Homogenisers

6.3

The technology behind disruption of fat globules

Homogenisation has become a standard industrial process, universally practised as a means of stabilising the fat emulsion against gravity separation. Gaulin, who invented the process in 1899, described it in French as fixer la composition des liquides. Homogenisation primarily causes disruption of fat globules into much smaller ones, see figure 6.3.1. Consequently it diminishes creaming and may also diminish the tendency of globules to clump or coalesce. Essentially all homogenised milk is produced by mechanical means. Milk is forced through a small passage at high velocity. The disintegration of the original fat globules is achieved by a combination of contributing factors such as turbulence and cavitation. The net result reduces the fat globules to approximately 1m in diameter, which is accompanied by a four- to six-fold increase in the fat/plasma interfacial surface area. The newly created fat globules are no longer completely covered with the original membrane material. Instead, they are surfaced with a mixture of proteins adsorbed from the plasma phase. Fox et al.1) studied a fat-protein complex produced by the homogenisation of milk. They showed that casein was the protein moiety of the complex and that it was probably associated with the fat fraction through polar bonding forces. They postulated further that the casein micelle was activated at the moment it passed through the valve of the homogeniser, predisposing it to interaction with the lipid phase.

Fig. 6.3.1 Homogenisation causes disruption of fat globules into much smaller ones.

Process requirements
The physical state and concentration of the fat phase at the time of homogenisation contribute materially to the size and dispersion of the ensuing fat globules. Homogenisation of cold milk, in which the fat is essentially solidified, is virtually ineffective. Processing at temperatures conducive to the partial solidification of milk fat (i.e. 30 35C) results in incomplete dispersion of the fat phase. Homogenisation is most efficient when the fat phase is in a liquid state and in concentrations normal to milk. Products of high fat content are more likely to show evidence of fat clumping, especially when the concentration of serum proteins is low with respect to the fat content. Cream with higher fat content than 12 % cannot normally be homogenised at the normal high pressure, because clusters are formed as a result of lack of membrane material (casein). A sufficiently good homogenisation effect requires approximately 0.2 g casein per g of fat. High-pressure homogenisation procedures cause the formation of small fat globules. The dispersion of the lipid phase increases with increasing temperatures of homogenisation and is commensurate with the decreasing viscosity of milk at higher temperatures.

1) Fox, K.K., Holsinger, Virginia, Caha, Jeanne and Pallasch, M.J., J. Dairy Sci, 43, 1396 (1960).

Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 6.3

115

Homogenisation temperatures normally applied are 60 70C, and homogenisation pressure is between 10 and 25 MPa (100 250 bar), depending on the product.

Flow characteristics
When the liquid passes the narrow gap the flow velocity increases, figure 6.3.2. The speed will increase until the static pressure is so low that the liquid starts to boil. The maximum speed depends mainly on the inlet pressure. When the liquid leaves the gap the speed decreases and the pressure increases again. The liquid stops boiling and the steam bubbles implode.
Forcer Seat Homogenised product

Homogenisation theories
Many theories of the mechanism of high pressure homogenisation have been presented over the years. For an oil-in-water dispersion like milk, where most of the droplets are less than one Unhomogenised m (106 m) in diameter, two theories have survived. product Together they give a good explanation of the influence of different parameters on the homogenising effect. The theory of globule disruption by turbulent eddies (micro whirls) is based on the fact that a lot of small eddies are created in a liquid travelling at a high velocity. Higher velocity gives smaller eddies. If an eddy hits an oil droplet of its own size, the droplet will break up. This theory predicts how the homogenising effect varies with the homogenising pressure. This relation has been shown in many investigations. The cavitation theory, on the other hand, claims that the shock waves created when the steam bubbles implode disrupt the fat droplets. According to this theory, homogenisation takes place when the liquid is leaving the gap, so the back pressure which is important to cavitation is important to homogenisation. This has also been shown in practice. However, it is possible to homogenise without cavitation, but it is less efficient.

Homogenised product

Gap 0.1 mm Fig. 6.3.2 At homogenisation the milk is forced through a narrow gap where the fat globules are split.

Single-stage and two-stage homogenisation

Homogenisers may be equipped with one homogenising device or two connected in series, hence the names single-stage homogenisation and two-stage homogenisation. The two systems are illustrated in figures 6.3.5 and 6.3.6. In single-stage and two-stage homogenisation the total homogenisation pressure is measured before the first stage, P1, and the homogenisation pressure in the second stage is measured before the second stage, P2. The two-stage method is usually chosen to achieve optimal homogenisation efficiency. Best results are obtained when the relation P1 / P2 is about 0.2. (See figure 6.3.9) Single-stage homogenisation may be used for homogenisation of: products demanding a high viscosity (certain cluster formation). Two-stage homogenisation is used for: products with a high fat content products where a high homogenisation efficiency is desired. The formation and breakup of clusters in the second stage is illustrated in figure 6.3.3.

Effect of homogenisation
2
Fig. 6.3.3 Disruption of fat globules in first and second stages of homogenisation. 1 After first stage 2 After second stage

The effect of homogenisation on the physical structure of milk has many advantages: Smaller fat globules leading to no cream-line formation, Whiter and more appetizing colour, Reduced sensitivity to fat oxidation, More full-bodied flavour, better mouthfeel, Better stability of cultured milk products.

116

Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 6.3

However, homogenisation also has certain disadvantages: Homogenised milk cannot be efficiently separated. Somewhat increased sensitivity to light sunlight and fluorescent tubes can result in Sunlight flavour (see also chapter 8, Pasteurised milk products). Reduced heat stability, especially in case of single-stage homogenisation, high fat content and other factors contributing to fat clumping. The milk will not be suitable for production of semi-hard or hard cheeses because the coagulum will be too soft and difficult to dewater.

The homogeniser
High-pressure homogenisers are generally needed when high-efficiency homogenisation is required. The product enters the pump block and is pressurised by the piston pump. The pressure that is achieved is determined by the back-pressure given by the distance between the forcer and seat in the homogenisation device. This pressure is P1 in the figure 6.3.9. P1 is always designated the homogenisation pressure. P2 is the back-pressure to the first stage or the inlet pressure to the second stage.

2 1 3 4 5
10

6 8

Fig. 6.3.4 The homogeniser is a large high-pressure pump with a homogenising device. 1 Main drive motor 2 V-belt transmission 3 Pressure indication 4 Crankcase 5 Piston 6 Piston seal cartridge 7 Solid stainless steel pump block 8 Valves 9 Homogenising device 10 Hydraulic pressure setting system

The high-pressure pump

The piston pump is driven by a powerful electric motor, ref. 1 in figure 6.3.4, through a crankshaft and connecting-rod transmission which converts the rotary motion of the motor to the reciprocating motion of the pump pistons. The pistons, ref. 5, run in cylinders in a high-pressure block. They are made of highly resistant materials. The machine is fitted with double piston seals. Water can be supplied to the space between the seals to cool the pistons. Hot condensate can also be supplied to prevent reinfection in aseptic processes.

Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 6.3

117

Fig.6.3.5 The components of a singlestage homogenisation device. 1 Forcer 2 Impact ring 3 Seat 4 Hydraulic actuator

The homogenisation device

Figures 6.3.5 and 6.3.6 show the homogenisation and hydraulic system. The piston pump boosts the pressure of the milk from about 300 kPa (3 bar) at the inlet to a homogenisation pressure of 10 25 MPa (100 250 bar) depending on the product. The inlet pressure to the first stage before the device (the homogenisation pressure) is automatically kept constant. The oil pressure on the hydraulic piston and the homogenisation pressure on the forcer balance each other. The homogeniser is eqipped with one common oil tank, whether it has one or two stages. However, in two-stage homogenisation there are two oil systems, each with its own pump. A new homogenisation pressure is set by changing the oil pressure. The pressure can be read on the high-pressure gauge. Homogenisation always takes place in the first stage. The second stage basically serves two purposes: Supplying a constant and controlled back-pressure to the first stage, giving best possible conditions for homogenisation; Breaking up clusters formed directly after homogenisation as shown in figure 6.3.3. The parts in the homogenisation device are precision ground. The impact ring is attached to the seat in such a way that the inner surface is perpendicular to the outlet of the gap. The seat has a 5 angle to make the product accelerate in a controlled way, thereby reducing the rapid wear and tear that would otherwise occur. Milk is supplied at high pressure to the space between the seat and forcer. The width of the gap is approximately 0.1 mm or 100 times the size of the fat globules in homogenised milk. The velocity of the liquid is normally 100 400 m/s in the narrow annular gap, and homogenisation takes place in 10 15 microseconds. During this time all the pressure energy delivered by the piston pump is converted to kinetic energy. Part of this energy is converted back to pressure again after the device. The other part is released as heat; every 40 bar in pressure drop over the device gives a temperature rise of 1C. Less than 1% of the energy is utilised for homogenisation, but nevertheless high pressure homogenisation is the most efficient method available.

1 2
Fig. 6.3.6 Two-stage homogenisation head. 1 First stage 2 Second stage

Note that the homogenisation pressure is not the pressure drop over the first stage.

Homogenisation efficiency
The purpose of homogenisation varies with the application. Consequently the methods of measuring efficiency also vary.

118

Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 6.3

According to Stokes Law the rising velocity of a particle is given by: vg = velocity g = force of gravity p = particle size hp = density of the liquid lp = density of the particle t = viscosity in the formula: p2 x ( hp lp) 18 x t

vg =

xg

or v = constant x p2 Thus it can be seen that reducing the particle size is an efficient way of reducing the rising velocity. Thus reducing the size of fat globules in milk reduces the creaming rate.

Analytical methods
Analytical methods for determining homogenisation efficiency can be divided into two groups:

Studies of creaming rate

Laser light

The oldest way of determining the creaming rate is to take a sample, store it for a given time, and analyse the fat contents of different layers in the sample. The USPH method is based on this. A sample of, say, 1 000 ml is stored for 48 hours, after which the fat content of the top 100 ml is determined as well as the fat content of the rest. Homogenisation is reckoned to be sufficient if 0.90 times the top fat content is less than the bottom fat content. The NIZO method is based on the same principle, but with this method a sample of, say, 25 ml is centrifuged for 30 minutes at 1 000 rpm, 40C and a radius of 250 mm. The fat content of the 20 ml at the bottom is divided by the fat content of the whole sample, and the ratio is multiplied by 100. The resulting index is called the NIZO value. The NIZO value of pasteurised milk is normally 50 80%.

Sample

Sensors

Scattered light

Fig. 6.3.7 Particles analysis by laser diffraction.

Size distribution analysis

The size distribution of the particles or droplets in a sample can be determined in a well defined way by using a laser diffraction unit, figure 6.3.7, which sends a laser beam through a sample in a cuvette. The light will be scattered depending on the size and numbers of particles in the sample. The result is presented as size distribution curves. The percentage of the
Volume distribution of fat, % Homogenised at 250 bar Homogenised at 100 bar Unhomogenised milk

3 4 5 Globule size, microns

8
Fig. 6.3.8 Size distribution curves.

Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 6.3

119

(fat) is given as a function of the particle size (fat globule size). Three typical size distribution curves for milk are shown in figure 6.3.8. Note that the curve shifts to the left as a higher homogenisation pressure is used.

Energy consumption and influence on temperature

Flow l/h Qin 18 000 Temp Pressure C bar Tin 65 Pin 2 Electric effect kW E 123 Pressure bar P1 200 Pressure bar P2 48 Pressure bar P out 4 Temp C Tout 70

Piston pump

1st
homogenisation stage

2nd
homogenisation stage

Fig. 6.3.9 Energy, temperature and pressure in a homogenisation example.

The electrical ef power input needed for homogenisation is expressed by the formula: Example E = Qin = P1 = Pin = pump = el. motor = Electrical effect, kW Feed capacity, l/h Homogenisation pressure, bar Pressure to the pump, bar Efficiency coefficient of the pump Efficiency coefficient of the electrical motor 18 000 l/h 200 bar (20 MPa) 2 bar (200 kPa) 0.85 0.95

E =

Qin x (P1 Pin ) 36 000 x pump x el. motor

kW

With the figures for feed capacity and pressures given on the right above, the electric power demand will be 123 kW. As was mentioned above, part of the pressure energy supplied is released as heat. Given the temperature of the feed, T in, the homogenisation pressure, P1 , the pressure after homogenisation, Pout , and that every 4 MPa (40 bar) in pressure drop raises the temperature by 1 C, the following formula is applicable:

Tout =

P1 Pout + Tin 40

The energy consumption, temperature increase and pressure decrease are illustrated in figure 6.3.9. Tin = 65C P1 = 200 bar (20 MPa) Pout = 4 bar (400 kPa) resulting in Tout = 70C.

120

Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 6.3

The homogeniser in a processing line

In general the homogeniser is placed upstream, i.e. before the final heating section in a heat exchanger. Typically in most pasteurisation plants for market milk production, the homogeniser is placed after the first regenerative section. In production of UHT milk the homogeniser is generally placed upstream in indirect systems but always downstream in direct systems, i.e. on the aseptic side after UHT treatment. The homogeniser then is of aseptic design with special piston seals, packings, sterile condensate condenser and special aseptic dampers. However, downstream location of the homogenisers is recommended for indirect UHT systems when milk products of fat content higher than 6 10% and/or with increased protein content are going to be processed. The reason is that with increased fat and protein contents, fat clusters and/or agglomerates (protein) form at the very high heat treatment temperatures. These clusters/agglomerates are broken up by the aseptic homogeniser located downstream.

2 4

Raw milk, 4% fat Cream, 35% fat Skimmilk, 0.05% fat Cream, 10% fat Standardised milk, 3% fat Cooling media Heating media

Fig. 6.3.10 Product flow at partial stream homogenisation. 1 Heat exchanger 2 Centrifugal separator 3 Automatic fat standardisation device 4 Homogeniser

Full stream homogenisation

Full stream or total homogenisation is the most commonly used form of homogensiation of market milk and milk intended for cultured milk products. The fat content of the milk is standardised prior to homogenisation, and sometimes (e.g. in yoghurt production) the solids-non-fat content too.

Partial homogenisation
Partial stream homogenisation means that the main body of skimmilk is not homogenised, but only the cream together with a small proportion of skimmilk. This form of homogenisation is mainly applied to pasteurised market milk. The basic reason is to reduce operating costs. Total power consumption is cut by some 65% because of the smaller volume passing through the homogeniser. As sufficiently good homogenisation can be reached when the product contains at least 0.2 casein per g fat, a maximum cream fat content of 12% is recommended. The hourly capacity of a homogeniser used for partial homogenisation can be dimensioned according to the example below.

Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 6.3

121

The formulae for the calculations are: Qp x (fcs frm) fcs fsm Qsm x fsm f ch

1.

Qsm =

Example: Qp = Plant capacity, l/h Qsm = Output of standardised milk, l/h Qh = Homogeniser capacity, l/h frm = Fat content of raw milk, % fsm = Fat content of standardised milk, % fcs = Fat content of cream from separator, % fch = Fat content of cream to be homogenised, %

10 000

4 3 35 10

2.

Qh =

The hourly output of pasteurised standardised milk, Qsm, will be approx. 9 690 l which, inserted into formula 2, gives an hourly capacity of the homogeniser of approx. 2 900 l, i.e. about a third of the output capacity. The flow pattern in a plant for partially homogenised milk is illustrated in figure 6.3.10.

Health aspects of homogenised milk products

In the early 1970s the American scientist K. Oster launched the hypothesis that homogenisation of milk allows the enzyme xanthineoxidase to pass into the bloodstream via the intestine. (An oxidase is an enzyme which catalyses the addition of oxygen to a substance or the removal of hydrogen from it.) According to Oster, xanthine oxidase is involved in the process that damages the blood-vessel wall and leads to atherosclerosis. That hyphothesis has now been rejected by scientists on the grounds that human beings themselves form these enzymes in thousandfold larger amounts than a theoretical contribution from homogenised milk would give. Thus homogenisation of milk has no harmful effects. From a nutritional point of view, homogenisation makes no significant difference, except perhaps that the fat and protein in homogenised products are broken down faster and more easily. However, Oster was right in that oxidation processes in the human body can be unwholesome and that diet is important to health.

122

Dairy Processing Handbook/chapter 6.3