. Geological Survey. 3. SPONGE SPICULES (Phylum Porifera) Geologic range: Cambrian to Recent Composition: Calcareous or siliceous Size: Significance: Siliceous skeletons can accumulate to form chert Morphology: Shapes vary. but may be needle-like (monaxon or one axis), threepointed (triaxon), four-pointed (tetraxon), or shaped like a jack (from the game of ball and jacks) with six radiating needle-like points or rays (hexactine). May also be curved. Environment: Attached to the sea floor. Most are marine.

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Sponge spicules B. OTHER FOSSILS 15.3 Algae (green algae: a,b&c Halimeda) Coralline algae

15.4 Bryozoa

15.5 Barnacles (dari Class Cirripedia)

63 15.6 Echinoid 15.7 Coral

15.8 Sepulid

15.9 Pteropod/Gastropod

15.10 Otolith 15.11 Fish teeth

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64 16. Accessory Minerals Didalam residu kadang-kadang kita menemukan adanya mineral-mineral tertentu. Kehadiran mineralmineral tersebut penting untuk dicatat karena sangat membantu dalam interpretasi terutama interpretasi lingkungan pengendapan. 16.1 Coal - mencerinkan lingkungan pada daerah yang restricted sampai transisi, bisa juga estuarine 16.2 siderite - biasanya menunjukan adanya pengaruh yang kuat dari air tawar (di daerah transisi nonmarine). 16.3 Pyrite - biasanya bila ditemukan pirit secara melimpah, akan menunjukan kondisi sedimentasi yang anaerobic. 16.4 Gypsum/anhidrite - biasanya merupakan mineral evaporite (bisa juga sebagai diagenetic mineral yang mengisi rongga-rongga atau kekar-kekar), yang kemungkinan terjadi pada lingkungan transisi- laut dangkal 16.5 Glouconite - marine (relatif dalam: middle-outer neritic)