Ancient India

Introudction
The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated subcontinent bounded on the north by the world's largest mountain rangethe chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east and west, divided India from the rest of Asia and the world. The long sea coasts of India facilitated the growth of maritime trade and a large number of harbours were established through which trade relations with Rome, China, Malaya, South East Asian archipelago were set up. India's centralised position in Indian Ocean is also of great strategic economic importance. and

India is a curious meeting place of diverse religions, races, manners and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people. From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a composite population. In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:1. Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times. 2. Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India 3. Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India 4. Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa 5. Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.

The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around 2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux. The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century BC, Herodotusobserved that "of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population."

Sources of Ancient Indian History Pre Historic Period Indus Valley Civilisation Vedic Age Rise of Mahajanapadas Age of Religious Movements The Mauryas (321 BC - 185 BC) India after Mauryas The Sangam Age The age of Gupta Transformation From Ancient Phase to Medieval Phase

Points to Remember

Father Hameleden was the first to master Sanskrit language and compile a grammer book Father Coeurdoux recognised the kinship of Sanskrit and languages of Europe in 1767 Alexander Hamilton (1762-1824), a French, was the first person to teach Sanskrit in Europe Freidrich Schlegel was the first German Sanskritist. Franz Bopp (1791-1867) succeded in reconstructing the common ancestor of classical languages of Europe and Sanskrit in 1816. Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900) edited the translation of Rig Veda

Otto Bohtlingk and Rudolf Roth produced the Sanskrit-German dictionary known as the StPetersburg Lexicon James Prinsep successfully interpreted for the first time the earliest Brahmi script in 1837. He was able to read the edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. William Jones translated in 1789 Kalidasa's masterpiece Abhijnana-Shakuntalam into English. Wilkins translated the Bhagwat Gita into English in 1785.

Sources of Ancient Indian History

Sources of ancient Indian History can be described under the following five headings:1. Literary Sources: The ancient Indian literature were mostly religious in nature and contains no definite date for events and kings eg. the Puranas and the epics. Vedic literature has no trace of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and civilisation of the age. The epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Jaina and Buddhist religious texts supply us with some important historical material with doses of religious messeges. Upanishadas: Main source of Indian philosophy; also called "Vedantas" Jaina Parisistapravana, Buddhist Dwipavamsa and Mahavamsa contain traditions which supply us some historical materials. Gargi Samhita , a book on astronomy, the grammer of Panini and Patanjali also contain materials that help us in the recontruction of the history of the ancient period of India. From the second half of the ancient period of Indian history, there are not only panegyrics of kings and emperors but also political treatises dealing with the principles of administration. Kautilya's Arthasastra andManusmriti may be mentioned in this connection. It was a work of the Maurya period. Vishakhadatta'sMudrarakshasa gives a glimpse of Maurya society and culture. Similarly, events of the Pushyamitra Sunga's reign are mentioned by Kalidasa in Malvikagnimitram. Among the personal accounts of ancient period, Banabhatta's Harshacharita , dealing with the character and achievements of Harshvardhana as also history of his times, Bakpatiraja's Gaudabaho describings how Yasovarman conquered Gauda deserves special mention. Poet Bilhana described the history of the reign of Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI in his Vikramanka Charita . Sandhyaakar Nandi's Ramacharita is a description of the reign of Rampal, a king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. Kalhana's Rajatarangini is a valuable book on the history of the kings of Kashmir. Likewise, Padmagupta's Nabasahasanka Charita, Hem Chandra's Dwasraya Kavya , Nyaya Chandra's Hammir Kavya , Ballal's Bhoja Prabandha contains important historical materials.

2. Archaeological Evidence :The archaeological evidence is obtained by the systematic and skilled examination of building monuments, and work of art. The credit for excavating the preAryan past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society of Bengal (established on 1st January 1784). General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its Royal Engineers, dugged out the ruins of ancient site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in India in 1831, Cunningham, the Father of Indian Archaeology devoted every minute he could spare from his military duties to the study of material remains of ancient India, until in 1862, the Indian government established the post of Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was appointed. Until his retirement in 1885, he devoted himself to the unravelling of India's past with complete single-heartedness. In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the Archaeological Survey and appoint John Marshall its Director General. The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the biggest achievement of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which were noticed by Cunningham. The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the civilisation as the Indus Valley Civilisation. In 1922, an Indian officer of the Archaeological Survey, R.D.Banerjee, founded further seals at Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and recongnized that they were remains of a pre-Aryan civilisation of great antiquity. Under Sir John Marshall's direction, the sites were systematically excavated from 1924 until his retirement in 1931. 3. Inscriptions : Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence and their study is called epigraphy . These are mostly carved on gold, silver, iron, copper, bronze plates or stone pillars, rocks temple walls and bricks and are free from interpolations. Inscriptions again are mainly of three types:- royal eulogy, official documents like royal rescripts, boundary marks, deeds, gift, etc. and private records of votive, donative or dedicative type. Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telgu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered. But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts. James Prinsep, the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in deciphering the Brahmi script. Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor Ashoka are by far the best historical evidence about his reign. Inscriptions of Kharvela, king of Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana, Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, are important evidences for the reconstruction of the history of India. 4. Coins : The study of coins is known as numismatics. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has been possible to understand the contemporary political history.

Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins and Lion-slayer coins gives us an idea of his ambition and love of hunting. 5. Accounts of the Foreigners : A great deal of our knowledge of ancient Indian History are supplemented by the writing of foreigners. The below table gives a brief survey of important literary works of foreign scholars, mentioning the subjects their works deals with.

Literary Works of Foreign Authors

Author Magasthenes(G) Indica Ptolemy(G) Pliny(G) Anonymous(G) Fa-Hien(C) Geography Naturakus Historia Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Record of the Buddhist Countries Book Subject Valuable information on administration and socio-economic of Mauryan India Geographical Century AD treatise on India in 2nd

Accounts trade relations between Rome and India in 1st Century AD Records personal voyage of Indian coasts in 80 A.D. Records the Century AD Gupta Empire in the 5th

Hiuen Tsang(C)

Describes the social, economic and religious Buddhist Records of the Western conditions of India in the 5th and 7th World Century AD. A record of the Buddhists religion as practised in Archipelago. India and Malay Studies the Gupta period under Sri Gupta in the 7th Century AD. Accounts Hiuen Tsang's travel in India.

I-tsing(C) Hwuili(C)

Life of Hiuen Tsang

G-Greek,C-Chinese

Pre Historic Period

Introduction Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.

Evolution of Man

First

Fossile

--

Male

-Ramapithecus

Female - Shivapithecus (10-14 million years ago)

These fossils were found in Shivalik and Salt range Homoerectus: Found in Hathnora (Lower Palaeolithic) 10 lakh B.C. Homo sapiens : Found in Upper Palaeolithic Regions

The designation of the cultural past of man was done by P.F. Suhm in as early as 1776. C.J.Thomsen, in 1836, followed the same to arrange the exhibits in Danish museums. Lubbock in France divided the stone age further into Paleolithic and Neolithic. In 1930, Gabriel de Mortillet, a French investigator, started the practice of naming cultural divisions in the manner of compartments or stages. Yet, it is generally classified as follows:-

Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age Chalcolithic Age Copper Phase Iron Age

Pre History

Palaeolithic Age or Old stone age (500,000-10,000 BC)

Mesolithic Age or Late Stone Age (10,000-4,000 BC)

Neolithic Age or New Stone age (6,000-1,000 BC)

Palaeolithic Age cab be further divided into following:Palaeolithic Age Lower Palaeolithic Culture Middle Palaeolithic Culture Upper Palaeolithic Culture (5,00,000 - 100,00 BC) (100,000 - 40,000 BC) (40,000 - 10,000 BC)

Pre Historic Phases

Stone Age

Primary Culture

Major Site

Importance

- Head axe and pebble Kashmir, Punjab, Whole India except tools, Fossil ofHomo Lower Palaeolithic Flakes,Chopper Chopping Culture Sind and Kerala. Main :- Erectus from Sohan(Punjab), Singrauli basin (U.P.), (Narmada Hathnaura basin)

Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Assam, - Represented by Sohan Narmada, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka. Culture (now in Pakistan.) - Varieties of Blades, Points, Borer and

Navasa Middle Palaeolithic Scraper/Booer Culture

Scraper made of Flakes. (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (MP), Bankura - 200 rock shelters and and Purulia (West Bengal), Narmada caves are located on Valley etc. Bhimbetka hills having thousands of paintings. - The age of Neanderthal Man

(Maharashtra),

Didwana

Upper Palaeolithic

Blade Culture

and

Burin

Earlier "Homo A.P. (Kurnool, Chittor) Karnataka, Sapiens" Central MP, Jharkhan Plateau, U.P., - Harpoon, blade tools Rajasthan, Gujrat from Renugunta (A.P.) Bone Kurnool. Microlith tools from

(a

great

technological development, Meslithic Age Karnataka, Rajasthan (Bagor, Tilwara), Microliths Culture Gujrat (Langhanj), M.P., Tamil or Fluting & Nadu,West Benal (Birbhanpur), U.P. Gometrical tools (Sarai Nahar Rai) introduction compound of tools)

- Man still a savage but pottery maing (Tilwara) and permanent habitation found, still a hunder, fisher. Earlies community Farming

Neolithic Ate

Polished culture

organisation tool (Daojili Hading), Garohill Meghalaya, - Pit dwelling houses Bihar (Chirand), Peninsular India, - Food begain to be Amri, Kotdiji, Mehargarh etc cooked by fire -Evidence of dogs, circular huts made of bamboo, bone-tools,

Kashmir (Burzahom, Gufkral), Assam

- Kinship became the basis of social

hand made pottery etc - Also called "Neolithic Revolution" -Boat making, spinning cotton and wool.

Palaeolithic Age (50,000 - 1,00,000 BC)

It was basically a hunting and food gathering culture 'Palaeo' means 'old' and 'lithic' means 'stone'. Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases: 1. Early or Lower Palaeothic (50,000 - 100,000 BC) : It covers the greater part of the Ice Age and its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axe, cleaners and choppen 2. Middle Palaeothic (100,000 - 40,000 BC): The Middle Palaeothic culture is characterised by flakes. The principal tools are variety of blades, points and scrappers made of flakes. 3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BC) : It marks the appearance of Homo Sapiens and new flint industries; widespread appearance of a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and rituals; the appearance of wide range of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and burin tools. Palaeolithic Age People : Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks. Facts to Remember

The Palaeolithic culture of India developed in Pleistocene period. Robert Bruce Foot was the first to discover a Palaeolithic stone in India in 1863. The Palaeolithic research in India got a boost only with the coming of Yale Cambridge Expedition in 1935 led by Deterra and Patterson. The tools were usually made of hard rock 'quartzite' and therefore Palaeolithic man in India is also called"Quartzite Man"

Rock paintings and carvings have been numerously founded in Bhimbetka from different periods. The animals depicted in these paintings were mostly bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinocerous, boars etc. and were based on their hunting lives. The upper Palaeolithic art is characterised by red and green colours.

Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 BC)

It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has alo been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five centimeters long. Paintings : At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown in various poses. Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow were used in making these paintings.

Neolithic Age 1,000 BC)

characteristics of neolithic culture 1. Animal domestication 2. Agricultural practice

(New

Stone

Age)(6,000-

The word 'neolithic' was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865.Miles Burkit enumerated four

3. Grined and Polished stone tools and 4. Pottery manufacture The discovery of the tools and implements of the neolithic age was made by Le Mesurier in Uttar Pradesh in 1860. Later on, Frasherdiscovered such objects in Bellary in South India. The people of this age used tools and implements of polished stone. Neolithic People : The civilisation and culture of the Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress. The Neolithic men had a settled life. They practised agriculture and grew fruits and corn. Animals, such as the cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The art of producing fire by the friction of bamboos or pieces of stones was known to them. Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they now started roasting it. Besides this, bows and arrows were invented and were used for the purpose of hunting. They also learnt pottery, at first by hand and then with the potter's wheel. They painted and

decorated their pots. They lived in caves, the walls of which were polished and painted with the scenes of hunting and dancing. The also learnt the art of spinning and weaving clothes. They used to bury their dead and construct tombs over them which were known as Dolmens, Menhirs etc.s Neolithic Tools : The stone tools of the Neolithic age bear unmistakeable signs of polish either all over the tools or at the buttend and working-end, or only at the working end. They fashioned their tools out of fine-grained dark-green trap, though there are examples of the use of diorite, basalt, slate, chlorite, schist, indurated shale, gneiss, sand stone and quartzite. Occupation : Neolithic settlers were cattle-herders and agriculturists. They produced ragi, wheat, barley, rice, masoor, moong, kulthi etc. Hand-made pottery is also found in the early stage. Elephant, rhino, buffalo, ox, stag remains are also found in plenty. But there is no specification of these domesticated. The pottery were well made but were coarse in nature, not that much polished. Red, Grey, Black and Red Ware, Black Burnished Ware and Mat-impressed Wars are associated with this culture.

Tools making was another important occupation which included a variety of picks, scrapers, eyed needles, bodkins and pierced batons. Facts to Remember

Sir John Lubbock coined the term Neolithic in his book Prehistoric Teme , first published in 1865. The term refers to an age in which stone implements were more skillfully made and more varied in form. It was V. Gardon Childe who defined the Neolothic-Chalcolithic culture as a self sufficient food economy Miles Burkit put forward the following four characteristics a culture should fulfil to be called a Neolithic Culture 1. Agriculture practice 2. Domestication of animal 3. polished and grined stone tools 4. pottery manufacture

Chalcolithic Age
Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. Firt metal to be used was copper and the culture of that time is calledChalcolithic cultre. The earliest settlements belonging to this phase are extended from the Chhotanagpur plateau to the copper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at Brahmagiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada. The transition from use of stone to the use of metals is slow and long drawn. There is no doubt that there was an overlapping period when both stone and metals were used. This is proved by the close resemblance of metallic tools and implements with those made of stone. The Chalcolithic i.e. copper bronze age or stone-copper age of India produced a splendid civilisation in the Indus Valley which spread in the neighbouring regions.

Occupation: Their economy was based on subsistence agricultre, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. Their tools consisted of a specialised blade and flake of silicious material like chalcedony and chert. Copper and bronze tools were present in a limited number. The culture shares the common characteristic of painted pottery. Burial Practices: Another striking feature was the burial practice of the dead. The dead were buried in north-south position in Maharashtra but in east-west position in south India. In eastern India, only a fraction of population buried their dead. Chalcolithic Settlement Pattern

Largest - Diamabad Town features at Diamabad and Inamagaon Town Planning - Inamgaon Fortification - Nagada, Inamgaon, Diamabad, Balathal Baked Brick Evidence - Gilund Stone Dwellings - Ahar Chiefly circular and rectangular houses have been found Microliths have been found from Ahar Flat, Rectangular copper axe have been found frm Jorwey and Chandoli Chief Crop Barley Evidence of Rice has been found from Inamgaon Fire Altars and Fire Worksip were prevalent Inner Funeral System North South direction of burials East West direction of burials were prevalent in South India

About Pottery and Types Pottery Ahar Kayatha Malwa Saalda Jorwe Prabhas Red Ware Deep Red Ware Deep Brown & Black Pictographic (Red & Black) Pictographic (Red & Black) Pictographic (Red & Black) Type

Rangpur Polished Red

The Copper Phase

More than forty hoards consisting of rings, celts, hatches, swords, harpoons, spearheads and humanlike figures have been found in a wide area ranging from West Bengal and Orrisa in the East to Gujrat and Haryana in the West, and from Andhra Pradesh in the south to Uttar Pradesh in North. The largest hoard comes from Gungeria in Madhya Pradesh; it contains 424 copper tools and weapons and 102 thin sheets of silver objects. But nearly half of the copper hoards are concentrated in the GangaYamuna doab.

All the implements of the copper hoards supplemented by stone tools led a settled life, and were one of the earliest Chalcolithic agriculturists and artisans to settle in a good portion of the doab. Copper Hoard

Stretched from North-West to East and upto Tamil Nadu Black copper has been found at these sites It continued upto 1500 BC Chief Area - Gangetic Valley Chief Sites - Gungeria (MP), Saibia (UP), Bithur (UP), Visauli (UP), Rajpur Parsu (UP)

Pottery : This period was marked by two types of pottery: Ochre-Coloured Pottery which can be roughly placed between 2000 BC-1500 BC on the scientific dating and Black and Red pottery from about 1000 BC. Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP): A new pottery type was discovered during excavatings at Badaun and Bijnor in Uttar Pradesh in 1950. It was called Ochre Coloured (OCP) as it contained a wash of ochre. The colour of the pottery ranges from orange to red. The Chalcolithic sites with such type of ware are ascribed to OCP culture. The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed between 2000 BC and 1500 BC. The Black and Red Ware (BRW) followed the OCP. Black and Red Ware (BRW) : Excavations of Atranjikheda in Uttar Pradesh in the 1960s brought to light a distinct pottery. The pottery, called the BRW, is sandwiched between the OCP and the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) of Iron Age or the Early Vedic Age.

Iron Age
In Southern India, use of iron came after the use of stone. In any case, there were periods of overlappongs in the use of stone, copper, bronze and iron. Our only evidence of the transition from copper-bronze age to the iron age is the monuments like dolmens, cairns, cremolechs. These have been found in wide areas all over India such as Assam, Bihar, Orrisa, Central India, Gujrat and Kashmir. But by far the largest number has been found in south India, in Karnataka and the Decan. These iron monuments appear to have belonged to both pre-historic and historic periods. Monuments discovered in Hyderabad, Mysore, Tinnevelly district, Coimbatore, Malaba, Penumbur etc. also show varied stages of development. Neolithic, Microlithic tools along with copper, bronze and iron implements have been discovered, making it difficult to identify the actual period of transition from

copper-bronze age to iron age. At this stage of our limited knowledge, no definite conclusion in this regard can be arrived at. Iron age is usually associated with the Painted Grey Ware.

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) :It referes to the ceramics which have been fired grey and then painted with black designs. The name chosen is highly misleading and can lead many beginners to think this, as a type, which is painted with grey colour. The grey colour, it is believed, is obtained by firing thin clay pots to as high as at temperature as 800 degree celcius. Pre Historic Findings

Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted Rock Shelters Nevasa - Evidence of cotton Atranjikheda - Textile printing Hastinapur - Wild Sugarcane Inamgaon - Statue of mother goddness Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal Chirand - Serpant cult Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling

Indus Valley Civilisation

In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement ofSir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits of the Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east. Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Controversial Period Economic Life Geographical Extent Political Life

Social and Religious Life Town Planning Indus Valley Facts

Name of Sites

Year of Excavation

Excavators

Region/River

Features 1. City followed grid

planning 2. Row of six granaries Montgomery district of Harappa 1921 Daya Sahni Ram Punjab (Now in Pak) on the left bank of Ravi 3. Only place having evidences of coffin burial 4. Evidence of fractional burial and coffin burial 5. Cemetery-H of alien people.

1. City followed planning

grid

2. A large granary and Great Bath, a college 3. Human skeletons showing invasiona and massacre. 4. Evidence of Horse

Mohenjodaro

1922

R.D.Banarjee

Larkana district in Sind on the right bank of Indus(Now in Pak)

come from superficial level. 5. A piece cotton spindle needles 6. Town more times. of woven alongwith whorls was then and

flooded seven

1. The city has no citadal Chanhudaro N. Gopal Majumdar, Mackey Situtated in Sind on the bank of Indus 2. Famous for makers shop bead

1931

3. A small pot, possibly an inkpot 4. Foot prints of a dog

chasing a cat 5. Three different cultural Indus,Jhukar Jhangar layers, and

1. Shows both Harappan

Pre and

Harappan phase 2. Evidence of furrowed land 3. Evidence of seven fire Situated in Rajasthan Kalibangan 1953 A. Ghosh on the Ghaggar Bank of altars bones and camel had

4. Many houses their own well

5. Kalibangan stand for black bangles 6. Evidence furrow of wooden

1. A titled bears

floor which intersecting

design of circles 2. Remains of rice husk 3. Evidence from a Lothal 1953 S.R. Rao Situated in Gujarat on Bhogava river near Gulf of Cambay of horse terracotta

figurine 4. A ship designed on a seal 5. Beads & trade ports 6. An instrument measuring for

angles,pointing to modern day compass

1. Shows

both

Preand of

Banwali

1974

R.S. Bisht

Situated in Hissar district of Haryana

Harappan Harppan phase 2. Good quantity barley found here 3.

Surkotada

1964

J.P. Joshi

Situated

in

Kutch

1. Bones of horses, Bead

(Bhuj) Gujarat

district

of

making shops

1. Trade point between Harappa and Babylon, Sutkagendor 1927 Stein, R.L. Situated in Baluchistan on Dast River belong phase to mature

2. Evidence of horse

Amri

1935

N.G. Majumdar

Situated in Sind on the bank of Indus

1. Evidence of antelope

1. Seven cultural stages Situated in Gujarat in Rann of Kutch 2. Largest site 3. Three party of city 4. Unique management water

Dholavira

1985-90

R.S. Bisht

M.S. Rangpur 1953

Vats,

B.B. Lal & S.R. Rao

Situated on the bank of Mahar in Gujarat

1. Rice was cultivated

1. Wheel made painted pottery 2. Traces of defensive wall and well aligned streets 3. Knowledge metallurgy, toys etc of artistic

Kot Diji

1953

Fazal Ahmed

Situated on the bank of Indus

1. Evidence of burying a dog below the human bural 2. One Ropar 1953 Y.D. Sharma Situated in Punjab of the banks of Sutlej example of

rectangular mudbrick chamber was noticed 3. Five fold cultures Harappan, PGW, NBP, Kushana - Gupta and Medieval

Balakot

1963-76

George Dales

F Situated on Arabian Sea

the

1. Remain

of

pre

Harappan and Harappan civilisation

2. The mounds rise to the height of about 9.7mts and are spread 2.8 sq hectare of area

1. The impression of cloth on a trough is Situated on Hindon in Ghaziabad discovered 2. Usually considered to be the eastern boundary of the Indus culture

Alamgirpur

1958

Y.D. Sharma

Controversial Period
We cannot fix a precise date for the beginning of this civilisation, but certain indications synchronize it roughly with the village cultures of Baluchistan. The site of Rana Ghundai produced a stratification which showed, in the third phase of the village's history, a type of pottery with bold designs in black on a red background. From evidence discovered by Sir R.E. Mortimer Wheeler in 1946, it seems that city of Harppa was built on a site occupied by people using similar pottery. There is no evidence of the date of the foundation of the other great city of Mohenjo-daro, for its lowest strata are now below the level of the Indus, whose bed has slowly risen with the centuries; though diggings have reached 30 feet below the surface, flooding has prevented the exacavation of the earliest levels of the city. From the faint indications which are all the evidence we have, it would seem that the Indus cities rose in the first half, perhaps towards the middle, of the third millennium BC. Difference between Pre Harappan and Proto Harappan Cultures : Cultures that preceded Harappan culture are pre Harappan, while proto Harappan cultures are those pre Harappan cultures which have some close similarities with the Harappan culture or which may be said to have anticipated certain essential elements of Harappan culture. In short, all proto Harappan cultures are necesssarily pre Harappan cultures, but all pre Harappan cultures are not necessarily proto Harappan cultures. Periodization of Indus Valley Civilization Date Range 5500-3300 3300-2600 3300-2800 2800-2600 2600-1900 Mehargarh II-IV Early Harappan (Early Bronze Age) Harppan I(Ravi Phase) Harappan 2(Kot Diji Phase,Naisharo 1, Mehrgarh VII) Mature Harappan (Middle Bronze Age) Phase Era Regionalization Era

2600-2450 2450-2200 2200-1900 1900-1300 1900-1700 1700-1300

Harappan 3A (Nausharo IIO) Harappan 3B Harappan 3C Late Harappan (Late Bronze Age) Harappan Harappan 5 4

Integration Era

Localization Era

Economic Life
The discovery of granaries and the urban lifestyle of the people proves that the Harappan people were undoubtedly "comfort loving" and were prosperous. It also shows great knowledge of crop-pattern and seasons. Currency : Thousands of seals have been discovered not only from the Harappans sites but also from the remains of other world civilisations. Every merchant and his family had a seal bearing and emblem and a brief inscription. But it is still unknown whether they used these seals as currency or not. In absence of evidence, it is safe to assume that the Harappans practised barter system and got goods they need in exchange of their articles. Agriculture : The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plain in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April before the advent of the next flood. The Harappans probably used the wooden plough with wooden or copper ploughware. The Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, kodon, sanwa, jowar, ragi, etc. They produced two typles of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banwali. In addition to this, they produced sesame and mustard. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton. Domestication of Animals: Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheeps domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated. The humped bulls were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have been noticed. They also kept asses and camels, which were possibly used as beasts of burden. Elephants were well known to the Harappan, who were also acquanited with the rhinoceros, spotted dear, sambhar deer, hog deer, wild pig etc. Therefore there is ample evidence to show patrolism of Harappan people. Trade and Commerce :The thriving agriculural economy supported a flourishing trade both within the northern and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the Persian and Gulf and Mesopotamia. The products of Indus have been found in Mesopotamia. It seals and produce were also discovered at Sumer. The findings of Indus seals suggest that merchants from Indus actually resided in Mesopotamia. Their chief merchandise were probably cotton exported

from probably Lothal harbour. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region. Major Imports by the Harappans Material Source Gold Silver Copper Tin Agates Lead Coins Jade Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka Afghanistan, Iran Baluchistan and Khetri(Rajasthan) Afghanistan, Central Asia Western India Rajasthan, South India, Afghanistan, Iran Copper seals from Lothal and Desalpur Central Asia

Crafts and Industies : Mohenjo-daro was a great industrial center. Weaving was probably the chief industry. Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dyeing. Pottery was an important industry. We should not forgot that harappan pictographical scripts are mainly found on potteries. Harappans used to export these pots made on potter's wheel and burnt in kilns not only to nearby areas but alo to the far-flung places. The art of smelting metals were well-known to the people of Harappa. They also attest to a class of mesons. The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal-making and terracotta manufacturing. Weights and Measures : The regulations of weights and measures forms the basis of trade and Harappans were very accurate in this respect. The sexagesimal system and the decimal system were known to the Harappans. The weights were of cubical and spherical in shape and were made of chert, jasper and agate and sometimes of grey stone and were in series, first doubling from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64 then going to 160, 320, 640 and so forth. Communications : Transport and communications are a major part of trade and commerce. Harappans also had good transporting system for their internal and external trade. Representation of ships and boats are found on some seals and as graffiti on pottery. For onland journey and transport, they relied upon the bullock carts and rarely horse carts. They practicsed navigation on the coasts of the Arabian Sea. Mohenjo-daro seals bear the picture of ship. Arts : The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense. They were well-acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze. Bronze smiths produced images and utensils. They also made several kinds of tools and weapons, namely axes, knives and spears. Jewelleries of Silver, gold and copper were also made on a large scale. The most notable artistic achievement of the Harappans was in their seal engravings, especially those of animals. The pots were beautifully painted in several colours such as red, black, green and rarely yellow. The terracotta figuries, both human and animal, and toys prove that the Harappa

people, enojoyed the work of art. Status made of bronze, stone and sandstone repsresent their high sense of art.

Geographical Extent
The Harappan culture was the most extensive of the ancient civilisation in area(geographical extent), including not only the Indus plain (the Punjab and Sind), but also northern Rajasthan and the region of the Kathiawar in western India. It was essentially a city culture and among the the centers of authority were the two cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The 1400 settlements, discovered so far are distributed over a very wide geographical area. Its known extent in the west is upto Sutkagendor in Baluchistan; Alamgirpur in Merrut district (Uttar Pradesh) in east; and Manda (Akhnoor district, Jammu and Kashmir) in north, covering an area of almost 1600 km, east-west and 1400 km in north south. The total geographical area over which this civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the area of Egytian and more than 12 times of the area of about 12,50,000 sq.km. Harappan settlements are mostly located on river banks of Indus and Saraswati. Some New Findings Site Location Discovered by Rafeeq Mughal

Ganverivala Pakistan Rakhi Garhi

Jind (Haryana, India) Rafeeq Mughal

Political Life
There is no idea about the political organization of the Harappans. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce that with conquests, and Harappa was possibly ruled by the a class of merchants. Accroding to Amaur De Riencourt : "All the evidence points to a high degree of standardization and organization, implying strong centralisation with full control over production and distribution and probably a high efficient system of taxation". Evidences, like drainage, town planning, trading items suggests that there was an organisation like a municipal corporation to look after the civil amenities of the people. Relation with other Civilizations

The indus valley civilization had a direct contact with many of the contemporary world civilizations: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Turkmenia, Oman and Bahrain. Harappan shells and carnelian beads have been found iin Mesopotamian royal burials, Mesopotamian clay tahlets refer to wood, gold and lapis lazuli coming from Meluha, the ancient Akkadian name for the Indus region. Harrapan Seals and other objects have been excavated in several Mesopotamian cities, such as Sura, Kish, Nippur and Ur. Evidence of a direct relationship between Harappan culture and Egypt in fragmentary and inconclusive. There are evidences of Harappan artfacts, such as etched carnelian beads and ivory, in Bahrain.

Decline

and

Disappearance

The Harappan culture flourished until about 1800 BC. Afterwards, the culture began to decline. There is no unanimity among historian on the exact reason of the decline of this urban civilization. Different theories of decline have been put forward by different scholars. The following table gives the important theories and their profounders as regards decline of the Indus culture. Decline of Indus Valley Theorists Gorden Childe, Stuart Piggot H.T.Lambrick K.U.R.Kenedy Orell Stein and A.N. Ghosh R. Mprtimer Wheeler Robert Raikes Sood and Aggarwal Walter Fairservis Reasons of decline External Aggression Unstable river system Natural calamity Climate change Aryan invasion Earthquake Dryness of river Ecological imbalance

Social And Religious Life

The social life of the Harappans can be arranged into following categories :1. Class : It is not proved if there existed any classes or caster as the Aryan's verna system. Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the occupation of the people, probably priestly class and general people. 2. Dress and Oranments : As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything definitely, because all information about theri dress is based on inferences arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the dress of status and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women. 3. Religion : Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harappans:

The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and tow deers appear at his feet

The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms to please fertility Goddess.

There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone symbols of femals sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.

o o

The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa. Indus people who worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)

o They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them. 4. Script : The script of the Harappans people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic
but waslogosyllablic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines. 5. Games : The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marbles dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with playthings. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment. 6. Disposal of the Dead : No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead were either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beasts. But R-37

7.

of Harappa suggests grave burial as a large practice.

Town Planning

8. The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the west of each a citadel built on a high platform suggest division in society or some upper class existence. It was defended by walll and on it were construced the public buildings. Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere, the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln-burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. An average house had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living rooms. Large houses with thity rooms and staircases suggest that there were large two or three storyed buildings. Most of the houses had wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste water to the main underground drain of the steet. Town Associated with Different Industries Levan Sukar Lothal Balakot Stone tools factory Stone tools factory Stone tools Factory for metallic finished goods factory

Factory for pearl finished goods, Bangle's factory Factory

Chanhudaro Beads

Pearl

finished

goods goods

factory factory

Metallic finished Bangle's factory

9.

Evidence from Chief Sites Cemetery H & R-37 Prepared Garments Lower fortified town Port town Evidence of Rice Coffin Burial Horse Bone Fire Altar Temple like palace Horse's Tooth Pashuptai Seal Goddesses Copper Rhino Copper Chariot Copper Elephant Granery Bronze Female Dancer Granery outside fort Beads Factory Copper ox Bangles Factory Graveyard Phallur Worship Bronze Bufallo Harappa Mohenjodaro Kalibangan Lothal Lothal, Rangpur Harappa Surkotada Kalibangan & Lothal Mohenjodaro Rana Ghundai Mohenjodaro Mohenjodaro Diamabad Diamabad Diamabad Mohenjodaro & Harappa Mohenjodaro Harappa Chanhudaro, Balakot Kalibangan Chanhudaro, Balakot Harappa, Lothal Harappa Diamabad

Evidence of Earthquake Kalibangan Evidence of Plough Copper dog Camel's Bone Stone Covered Grave Canals Woodenn Drainage Kalibangan Lothal Kalibangan Surkotada Malavan Kalibangan

Indus Valley Facts

Indus Valley Facts at a Glance

The state which has accounted for highest number of Harappan independence : Gujarat sites after

Evidence of cultivation of peas. Till has been traced from Harappa, paddy from Lothal Harappans had trade relations with

Three Harappan sites that have yielded three stages of Harappan Civilization (PreHarappan, Harappan and post-Harappan : Rojde, Desalpur and Surkotada )

Mesopotamians around 2300 BC. Largest Harappan site in India is situated in Haryana Rakhigarhi, second largest is Dholavira in Gujarat.

Most commonly engraved animal Harappan seals : Humpless bull

on or

unicorn Site which have yielded evidence of a preHarappan settlement: Kot-Diji, Kalibangan and Harappa

Dimension of Brick-length 11 inches, width -5.5 inches, depth -2.75 inches, ratio 4 2:1 Harappan wheels were axeless Mohenjo-daro had 10.5 mt wide road. In Harappa, perhaps because of river Ravi the Granery is outside the fort. In the Lothal Port, there was a dockyard which is 216 meters in length and 37 meters in breadth Sukotada is the only Indus site where remains of a horse have actually been found.

Major Harappan cities that acted as ports : Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and Allahdin (Pakistan) The Harappan city with most impressive drainage system : Mohenjo-daro The geometric shape of the covered by : Triangle the Indus region

civilisation

Wheeler said: Indus Valley is the colony of Sumerians Lions have not been found anywhere in Harappa. Mother goddess was not worshipped at Rangpur. A Kushana period Stupa has been found

Terracoota seals found at Mehargarh were the earliest precussors of Harappan seals. Wider road of Harappa was 30 foot. Most common materials used for the Harappan stone sculpture : Limestone and steatite Time span of the Harappan civilization as fixed on the basis of radio-carbon dating:

from Mohenjo-daro

2300 BC - 1750 BC.

Vedic Age
Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816. Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely,Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) Rigveda (9th Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of Upanishada four Ashrams Jabala

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority of Brahmins Aiteraya Brahmana Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa Katha Upanishada

War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Origin of Aryans Aryans arrival in India Rig Vedic Polity Socio-Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Rig Vedic Gods Later Vedic Polity and Economy Later Vedic Society Religion in Later Vedic Period Vedic Literature Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

Origin of Aryans

Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanniinscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Original Home of Aryans Region Theorist Asia Central Asia Tibet Max Muller Dayanand Saraswati

Pamirs Turkistan Bactria Steepes

Mayor Hurz Feld J.C. Rod Brandstein Europe

Germany Hungry Southern Russia West Baltic Arctic Region Russian Steppes

Penka and Hert Giles Nehring Mach B.G. Tilak Prof. Belfy India

Central India Kashmir Sapta Sindhu Himalayan Foothills

Rajbali Pandey L.D. Kala A.C. Das Pt. Laxmidhar Shastri

Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the SaptaSindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans. Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.

Aryans arrival in India

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda. Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'

Dravidians

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians. On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards. Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation

Aryans

The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia. The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate. The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the Brahmavarta) The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they

called Dasas or Dasyus The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC) The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC) The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.

Rig Vedic Polity

The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the centre. He was called rajan. Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election by the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf. Several tribal Veda exercised assemblies, such as sabha, deliberative, military and samiti, vidatha, and ganamentioned in the Rig religious functions. Even women attended

the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view important were the sabha and samiti In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been thepurohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Vedawere Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the senani. Princes received from the people voluntary offering calledbali. There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we hear of the theft of cows. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground was called vrajapati. He led to the heads of the families called Kulapas. or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing

arymy, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha. Tribal Polity

The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha. Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times. A few non-monarchical states (ganas), are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organizatoin: Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda isvis. Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another, it causedsamgrama or war. The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by termgriha. Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth was desired again and again. Marriage and Status of Women: The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived, We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known. Varna System: Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groupswarriors, priests and the people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp. Occupation: Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the

potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known. Metals Known to Rig Vedic People Gold Iron Copper Hiranya Shyama Ayas

Diet: The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing both fulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat (yava), vegetables and fruit. Strong Drinks: The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor, called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the chants appropriate for the ceremonies. Amusements: Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the practice is beyond doubt. Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda Rig Vedic Name Gomati Krumi Kubha Suvastu Sindhu Drishadvari Satudri Vipas Parushni Asikni Vitasta New Name Gomal Kurram Kabul Swat Indus Ghaghar/Chitang Satluj Beas Ravi Chenab Jhelum

Frequency of Important Words Mentioned in Rig Veda

Word Pita Ashva Jana Mata Indra Gau Vish Vidata Brahmana Surya Kshatriya Yamuna Raja Sudra Vaishya

Times Mentioned 335 315 275 234 250 176 171 122 14 10 9 3 1 1 1

Word Rajya Kulpa Ganga Samudra Sabha Samiti Grama Vidatha Yamuna Rashtra Krishi Sena Rudra Vrihaspati Prithavi

Times Mentioned 1 1 1 1 8 9 13 122 3 10 33 20 Approx. 3 11 1

Rig Vedic Gods

The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spritual upliftment or misery. Early Vedic Religion

Believed in one Supreme God Did not believe in idol worship Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories - Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya, Rudra, Yama, Soma, Marut, Dyaus, Vayu and Prajanaya. Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male Gods.

People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare ofPraja & Pashu Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important part of the worship.

Rig Vedic Gods He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan Indra soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam Agni Varuna Soma Yama Surya Savitri Pusan Vishnu Vayu Dyaus Aditi Maruts He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him. He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water. He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma. He was the guardian of the world of dead. Similar to that of the Greek God Helios The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle. A relatively minor God at that time. Wind God Father of Heaven Goddess of Eternity Storm Spirits

Gandharvas Divine Musicians Ashvins Ribhus Apsaras Rudra Vishvadeva Aranyani Usha Prithvi Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art Gnomes Mistresses of Gods An archer of God, whose anger brought disease Intermediate Deities Goddess of Forest Goddess of Dawn Goddess of Earth

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Political Organisation: In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become

territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer called sangrihitri. Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from the same plate. Regions and Kings Eastern King Western King Northern King Southern King Samrat Suvrat Virat Bhoja

King of middle country Raja

Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period Purohita Senani Vrajapati Jivagribha Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa Supreme Commander of army Officer-in-Charge of pasture land Police Officer

Spasas/Dutas Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers Gramani Kulapati Madhyamasi Bhagadugha Sangrahitri Mahishi Suta Govikartana Palagala Kshatri Akshavapa Head of the village Head of the family Mediator on disputes Revenue collector Treasurer Chief Queen Charioteer and court minstrel Keeper of games and forests Messenger Chamberlain Accountant

Sthapati Takshan

Chief Justice Carpenter

Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age Kingdom Gandhar Kekaya Uttar Madra Eastern Madra Location Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom Kashmir Near Kangra

Southern Madra Near Amritsar Kushinagar Panchal Kashi Koshal Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh Modern Varanasi Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh

Occupation: The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater scale than earlier suger-cane. Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually began to crystallize. Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known. New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade was also boosted. Pottery: The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery- Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware(PGW), and Red Ware. The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by the people of Koshala. The Aryans knew copper or bronze and Iron. The introduced the PGW in northern India. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or both. These were mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin. Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in SathapathaBrahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other classes of coins of circulation. Barter system will continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins. Money-lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.

Later Vedic Society

Social Organisation: The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, each varna was assigned with its duty.

Brahmanas conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their patron in war, and in return the king pledged not to do any harm to hem. Sometimes, the brahmanas came into conflict with the rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for position of supremacy. Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with its began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras. Outside the caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely, Vratyas and Nishadas. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, the brahmana is described as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for being beaten, and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called the servant of another. Certain section of artisans such as rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed a higher status, and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. The term Nagara appears for the first time showing joint beginnings of town life. Women were generally giver a lower position. Although some women theologians took part in philosophic discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals, ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men. Types of Marriages in the Later Vedic Age Brahma Daiva Arsa Prajapati Gandharva Asura Paisacha Rakshasa Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina. A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given. Marriage without dowry and bride-price. Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it was swayamvara or self choice. Marriage by purchase. It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a marriage. Marriage by Capture

Marriage: Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the later Vedic age. Of these, four (Brahman, Daiva, Arsa and Prajapati) were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. These were religious marriages and were indissoluble. Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man below his varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the sacred texts. Pratiloma Marriage: Pratiloma marriage was the marriage of a girl or women to one lower than her own varna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Gotra System: The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the cow-pen or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. People began to practisegotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor. Ashrama System: Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times. In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas: that of brahmachari or student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement and sanyasa or complete retirement from the world. But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not been wellestablished in Later Vedic times. 4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad. Food and Drinks: The staple diet was milk and ghee, vegetables, fruit and barely. Wheat was rarely eaten. On ceremonial occasions at a religious feast or the arrival of a guest, a more elaborate meal usually including the flesh of ox, goat, sheep and birds were taken after being washed with sura. Fish and other river animals were also relished upon. The guests were never served vegetarian foods, or at least one non-vegetarian food was compulsory. Dress: Clothes were simple. Two piece clothes were normally worn: uttariya or the upper garment and antariya or the lower garment. There was no difference between the clothes of male and female. Ornaments were used by both the sexes and bangles were worn by privileged few, Shoes were used. Use of oil, comb, mirror razors, hair ointment and a few cosmetics was known. Amusements: Music, both vocal and instrumental, was the major source of amusements. Playing of veena, drum flute, harp and cymbals were more common, also were dance. Chariot-racing and gambling were other sources of amusement. Education: It was for a privileged few. Only Brahamanas and Kshatriyas were allowed to get education. Even women education was discouraged and the study of Vedic literature were forbidden to women in spite of the fact that a few gifted women scholars were present at the time and female teachers were also there. The subject taught were veda, itihasa, grammer, mathematics etihcs, dialectics, astronomy, military science, fine arts, music and medical science.s

Religion in Later Vedic Period

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon. Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of idolatry. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god to the sudras. Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity). The mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character. The guest were known as the goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and given dakshinas or gifts.

Chief Priests The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:1. Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda 2. Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda. 3. Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people called Bali Important Vedic Rituals

Rajasuya: The King's influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him. Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony laster for three days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed.

Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. The ritual lasted for seventeen days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position to raja of that of samrat

Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb. Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord. Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year. Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn) status of boys of the higher varnas in their eight year.

Vedic Literature
FOUR VEDAS
Samveda

Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value. Has only 75 fundamental hymns 1. Karnataka - Jaiminga 2. Gujarat - Kanthun 3. Maharashtra - Ranayaniya

Sung by Udgatri

Rigveda

Collection of hymns Oldest of all vedas Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028 Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'. Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas. The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added later. Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'. Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma

Yajurveda

Book of sacrifical prayers Rituals of yajnas Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu" Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the " Adhvaryus"the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice.

Has been compiled in "fourth path" Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda Prose text

Atharvaveda

Mantras for magic spells Populate ritualistic system & superstitions Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community Collection of 711/731/760 hymns Not included in 'Trai' Has been divided in 20 "Kandas" 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works Provides freedom from evils spirits. Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

The

vast

literature

of

the

Aryans

is

divided

into

two

parts

- Sruti and Smriti

1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:i. ii. iii. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed the Sutra period.

These three periods succeeded or overlap each other. Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later. Vedas and their Brahmanas 1. Rigveda 2. Samaveda 3. Yajurveda Aitereya and Kaushitaki Tandya and Jaiminiya Tattiriya and Satpatha

4. Atharvaveda Gopatha The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe. Aranyaka

Literarily, it means 'Jungle' Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles Give stress on meditation Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc. Upanishada 1. Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples 2. Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy 3. They are also called "Vedanta" 4. Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya" 5. Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms. 6. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.

7. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas 8. Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani 9. Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of postVedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:a. The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including thedharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer) b. c. d. (iv)Chhanda or metre (v)Nirukta or etymology

The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta. Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas. Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number

The Eighteen Puranas 1 3 5 7 9 Brahma Purana Shiva Purana 2 4 Vishnu Purana Padma Purana Agni Purana Markandey Purana

Shrimad Bhagwat Purana 6 Narad Purana Bhavishya Purana 8

10 Ling Purana 12 Vaman Purana

11 Varah Purana

13 Brahm Vaivertya Purana 14 Shanda Purana 15 Surya Purana 17 Garuda Purana

e.

16 Matsya Purana 18 Brahmand Purana

Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas. Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.

f. g.

h.

Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayanaare the two great epics of this period. Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes theMahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya.Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250. Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita

Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established. They are as follows: Year of Beginning Original Book

Darshans

Authors

Theme It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the material power Maya,with the help of God, becomes the universe.

Nyaya

Gautama

6th BC

Nyaya Sutra

Vaisheshik

Kanada

6th BC

Vaisheshik Sutra

It aims is to receive happiness in this life and finally ultimate liberation through the attachment of true knowledge of the Divine. It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to eliminate all kinds of physical and mental pains and to receive liberation. It has four chapters and accepts three kinds of evidences for determining the aim of life. It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme and at the same time, the classification of its

Sankhya

Kapila

6th BC

Sankhya Sutra

Yoga Purva Mimansa

Maharishi Patanjali Jaimini

2nd BC

Yog Sutra Purva Mimansa

4th BC

Sutra Vedanta (Uttara Mimansa) Uttara Mimansa Sutra

issues. It explains that Brahama Sutra is for that person who has a real deep desire to know God. True liberation could only be attained by lovingly surrendering to Him.

Maharishi Vyasa

4th BC

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras Mandala) (drink) Rigveda (9th

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority Brahmana of Brahmins Aiteraya

Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams Jabala

Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa Katha Upanishada

Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Emergence BC)

of

Mahajanapadas

(600-321

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed its identity and gradually shifted to the territorial identity, and the area of settlement were now regarded as janapadas or states. In transition from tribe to monarchy, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea of government through an assembly representing the tribes. These states consisted of either a single tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc. The people in the lower Ganges Valley and Delta, which were outside the Aryan pale, were not incorporated. There was, therefore, a strong consciousness of the pure land of the Aryans called Aryavarta. Each janapada tried to dominate and subjugateother janapadas to become Mahajanapadas.

The 16 Mahajanapadas Mahajanapadas Capitals Gandhara Kamboja Asmaka Vatsa Avanti Taxila Rajpur Potana Kaushambi Ujjain Locations Covering the region between Kabul and Rawalpindi in North Western Province. Covering the area around the Punch area in Kashmir Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank of River Godavari Covering modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of Madhya Pradesh. Located in the Mathura region at the junction of the Uttarapath & Dakshinapath Covering the modern Budelkhand area Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Later merged into Maghada Kingdom Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west of River Yamuna Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar. It was the seat of united republic of eight smaller kingdoms of which Lichhavis, members. Janatriks and Videhas were also

Surasena Chedi Maila

Mathura Shuktimati Kushinara, Pawa

Kurus

Hastinapur/Indraprastha

Matsya

Virat Nagari

Vajjis

Vaishali

Covering the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur Anga Champa in Bihar. The Kingdoms were later merged by Bindusara into Magadha. Located in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. Covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich, etc. Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad. (W. Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in Uttar Pradesh.

Kashi

Banaras

Kosala

Shravasti

Magadga

Girivraja/Rajgriha Ahichhatra Panchala),

Panchala

Kampilya (S. Panchala)

Alexander Invasion Persian Invasion Effects of Greek Invasion Rise of Magadha Socio-Economic Conditions during Mahajanapadas

Important Republics: The kings in these states had the supreme authority. The Mahajapandas of Vriji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya. These republican states had a Gana-parishad or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. ThisGana-Parishad had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad. Again, the republics were basically of two types: (a) the republics comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the Kolias and the Mallas, and (b) the republics comprising a number of tribes or the republics of confederacy like the Vrijjis. Difference between Republics and Monarchies

In republics, every tribal oligarch claimed share in revenues from peasants. In the monarchies, the king claimed to be the sole recipient of such revenues. In the tribal oligarchy or republic, each raja (tribal oligarch) was free to maintain his own little army under his senapati. In a monarchy, the king maintaind his regular standing army. He did not permit any other armed forces within his boundaries. Republics functioned under the leadership of the oligarchic assemblies, while a monarchy functioned under the individual leadership of the king. The Brahamanas had a considerable influence on the monarchial administration, while they were relegated to the background in the republics.

Alexander Invasion
In the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. The Greek ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Iran, he marched to India, obviously attracted by its great wealth. Alexander conquered principalities one by one. Among the rulers of these territories, two were well-known: Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. After the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched India through the Khyber Pass. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily submitted to the invader, augmented his army and replenished his treasure. Alexander remained in India for 19 months (326-325 BC), which were full of fighting. He had barely any time to organize his

of the conquest. Still, he made some arrangements. Most of the conquered states were restored to their rulers who submitted to his authority. But his own territorial possessions were divided into three parts, which were placed under three Greek governors. Alexander Invasion

Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC His advance was checked on the bank of the Beas because of the mutiny of his soldiers In 325 BC, he began his homeguard journey. In 324 BC, he reached Susa in Persia and died the next year.

Persian Invasion
The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the Magadhan kings, took advantage of the political disunity on the north-west frontier. The Iranian ruler, Darius, penetrated into north-west India in 518 BC and annexed Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh. He divided the province in 20th Straphy, which was considered to be the richest and the most populous province of the Persian empire. According to Herodotus, Punjab and Sindh satrapy (province) was the twentieth in the Persian empire. It was considered to be the richest and the most popular province of the Persian empire. Its annual tribute amounted to 360 Euboic talents of gold-dust. The Kharosthi script was used on the north-western frontier since then uptil about 4th century AD. On the eve of Alexander's invasion, the hold of Persian emperors on their Indian provinces had become weak. Chronology of Foreign Invasions 518-486 BC 326 BC 190 BC 90 BC King Darius or Darus invaded India Alexander invaded India Indo Greeks or Bactrians invaded India Sakas invaded India

Ist century AD Pahalavas invaded India 45 AD Kushanas or Yue-chis invaded India Effects of Persian Invasion

Introduction into India the Araminc form of writing, which later developed into the Kharoshthi alphabet. Promotion of Indo-Iranian trade Geographical exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea, leading to opening of a new water route. Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in the Mauryan art. Impact of Buddhism on the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia.

Effects of Greek Invasion

Effects of Greek Invasion

The Greek invasion of India opened the trade route between north west and Wester India Eastwards trade went through the Ganga delta to the coast of Northern Burma and south along the east coast. Guilds (Shreni) came into existence Money was introduced. Punch-marked coins in gold and silver and of copper cast have been discovered. Introduction of money facilitated the trade. Divided his army during the last expedition at Patala and appointed Niyarkas as head of Navy. Opening up of four distinct routes between India & Greek by land sea paving way for increased trade and cultural contacts between the two regions. Establishments of more Greek settlements in north-western region Ashokan pillars were also influenced by Greek Art. Establishment of the coast and search for harbours from the mouth of the Indus to that of the Euphrates. Promotion to expansion of the Mauryan empire in north-west India due to destruction of local powers by Alexander India and Greek established trade contact. Coins of India non inscribed on 'Uluk Model' of the Greeks Many Greek scholars came to India with Alexander and wrote on Indian history which are relevant in constructions of contemporary socio-religious aspect.

Rise of Magadha
Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present day Bihar) became the most powerful Mahajanapada. The Haryankas: Magadha came into prominence under the leadership ofBimbisara (542-493 BC), who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He strengthened his position by marriage alliances. He took three wives. His first wife was the daughter of the king of Kosala and the sister of Prasenajit. His second wife Chellana was a Lichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. Marriage relations with the different princely families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha westward and northward. The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time. It was surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable. Bimbisar was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru (492-460 BC). Ajatasatru killed his father and seized the throne for himself. Throughout his reign, he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion.

Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), His reign is important because he built the fort upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of the Magadhan kingdom. The Sisunagas: Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of the Avanti with its capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti. The Nandas: The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by the conquering Kalinga from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. All this took place in the reign of Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes. The Nandas were the first non-kshatriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who founded the Maurya Empire. Causes for the rise of Magadha

Advantages geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic locations. Abudance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons. The alluvial soil of the Gangatic plains and sufficient rainfall were they conductive for agriculture produces. Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce. The princess could levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army. Use of elephants on a large scale in wars with its proximity to ancient Kalinga. Unorthodox character of Magadhan society Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers. Ambitious rulers and their policies.

Socio Economic Mahajanapadas

Conditions

During

Besides, the establishment of big empires, another important feature of the age was increased prosperity and the growth of towns. The primary reason of increased prosperity of India was its growth of foreign trade with the countries of the North-West, Western countries and several countries of Asia. There were several trade routes and roads connecting different parts of India in all directions. One trade route was from Kosambi, through Gangetic plain, to Punjab and then Taxila joining the routes to Iran, Central Asia, European countries and several countries of Asia. Another route started from

Rajagriha and, passing through Kosambi and Ujjaini, was connected with the port of Baroach from where the trade was carried on with western countries through sea-route. One important route passed through the entire Gangetic plain and reached the boundary of Burma and yet, another route connected northern plain with the sea-coast of south-east. These routes developed because of increased trade and, in turn, helped in enhancing internal as well as external trade. The increased prosperity of the Indian affected their social structure as well. Towns became not only the centers of trade but centers of industries as well. Various goods were produced on a large scale to feed the foreign trade and that could be possible only in town or vice versa. By that time, Indian rulers had started minting good coins of different metals. It helped in the development of trade and growth of industries because coins proved to be a good medium of exchange and, thus, facilitated transactions. The growth of trade and industry formed rich trading and industrial communities which concentraded themselves in towns. We find existence of different guilds formed by traders and industrialism during this period. It created various organised and consciously awakened groups in towns which, finally, resulted in the formations of several sub-castes.

Age of religious movements: Buddhism and others

In Post-Vedic times, society was clearly divided into four varnas: 1. Brah mana s 2. Kshat riyas 3. Vaisy as and 4. Shudr as

Jainism,

Each varna was assigned well-defined functions, through it was emphasised that varnas was based on birth and

higher varnas were given some privileges. Naturally the varna divided society seems to have generated tensions. TheKshatriyas, who acted as rulers reacted against the domination of priestly class called brahmanas, who claimed various privileges. It was one of the causes of the origin of new religions.Vardhamana Mahavira, who founded Jainism, andGautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, belonged to the kshatriya clan, and both disputed the authority ofbrahmanas. But the real cause of the rise of these new religions lay in the introduction of a new agriculture economy in the North East on India. The further sighted rise of a large number of cities in the northeastern India. The earliest coins belong to the fifth century BC and they are called punch marked coins. The use of the coins naturally fascinated trade and commerce, which added to the importance of the vaisyas. The trade of moneylending was established in the Vedic age. The practice of providing loans on interest was also legal but the trade was generally looked down upon a brahmans. The vaisyas who practised this trade wanted or raise their social position and in the eyes of religion. So the vaisyas standard support to both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. The vedic actness of killing cattle in rituals was inimical to the emerging agriculture economy. Besides the Sanskrit language was the knowledge of a chosen few while the common masses spoke Prakit. Significant Persons In World History During The Six Century BC Zoraster(Persia) Isaiah (Palestine) Confucius(China) Laotse (China) Selone (Greece) Mahavira (India) Buddha (India) founder of Zorastrianism the preacher the philosopher the philosopher the philosopher 24th Thirtankara of Jainsim founder of Buddhism

Jainism Facts Bhuddism Facts

Jainism Facts
Jainism: The founder: Rishabha, who was the father of king Bharata, the first Chakravarti king of India, founded Jainism. The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Gita describe Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. Risabha was succedded by 23 other Tirthankaras.

Parsvanatha (850 BC) was the 23rd Tirthankara. Jainism became a major religion under Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara.

Jainism in the past

The name of Jaina Tirthankaras Rishabha is found in the Rig Veda The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabhu as an incarnation of Narayana. The mail nude toro discovered from the Indus Valley culture has something to do with the tirthankaras. There were 24 tirthankars, all kshtriyas and belonging to the Royal family. Parsavanath was the 23rd tirthankara.

24 Tirthankaras Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Rishabha Ajitnath Sambharanath Symbol Bull Elephant Hose Name 13 Vimalnath Symbol Boar

14 Ananthnath Falcon 15 Dharmnath 16 Shantinath 17 Kuntunath 18 Arnath 19 Mallinath Vakra Deer He-Goat Fish Water port

Abhiaandam Swamy Monkey Sumathinath Padamprabhu Suparaswanath Chanraji Prabhu Suvidhinath Curlew Red lotus Swastik Moon Crocodile Srivatsa

20 Muniswasth Tortoise 21 Naminath 22 Neminath Blue Lotus Conch Shell

10 Shitalnath 11 Shregansnath 12 Vasupujya

Rhinoceros 23 Parswanath Serpent Buffalo 24 Mahavir Lion

Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village Kundagrama near Vaishali. His father who was the head of a famous kshatriya clan (Inatrika), and his mother a Lichachhavi princess. At the age of 30 he became an ascetic. He kept on wandering for 12 years from place to place. He attained perfect knowledge for kaivalya at the age of 42. Through kaivalya, he conquered misery and happiness. Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina. Teaching of Jainism Jainism taught five doctrines: 1. Do not commit violence. 2. Do not speak a lie. 3. Do not steal. 4. Do not acquire property. 5. Observe continence (brahmacharya).

It is said that only the fifth doctrine was edited by Mahavira, the other for being taken over by him from Prasavanath. Three Gems or Ratnas of Jainism According to Jainism, attainment of moksha or nirvana was the most important human desire. It says that moksha can be attained through ActiveSync the three following ratnas or gems: 1. right faith(samyak Vishwas) in the Lord Mahavira 2. right knowledge (samyak jnan) of the doctrines of Jainism 3. right conduct (samyak karma)

Jain Sect: Although Parsva, the predecessor or Mahavira, had asked his four overs to cover the upper and lower portions of their body, Mahavira asked with them to discard clothes completely. On account of this, in later times, Jainism was divided into two sect:Svetambaras or those who put on white press, and Digambaras for those who keep themselves naked. Some More Jaina Sects

Yapaniyan Came

Karnataka, out

impact of

of

Tantricism Swetambara

Finds mention in inscription of Vikramaditya VI Pujiramat - came out of Swetambara Terapainthi - Came out of Swetambara Sammiya - Came out of Digambara Bispanthi - Came out of Digambara - Supported idol worship

According to Svetanvaras, the original doctrine taught by Mahavira was contained in 14 old texts called Purvas, which were passed orally and were compiled later as twelve Angas. 12 Angas Of Jainism 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Achranga Sthananga Vakyaprainapti Upaska-Adyananga Amuttarapada Kanga Vipakasutranga Sutrakruthanga Somavayanga

Dharma-Kathanga

10 Anthakrudasanga 11 Prashnavyakaranaka 12 Drustipravadanga

Jaina Councils by the end of fourth century, there was a serious famine in the Ganges Valley leading to great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South India along with bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. They returned to the Gangetic Valley after 12 years. The leader of the group, which stayed back at Magadha, was Sthalabahu. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthalabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras(sky-clad or naked) and Svetambaras(white clad) First Council: First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. Second Council: Second counselling was held at Valabhi in the fifth century A.D. under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshmasramana and resulted in the final compilation of 12Angas and 12 Upangas. Spread of Jainism: in order to spread the teaching of Jainism Mahavira organised and order of his followers admitted what men and women. It is said that his followers counted 14,000. Since Jainism did not very clearly marked itself out from the brahmanical religion, it failed to attract masses. Despite this Jainism gradually spread into South and West India. According to relate tradition the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC) the Emperor came in Jaina, gave up his throne and spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic. Spread Of Jainism

Jains built stupas with railing, pillars and gateways. The Hathi Gumpha, Udaigiri and Khandagiri caves of Orrisa contain Jain relics Mathura became a centre of Jain art during the Kushan period the statue of Gomatesawara and Karkala testify to the excellence of jain architecture Dilwara temple at Mt Abu and temples a Ranakpur are example of suberb workmanship

Impact Of Jainism

Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of varna order and ritualistic vedic religion the early jaina discarded the Sanskrit language mainly patronized by Brahmans and adopted Prakit language their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi and the texts were finally compiled in the sixth century A.D. in Gujrat (Vallabhi) The Jains composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first grammar.

Five categories Of Siddhas

Tirthankara- who has attained salvation Arhat - who is about to attain Nirvana Acharya - the head of ascetic group Upadhyaya, teacher or saint Sadhu - which includes the rest

Decline of Jainism: Various factors contributed to the decline of Jainism in India. It had to company treat with both Hinduism and Buddhism. Absence of popular religious preacher after the death of Mahavira, its division into two important sect, absence of protection by later rulers and the revival of Hinduism all contributed to the decline of this religion. Besides, it also was unable to spread to any considerable extent behind the limits of India.

Buddhism Facts
Gautama Buddha: Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a contemporary of Mahavira. He was born in 563 BC in a Shakya(kshtriya) family in Lumbini near Kapilvastu, which is situated in Nepal. Gautama's father (Shudhodana) seems to have been elected ruler of Kapilvastu, and headed the Republic clan of the Shakyas. His mother(Mahamaya) was a princess from the Kosalan dynasty. From his early childhood, Gautama showed a meditative kind of mind. Alara Kama was teacher of meditation. He was married early, but married life did not interest him. At the age of 29 he left home. He kept on, wandering for about seven years and then attained knowledge at the eight of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree. From this time on words, he began to be called the Buddha or the The Englightened.

Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermons at Saranath in Banaras. Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in 483 BC at a place called Kusinagar, identical with the village called Kasia in the district of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Five Great Events In Buddha's Life And Their Symbols Birth Great renunciation Nirvana First sermon Parinirvana/Death Lotus and bull Horse Bodhi tree Wheel (Dharma Chakra) Stupa

Teachings Of Buddha: Buddha said that the world is full of sorrows and people suffer on account of desires. If desires are conquerred, nirvana will be attained. He recommended an Eight-fold Path (astangika marga) for the elimination of human misery. It comprised: Right observation, Right determination, Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood, Right exercise, Right memory and Right

meditation. Buddha also laid down a code of conduct for his followers. The main items in this social conduct are: 1. do not take the property of others 2. do not commit violence 3. do not use intoxicants 4. do not tell a lie 5. do not indulge in corrupt practices.

The Buddha (The Englightened), Dhamma(The Doctrine) and Sangha(The order) are the three jewels of Buddhism.Buddhism does not recognise the existence of God and soul(atma). It particularly warned the support of lower orders as attacked the Varna system. Division in Buddhism : Like Jainism, Buddhism also faced division. It was divided into three main sects: 1. Hinayana or Lesser Vehicle : 1. Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha. 2. Distraught individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation. 3. They did not believe in the Idol worship. 4. Hinayana is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God. 5. Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all. 6. Pali, the languages of the masses, was used by Hinayana Buddhists. 7. Ashoka Patronised Hinayanaism. 2. Mahayana or Greater Vehicle : 1. Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha. 2. It believes in the Idol worship. 3. Mahayana had two Chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and Yogachara. 4. Sanskrit, the language of scholars was used by Mahayana Buddhists. 5. Kanishka patronised Mahayanism. Later Harsha supported it 3. Vajrayana or Vehicel of Thunder Bolt : 1. Its followers believed that salvation be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which they called Vajra. 2. The chief divinites of this new sect were the Taras. 3. It became popular in eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar. 4. It was a form of Buddhism, which appeared in eastern India in the eighth century and was finally established in Tibet in 11th century, as a result of mission sent from the great Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila. Buddhist Scriptures: 1. The Vanaya Pitaka :1. It mainly deals with the rulers and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated. 2. It describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha. 3. An account of the life and teachings of Buddha is also given. 2. The Sutta Pitaka :1.IT consists of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different occasions. 2. Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda, Moggalana and others are also included in it.

3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka :1. It contains the pro-find philosophy of Buddha's teachings. 2. Investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly are. 4. The Khandhakas :1. They contain regulations on the course for life in the monastic order and have two sections-the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The third part, the Parivara, is an insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk.

The Important Buddhist Writers Asvaghosha : Contemporary of Kanishka. He was poet, dramatist, musician, scholar and debator. Nagarjuna : He was a friend of contemporary of Satvahana king Yajnasri Gautamiputra of Andhra. Asanga and Vasubandhu : Two brothers who flourished in the Punjab region in the fourth century A.D. Asanga was the most important teacher of Yogachara or Vijnanavada school founded by his guru Maitreyanatha. Vasubandhu's greatest work, Abhidharmakosa is still considered an important encyclopaedia of Buddhism. Buddhaghosa : Who lived in the fifth century A.D. was a great Pali scholar. Dinnaga :The last mighty intellectual of the fifth century, also well known as the founder of the Buddhist logic. Dharmakirti : Lived in the seventh century A.D.; was another great Buddhist logician, a subtle philosophical thinker and dialectician.

Buddhist Councils No Venue (Year) Presiding Priest King Upali, Satparni Rajagariha(483 BC) recited Major Outcomes the Vinaya Pitaka, Which

First

Mahakassapa

Ajatashatru

contains the rules of the Buddhist order; Anand, the other discipline of Buddha, recited Suttapitaka, containing the great collection of Buddha's sermons on matters of doctrine and ethical beliefs. Split of Buddhist border theSthaviravadins orTheravadins and into

Second

Vaishali BC)

(383

mahasanghikas over small points of monastic discipline. Mogaliputta

Third

Pataliputra(250 BC)

Tissa known

(also Ashoka as

Establishment of Sthaviravada School as an orthodox school.

Upagupta) Fourth Kundalvana, Vasumitra; Kanishka Division of Buddhism into

Kashmir(72 AD) Asvaghosha was the deputy Vasumitra of

the Mahayana and Hinayana sects

Spread of Buddhism: The use of Pali, the language of the people, contributed to the spread of Buddhism. It facilitated the spread of Buddhist doctrines among the common people. Gautama Buddha also organised the sanghafor the religious order, whose doors work Open to everybody, irrespective of caste and sex. 200 years after the death of Buddha, the famous Maurya King Asoka embraced Buddhism. Through his agents, Asoka spread Buddhism into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka , and thus, transformed it into a world religion. King Kanishka became its patron in the first century A.D. Buddhism disappeared from the land of its birth, it continues to hold ground in the countries of South Asia, East Asia. Decline of Buddhism: By the 12th century A.D., Buddhism became practically extinct in India. It became a victim to the evils of Brahmanism against which had fought in the beginning. Gradually, the Buddhist monks were cut off from the mainstream of peoples life; they gave up Pali, the language of the people, and took to Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals. The Hinduism was internally reformed and stressing upon love and devotion. From the first century A.D. Buddhist practised Idol worship on a large scale and received numerous offerings from devotees. Entry of woman in Buddhist sanghas, and the attacks of Huna King in the sixth century A.D. and the Turkish invaders in the 12th century A.D. brought rapid extinction of Buddhism.

The Mauryas Facts(321 BC-185 BC)

There are mainly two literally sources of the Mauryan period. One is the Arthashastra written by Kautilya or Chanakya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, which explains how a good government should be organised. The other source is Indica written in Greek by Magasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator head the court of Chandragupta. Magasthenes wrote not only about the capital city of Pataliputra but also about the Maurya Empire as a whole and about the society. The history of Ashokareign can be constructed mainly on the basis of his edicts. Arthashastra 1. Written by Chankaya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya 2. Divided in 15 Adhikarnas and 180 Prakarnas 3. Is related to money and politics 4. Is divided into 15 parts 5. 6000 sholakas 6. Comment-Pratipada Panchika commented by-Bhataswamy 7. Manuscript discovered by Arya Sharma Shastri in 1904.

Different Views On Origin Of The Mauryas 1. Buddhist sources : They connect them with the tribe of sakyas whose region was full of peacocks i.e. Moriyas and they mention Chandragupta as a Kshatriya. 2. Jain sources : They link Chandragupta to Moriya tribe of Peacock tamers. 3. Brahmanical sources: They describe Mauryas as Shudra. 4. Greek sources : They mention that Sandrokottas(Chandragupta) was born of humble origin .

Chandragupta Maurya Chanakya Facts Bindusara Facts Ashoka Facts

Mauryan Administration: The Mauryan rule was vast and highly centralised bureaucratic rule with the king as the Fountainhead of all the powers. The king claimed not divine rule; rather it was paternal depotism, Kautilya called the king dharmapravartaka or promulgator of social order. Mauryan Administration posts (Mantriparsihad) Mantrin Pirohita Senapati Yuvraj Samaharta Prashasti Sannidata Nayaka Paur Vyabharika Chief Minister High Priest Commander-in-charge Crowned Prince Collector of revenue Head of prisons Head of treasury Had of city security City police Chief Judge

Karmantika Head of industries and factories Dandapala Had of police

Durgapala Annapala Rajjukas Pradesika

Head of Royal Fort Head of food grains Department Officers responsible for land measurement and fixing its boundary Head of district Administration

Causes of the Decline of the Mauryans: Following factors are held responsible for the decline of Maurya Empire

Week successors of Asoka The partition of the Empire into two. The partition had not taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their previous power Hari Prasad Sastri contends that the revolt of Pushyamitra was the result of Brahamical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Asoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors. Militant Brahmanical reactions to Asoka's religious policy which was closer to Buddhism. Asoka's pacifist policy aiming at Dharamvijay instead of Digvijay. Financial crisis owing to an enormous expenditure on the Army and large bureaucracy Highly centralised character of Mauryan government

Mauryan Art Well-known art historian A.K.Coomaraswamy divides Mauryan art into two categories 1. Indigenous 2. Official/Court Art Indigenous 1. Yaksha image from parkam 2. Yakshi Besnagar Female Patna Cauribearer from sculpture Office Art/Court Art Pillars (well builts and polished)

from Finest expample Sarnath - Lions which originally supported Dharma Chakra Animals figure or Maurya period of elephant at Dhauli Stupas

3.

4. -

The age of Mauryas contributed significantly to the development of arts, including architecture, sculpture, engineering, polishing etc. Chandragupta Maurya fuelled his capital and place at Patliputra. The wonderful palace was made of wood. Asoka further improved the wooden walls and building of capital. The 80 pillared hall found at Kumrahar in Patna re-presence the masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone. Asoka fuelled a large number of Stupas . According to Buddhist tradition, Asoka fuelled as good as 84,000 stupas. These structures were solid and domic, made of rock or bricks. The art of the sculpture

or rock cutting also reached its zenith during Asoka's time. Seven rock cut santuaries lying about 25 miles north of Gaya, Bihar - four on the Barabar Hills and three on the Nagarjuna Hills-belong to the time of Asoka and his successors. The caves are also fine examples of Mauryas art. They were used for religious ceremonies and also as assembly halls.

Chandragupta Maurya (321-293 BC)

The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He took advantage of the growing weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule. With the help of Chanakya, who is known as Kautilya, he overthrew the nandas and established the rule of Maurya dynasty. Chandragupta built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and good portions of Bengal, but also western and North-Western India, and the Deccan. Leaving Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of north-eastern India, the Mauryas ruled over the whole of the subcontinent. In the north-west, they held sway over certain areas which were not included even in British Empire.

Chanakya Facts
Chandragupta's advisers, Chanakya (also known as Kautilya) was author ofArthasashtra and is regarded as the architect of Chandragupta's early rise to power. Chandragupta, according to Jain literature, in his last days converted into Jainism by Bhadrabahu and abdicating his throne in favour of his son bindusara became a monk. Various Names Of Chandragupta Maurya Name Palibrothus Androcotus Piyadamas Vrishal Chandrasiri Kulihin Strabo Arien, Plutarch Mudraraksha Mudraraksha Mudraraksha Mudraraksha Source

Bindusara (293-273 BC) Facts

Bindusara (293-273 BC): He was son of Chandragupta and was known as Amitraghta (slayer of foes) by the Greek writers. He continued his friendly links with Syrin King Antiochus I and is stated to have requested for a present of figs and wine together with sophist. He received a great ambassador, Daimachos, from Antiochus I. Pliny tell that ptolemy II Philadephus of Egypt sent an envoy, Dionysios, to Bindusara's court.

Various Names Of Bindusara Amitraghat Sanskrit Literature Amitchetas Strabo which was Greek verion of Sanskrit 'Amitraghata' Seemseri Bindupala Rajvalli Katha Fa-Feenchulin or slayer of foes

The Ashoka Facts (273-232 BC)

Asoka (273-232 BC): Asoka was the third and greatest of the Mauryan rulers. He occupies a high position not only in the history of India but in the world history also. He was coronated four years after the death of his father, Bindusara (273 BC). The gap is interpreted differently by different historians. We have unreliable sources to know the early life of Asoka. From the Buddhist traditions we learn that he was originally called 'Chandasoka' or the fierce Asoka owing to his many evil deeds. From Rock Edict No. XIII, we learn that after Kalinga War (261 BC) Asoka was thoroughly changed man. He discarded Digvijay and followed Dharmavijay. Due to this policy is named shines with unique brilliance. Like his predecessors, Asoka assumed the title of Priyadarshi(pleasing to look at)

and Devanampriya(beloved of God). In the Sarnath inscription, he adopted the third title, i.e. Dharmasoka. Asoka's Hellenistic Contemporaries Antiochus II Theos Ptolemy II Philadelpus Magas Antigonus Gonatas Alexander Syria Egypt Cyrne Macedonia Epirus

Various Names Epithets Of Asoka Devanamkpriya Monarchial Epithet Ashokavardnan Purana Piyadassiraja Ashoka Maurya Piyadasi Barabar cave inscription Junagarh Inscription Kandhar inscription

According to Asoka, the true spirit of religion and does not lie in or is not fulfilled by keeping fasts for syncing hymns for reciting prayers. He was, on the contrary, quite sure that true religion consisted in leading a pure life. Asoka's dhamma compromised all the good qualities of the religion of the world, which he was convinced, were not exclusively and monopoly of Buddhism alone. Asoka's Epic and Inscriptions and they are subject First Second First major rock edict Second edit major Prohibition on animal slaughter

rock Mention of places of Cholas, Pardayans. Satayaputras and Keralputras Directions to Predeshikas. Yuktas and Rajukas for propagation of .Dhamma Impact of Dhamma on society. Appointments of Dhammamahamatras. Welfare majors. Propagation of peace, balance of mind and faith Details of visit to Bodhi tree. Stress on ceremony of Dhamma Asoka's desire to gain popularity for Dhamma Appraisal of Dhamma

Third Forth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh

Third major rock edit Forth major rock edit Fifth major rock edit Sixth major rock edit Seventh edit major rock

Eighth major rock edit Ninth major rock edit Tenth major rock edit Eleventh edit Twlevth edit major rock major rock

Twlevth

Promotion to religion of different faiths

Thirteenth

Thirteenth major rock Largest of all, victory over Kalinga's destruction of war, mention edit of Greek rulers Nature Inclusion of of all other Asoka rock into edicts Sangha

Fourteenth

Fourteenth major rock edit

It is bilingual. It tells that fishermen and hunters gave up hunting Faith of ruler and kingdom in Dhamma.

India after Mauryas Facts

India after Mauryas (200 BC-A.D. 100): The period which became an in about 200 BC did not witness a large empire like that of Mauryas, but it is notable for intimate and widespread contacts between Central Asia and India. In eastern India, Central India and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of native rulers, such as Sungas, the Kanvas and the Satavahanas.

In north-western India they were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia. In north India the tribal states which had earlier succumbed to Mauryan imperialism, now reasserted themselves. In Punjab he existence of several people republics is attested by numismatic evidence. Trigarthas ruled the plane country between the rivers Ravi and Sutlej. Yaudheyas, who were famous warriors, ruled the territory between Sutlej and Yamuna and parts of eastern Rajasthan.Arjunayanas, Malavas and Sibis were distributed in different parts of Rajasthan. Following are some of the major dynasties which came in existence after Mauryas. The Sunga dynasty (185-71 BC): The founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, the commander in chief of Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king. According to Puranas, Pushyamitra ruled for 36 years and his reign ended in 149 four 148 BC. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. From Kalidasa's drama Malvikagnimitram, we learned that Agnimitra was the governor of Vidisha during his father's regin. He ruled for eight years. Agnimitra was succeeded by Jyestha. The next important king of this dynasty was Vasumitra, who was the son of Agnimitira. The last king of this dynasty was Devabhuti or Devabhumi. According to Puranas, he was an incapable and is loving ruler. He was put to death by his minister or amatya called Vasudeva Kanva. Thus, the kingdom of Magadha passed from Sungas to the Kanvas. The Sunga dynasty's greatest achievement was the safeguarding of India from invasion of Hunas. They valiantly resisted the Huna's attacks and saved India from being destroyed. The contributed a lot to the development of culture also. The Sunga kinks greatly encouraged the Brahman religion and literature. Hunas Hunas were only of the fierce tribes from Central Asia. They have been periodically invading India since Sunga period. They were resisted by the rulers uptil the second half of the fifth century A.D. But the weakness of the Empire provided them with a chance and by 485 A.D. they were able to occupy eastern Malwa and a good portion of central India.

Kanva dynasty (72 BC-27 BC): The rule of the Kanvas lasted for about 45 years. For kings ruled during this period. Vasudeva ruled for a period of nine years and Bhumimitra for 14 years. Narayana held the reigns of administration for 12 years --Susharma was the last of the Kanvas. He was a peek King wholly devoid of administrative ability. He could roll hardly for 10 years. During the Kanva dynasty, the Brahmanical reaction persisted. Cheta (Chetis) dynasty of Kalinga: It is evident that Kalinga succeded from the Mauryas Empire in the years following the death of Asoka, though it's history is not known with any degree of certainty till the first century BC. It records the exploits of Kharavela belonging to the Cheta or Cheti line of kings, founded by Maha Meghavahana. He assumed the title of Kalingadhipati or Kalinga Chakravartin as a mark of his paramountcy. A follower of Jainism, Kharavela was a liberal patron of Jain monks for whose residence he constructed caves on the Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar in Orrisa. Age of Satavahanas (235 BC-100 BC): This Is the most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and in Central India were the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras mentioned in the Puranas. The early Satavahanas kinks appeared not in Andhra, but in Maharashtra where most of their early inscriptions have been found.Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 106-130) was the most powerful Satavahana king. The successors of Gautamiputra rulled till A.D. 200.

Significance of Satavahanas

The rise of Satavahanas signified that the economic revolutions of the Gangetic region was repeated all over India. Added to this because of peculiar geographical terrain of the Deccan Peninsula, a number of small kingdoms came into existence but not big Empires since Satavahanas had controlled part of the Deccan and part of the northern India they acted as the career of Aryanism to Southern India.

The Kushanas (45 A.D.-73 A.D.) The Parthians were followed by Kushanas, who are also called Yuehis or Tocharians. The Kushans were one of the five clans ino which the Yuechi tribe was divided. There were two successive dynasties of Kushans. The first dynasty was founded by a house of Chief who were called Kadphises and who ruled for 28 years from about A.D. 50. It has two Kings the first Kadphises I, who issued coins South of the Hindukush. Kadphises I was succeeded by his sone kadphises II or Vima Kadphises. Kanishka was the greatest Kushana king. He spread his kingdom in and beyond the western Himalayas, including Khotan in Sinkiang. He is credited with popularizing Buddhism in Tibet, China, Central Asia and other parts of the world.

The Mauryas Facts(321 BC-185 BC)

The Sangam age (first to third century A.D.): 'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word "Sangha" meaning a group of persons or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets and bards, who flourished in three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the Tamil kings. According to tradition, the first Sangam was founded by Sage Agastya and its seat was at Thenmadurai (South Madurai). The Sangam literature speaks highly of threr South Indian kingdoms- Chola, Pandya and Chera. The three ancient kingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandas and the Chera combined with were known as Tamilakha, or the Tamil realm. The Three Sangam Kingdoms Kingdoms Cholas Cheras Pandyas Capital Uraiyur, later Puhar Vanji or Karur Madurai Emblems Tiger Bow Carp (Fish) Famous sport Puhar(Kaveripattam) Muzris, Tondi, Bandar Korkai, Saliyur

The Cholas: the homeland of the Cholas was the Kaveri delta and the adjoining region of modern Tanjore and Trichinopoly. They were the first to acquire ascendancy in the far south with kaveripattanam, or Puhar as their capital. Its ugly capital was Uraiyur Towards the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the power of the Chola's big gain to decline mainly

because of the rise of Pallavas on one hand and the continuous war waged by the Pandyas and the Cheras on the other. The Pandyas: The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its capital at Madurai, compromised the modern districts of Madura, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and southern parts of Travancore. The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megarthanese. According to the Magashense, the kingdom was once ruled by a woman. According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were independent people living beyond the South than border of the Maurya Empire. The greatest Pandya king wasNedunchezhian who defeated the Chera and Cholas. The Cheras : The earliest reference to the Chera (Keralaputra) kingdom cards in the Ashokan inscriptions. It compromised the mordern districts of Malabr, Cochin and Northern Travancore. Its Capital was Vanji. The greatest Chera king was Senguttuvan, the red or good Chera. He is credited with having invaded the north and crossed the river Ganga. Religion: The people worshipped Murugan, Tirumal, Balram and Indra in the temple known as nagar, koil, kottam, purai or devalayam. The worship of Vedic deities were also not uncommon. The worship of kannagi was common. The Vedic practice of Yagna, sraddha and pinda were practised by the Sangam people. Varanasystem took roots even in the south. The influence of Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikas was paramount.

The Age of Guptas

The age of the Guptas(A.D. 320-550) The classical age: The classical age referred to the period when most of the north India was reunited under the Gupta Empire. It was, perhaps, sometimes late in the period of third century A.D. that the Gupta dynasty emerged. One Sri Gupta, who brought Magadha under his control, was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. Sri Gupta was succeeded by Ghototkacha Gupta. The first two kings of the dynasty were described as Maharajas. It is generally believed that first two rulers of the dynasty ruled before 320 A.D. They were followed by some of the rulers of ancirnt Indian history. Position of woman: In the Gupta period, woman were also allowed to listen the epics and the Puranas, and advised to worship Krishna. But woman of high year orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta Times. The main reason for the subordination of women belonging to the upper varnas was the complete dependence on the men for their livelihood. Religion: Since the society was highly materialistic, Hindu revived. Bhagavatism centred around the worship of Vishnu or Bhagwat, and originated in post-Mauryan times. Vishnu was a minor God in vedic times. He represented the sun and also the fertility cult. By the second century BC he was merged with the God called Narayana. He was also called Bhagwat, and his worshippers were called Bhagavatas.

Chandragupta I Samudragupta Facts

Chandragupta II Kumargupta I Skandagupta Vikramaditya Gupta Art Development period of literature during Gupta

Important Gupta Officials At The Central Level Mahabaladhikrita Mahadandanayak Commander in chief Chief Justice

Mahasandhivigrahak or Sandhivigrahak And facial for post-war conciliation. Dandapashika Bhandagaradhikreta Mahapaksha-Patalik Vinaysthitisansathapak Sarvadhyaksha Mahashwapati Vinaypura Yuktapurusha Khadyatpakika Ranabhandagarika Mahanarpati Haed of the police department Head of the Royal Treasury Had of the account Department Head of the education Department Inspector for all the central departments Controller of cavalry. Official to present different guests at Kings Court Office to keep account of wat booty. Inspector of Royal kitchen Officer in charge of Army stores Had of foot soldiers(infantry)

Chandragupta I
Chandragupta I(320 A.D.-335 A.D.): Chandragupta I, grandson of Sri Gupta and son of Ghatotkacha Gupta, was the first to great ruler of the dynasty. He increased power and prestige of the empire to a great extent by matrimonial alliance and conquests. He married Kumaradevi, the Lichchavi Princess. His empire included modern Bihar, Oudh, Allahabad, Tirhut, in addition to Magadha.

He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. He started the Gupta era in A.D. 320, which marked the date of his accession. Lichchhavi Princess Kumari Devi was the first Indian Queen featured on a coin.

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.)

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.) Samudragupta increased the throne in 335 A.D. The basic information about his reign is provided by an inscription Prayaga Prasasti composed by Harisena, the poet at his court, and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad Pilair Inscription. The places and the countries Group 1 conquered include by Samudragupta of the Ganga can be Yamuna divided doab into who five were groups. defeated.

Princes

Group 2 include the rulers of eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states such as princes of Nepal, Assam and Bengal. It also covers some republics of Punjab. Group 3 includes the forest kingdom is situated in the Vindhya region and known as atavika rajyas . group 4 includes the 12 rulers of the eastern Deccan and South India, who were conquered liberated. Group 5 includes the name of the Sakas and Kushans.

Samudragupta embarked upon a policy of conquest. In fact, Digvijay became the ultimate call of his life. For his military achievements, he has been aptly complemented by the historian V.A Smith as the Indian Napoleon. he has described Samudragupta as the Hero of Hundred Battles.

Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II (380 A.D.-412 A.D.) The reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) was the largest watermark of the Gupta Empire. He extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and conquests. Chandragupta I married his daughter Prabhavati with a Vakataka Prince who belonged to the Brahmana cast and ruled in central India. The prince died and was succeeded by his young son. So, Prabhavati became the virtual ruler. Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vikataka kingdom. This afforded a great advantage to him. With his great influence in this area, Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat, which had been under the role of Saka Kshtrapas for about four centuries. The conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern seacoast, famous for trade and commerce. This also contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital by Chandragupta II.

Chandragupta II's Nine Gems Person Amarsimha Dhanvantri Harisena Kalidesa Kahapanaka Sanku (Field) Lexicography Medicine Poetry Famous works Amarkosha Ayurveda Allahabad Inscription Abhijananashakuntalam Drama and Poetry Jyothisyashastra Astrology Shilpashastra Brihadsamhita Vyakarana Mantrashastra

Varahamihira Architecture Vararuchi Vetalabhatta Grammer Magic

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler in 57 BC as a mark of his victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India. The Court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by an numerous scholars such as Kalidasa and Amarashimha. It was in Chandragupta's regin that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414) visited India and abroad and elaborate account of the life of its people.

Kumargupta I
Kumargupta I, Mahendraditya(415-455 A.D.) Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son, Kumargupta I. Nothing is known about his political career, but some evidence indicates that the strength, unity and prestige of the empire remained unshaken in his reign. Towards the close of his reign, the Gupta power was seriously menaced by the new invaders called the Hunas. Kumargupta died during the war with the Hunas.

Skandagupta Vikramaditya
Skandagupta Vikramaditya(455-467 A.D.) Skandagupta, the last ruler of the Gupta dynasty, probably came to the throne when the war Pushyamitra was still going on.

His literary saved the Gupta Empire. He succeeded in defeating the Hunas and in maintaining the integrity of his ancestral empire. Success in repelling the Hunas scenes to have been celebrated by the assumption of the title Vikramaditya.

The decline of the empire begin soon after his death. The Hunas later became the rulers of Punjab and Kashm

Gupta Art
Gupta Art: In art, architecture, sculpture, and painting the period witnessed unprecedented activities and development all over India. That is why the period is also referred to as the Golden Age of ancient India. Famous Temples Of The Got the Age Vishnu Temple Shiva Temple Parvati Temple Dasavtar Temple Shiva Temple Bhitragaon Temple Lakshman Temple Lakshman Temple Tigawa(Jabalpur) Bhumara(Nagaud) Nachria Kuthara Deogarh(Jhansi) Koh(Nagaland) Bhitragaon Kanpur(Brick made) Sirpur (Raipur)

Mukund Darra Temple Kota Dhammekh Temple Jarasangh's Sitting Sarnath Rajgrih (Bihar)

Sculpture : It may be mentioned that the Gupta plastic conception had its birth at Mathura and spread to Sarnath, Shravasti, Prayag and other places. At Sarnath, the plastic conception of Mathura School with all its elegance reached perfection in figure of seated Buddha in Dharma-ChakraPravarthana attitudes. Gupta Architecture

Gupta age marks the beginning of the main styles of temple architecture in India namely the Nagara styleand Dravida style. The finest example of temple architecture is the Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh. It is also an example of early stone temple with a Shikara. It has a square grabhagriha with exquisitely carved doorway. The Bhitragaon temple of Kanpur is made entirely of bricks. Other examples of temple architecture are Parvati Temple at Nachna Kuthira, Shiva temple at Khoh, Cave temple at Udayariti etc.

Ajanta Paintings

The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta Times is provided by Ajanta paintings. They depict the various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and previous Buddhas, of jataka stories. Bagh Caves had the folk culture has the basic theme/ The paintings in the cave number 9 and 10 belong to the first and second century BC Cave number 10 belong to the early Gupta eight, approximately 350 A.D. Paintings in the cave number 16, 17 and 19 belong to the later period approximately to 650 A.D. Painting of the cave number 1 and 2 belong to the post Gupta period The finest example of painting of this period are found in the rock cut cave number 1, 16 and 19 at Ajanta. The wall painting of the Bodhisattava in cave 1 is the finest example of Gupta art. The outstanding examples of the frescoes or wall paintings.

Development of literature during Gupta period

Development of literature during Gupta period: During the Gupta period, Sanskrit literature greatly encouraged. Prose and poetry both were written during the Gupta period. The Allahabad pillar inscription indicates that Harisena was a great poet. The manner in which, he has described the samundragupta by Chandragupta indicates that he was a pirate of great calibre. A list of important literary works during the Gupta period is given in the table below. Important Literary Works During the Gupta Period Works Epics Ramayan Mahabharata Raghuvansa, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta Ravanabadha Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita Kiratarjuniyam Nitishataka Dramas Vikramovarshiya, Malvikagnimitra and Abhijnansakuntalam Mrichchakatika Kalidasa Valmiki Ved Vyasa Kalidas Batsabhatti Dandin Bharavi Bhartrihari Creators

Pratignayaugandharayana Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam Eulogy Pragya-PPrasasti Philosophy Sankhyakarika Nyaya Bhasya Vyasa Bhasya Grammmer Amarakosha Chandravyakarana Kavyadarsha Narrative Story Panchatantra and Hitopadesha Mathematics and Astronomy Aryabhattiya Brihatsamhita and Panchasidhantika Suryasidhanta Miscellaneous Works Nitisastra Kamsutra Kavyalankara

Bhasa Vishakhadatta

Harisena

Ishwar Krishna Vatsyayana Acharya Vyasa

Amarsimha Chandragomin Dandin

Vishnu Sharma

Aryabhatta Varamihira Brahmagupta

Kamandaka Vatsyayana Bhamah

Transformation Medieval Phase

From

Ancient

Phase

to

Transformation from the ancient to mediaeval phases.: Central factors that ultimately transformed the ancient Indian society into mediaeval society who was the practice of land grants. This practice came into being because of a serious crisis that affected the ancient social order. The crucial step to made the situation was too grand land to priests and officials in lieu of salaries and remuneration. Line grands became frequent from the fifth century A.D. According to this, the bramhmanas wire granted villages free from taxes. Trade and commerce: From the sixth century A.D. onwards, there started a sharp decline in trade. The decline of trade led to the decay of towns. In northern India, from eighth century A.D. onwards, there are one a period of stagnation and even of decline. The main reason for this was the setback to

trade and commerce. The decline in trade and commerce was due to collapse in the vast of the Roman Empire with which India has flourishing and profitable trade. The rise of Islam leading to the collapse of all empires, such as Sassanid (Iranian) Empire, also affected India's foreign trade, particularly the overland trade. As a result, there was a remarkable paucity of new gold coins in North India between the eighth and the 10th century. However foreign trade and commerce in North India became to revive gradually from the 10th century onwards. Malwa and Gujarat benefited most from the revival of his trade. There was also the decline of internal trade which led to the languishing trade guild called shrenis and sanghas in north India. Cultural development: In about the 6-7th centuries started the formation of cultural units, which later came to known in and as Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan,, Tamil Nadu etc. The identity of various cultural groups is recognised by both foreign and Indian sources. The Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang mentions several nationalities. The Jaina books of the late eighth century notice the existence of 18 major peoples of nationalities. Original scripts became more prominent in the seventh century A.D. and later. From Maurya to Gupta Times, although the script underwent changes, more or less the same script continue to obtain throughout the country. Thus, a person who has mastered the script of the Gupta age can read in scripts from different parts of the country in that period. But from the seventh century every reason came to have its own script, and hence one cannot read post-Gupta inscriptions found in different parts of the country unless he has the knowledge of regional scripts. Education, Science and Learning: The system of education which developed in the earlier period continued without much change. There was no idea of mass education at that time. People learnt learnt what they felt was needed for their livelihood. Sometimes, temples made arrangements of education at the higher level as well. The main subjects studied were the various branches of the Vedas and grammar. Education of a more formal kind, with greater emphasis on secular subjects, continued to be provided at some of the Buddhist viharas. Nalanda in Bihar was the most famous of these. Kashmir was another important centre of education. India made an important contribution to fines. In ancient times, religion and science were inextricably linked together. Astronomy made great progress in the country because the planets came to be regarded at Gods, and their movements became to be seen closely observed. Their study became essential on account of their connection with changes in seasons and weather conditions to which were important for agriculture activities. The science of grammar and linguistics arose because the ancient Brahma stressed that the every Vedic prayer and every mantra should be recited with the meticulous correctness. In fact, the first result of the scientific outlook of Indians was the production of Sanskrit grammar. In the fourth century BC Panini systemised the rules governing Sanskrit and produced a grammar called Astadhyayi. By the third century BC, mathematics, astronomy and medicine begin to develop separately. In the field of mathematics the ancient Indians made three distinct contributions: the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence for the use of the decimal system is in the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The Indian notational system was adopted by the Arabs who spread it in the Western world. The Indians numerals were called Arabic in English, but the Arabs themselves called their numerals hindsa. Dynasties, There Rulers And Capitals Dynasties Shunga Kanva By Rulers Capitals

Pushyamitra Sunga Patliputra Vasudeva Patliputra

Satvahanas Ilkshavaakus Kushanas Gupta Hunas Pushybhuti Pallavas Chalukya Rashtrakuta

Simuk Shrishanta Mulak Kujulkhadphises Sri Gupta Tormaan Narvardhan Simhavarman IV

Pratishthaan Nagarjun Konda Purusushpur/Peshawar Patliputra Shakal or Syalkot Thaneshwar/Kannauj Kanchi

Jaisingh Siddharaja Vatapi/Badami Danti Durga Manya Khait Gujarat Kannauj Ajmer/Shakambhari Khajurah or Kalinga

Gurjara-Pratihara Harish Chandra Gadhwaal Chauhaan Chaindel Chandradev Vasudev Nannuk or Dhanga