1

Chemistry Final
- Atomic Structure
o Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus at the center of the atom
o Electrons surround the nucleus in the electron cloud
o In a neutral atom, # of protons = # of electrons
o Atomic number- number of protons
o Mass number- sum of protons and neutrons
o Avg. atomic mass- the average mass of atoms of an element

- Nuclear Stability
o Depends on:
Size of nucleus (over 83 protons unstable)
Neutron : proton ratio
o Mass Defect
The difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons,
neutrons, and electrons (mass of atom is less)
The loss of mass is caused by the conversion of mass to energy upon formation of the nucleus
E = mc
2

- E= energy
- m= mass
- c= speed of light (3.0 x 10
8
m/s)
o Atomic Mass
Weighted average of all known natural isotopes of an element
Average: isotopes mass (amu) x abundance (%)
- If the abundance of
85
Rb is 72.2% and the abundance of
87
Rb is 27.8%...
(85 amu x 0.722) + (87 amu x 0.278)= 85.56 amu = 86

o Graph
















o Nuclear Forces
Attractive force between nucleons
- Proton to proton
- Proton to neutron
- Neutron to Proton
Zone of stability
- Stable isotopes fall in this area
- Stable = not radioactive, nucleus will
stay the same
- Unstable = nucleus will undergo
radioactive decay
# of protons
Too many
protons
Too many
neutrons

2
2 protons within close range strong force of attraction is greater than the electrostatic force
of repulsion
2 protons in large nucleus far apart electrostatic force will be greater than strong force
All atoms with more than 83 protons are unstable
Nuclear binding energy- unstable atoms are easy to split
- Nuclear Reactions
o Beta Decay
If a nucleus contains too many neutrons
- A neutron is changed into a proton by emitting a beta particle



o Electron Capture
If a nucleus contains too many protons
- A proton is converted into a neutron



o Positron Emission
If a nucleus contains too many protons
- A proton splits into a neutron and a positron



o Alpha Decay
If a nucleus is very heavy (above the band of stability)

- Alpha particles are admitted ( )



o Gamma Emission
Usually occurs w/ other types of decay



- Half-Life
o The time required for half the atoms of a radioactive nuclide to decay
Starting mass x (0.5
# of half lives
)

- Nuclear Reactors- Devices that maintain and control a nuclear reaction for the production of energy
o Fission
The splitting of a nucleus into smaller, more stable fragments
Releases a large amt of energy
- Uranium atoms split, create more neutrons at an escalating rate
Produces the energy generated by nuclear reactors
o Controlled vs. Uncontrolled
Control rods in nuclear reactors prevent overheating by absorbing excess neutrons
Uncontrolled can cause overheating, which could lead to an explosion


3
- Fusion
o Combining of atomic nuclei
o Capable of releasing very large amounts of energy (more energy than fission)
o Occurs in extreme heat (stars)

- Light
o Visible light is a kind of electromagnetic radiation
o Electromagnetic radiation a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space
o Together, all the forms of electromagnetic radiation form the electromagnetic spectrum
All forms of electromagnetic radiation travel at a constant speed (3.0 x 10
8
m/s)
o Properties of a wave:
Wavelength () The distance between corresponding points on adjacent waves
- Units: m, cm, nm (nm = 10
-9
m), ( = 10
-10
m)
Frequency (v) The number of waves that pass a given point in a specific time
- Units: waves / s, Hertz (s
-1
) (1/s)
Continuous spectrum: The continuous series of colors seen as light passes through a prism
- Red light: longer , lower v
- Violet light: shorter , higher v
Relationship of wavelength and frequency
- Inverse proportion
- As increases, v decreases
- x v = C 3.00 x 10
8
m/s
Atomic Emission Spectrum
- Lead to discovery of electron cloud
- Each element has its own pattern of lines
- Each line corresponds to exact amount of energy being emitted
- Ground state the lowest energy state of an atom
- Excited state an electron becomes excited & moves up energy levels
o Photoelectric effect
The emission of electrons from a metal when a light shines on the metal
Certain colors of light would not effect the electrons on the metal
o Objects emit energy in small, specific amounts called quantum
Quantum- the minimum quantity of energy that can be lost or gained by an atom
o There is a direct relationship between quantum of energy and frequency
E = hf
h= Plancks constant 6.626 x 10
-34
J x s
o Each particle carries a quantum of energy (photons)
Photon a particle of electromagnetic radiation having zero mass & carrying a quantum of
energy
- E = hc /
o c = speed of light 3.00 x 10
8
m/s
o = wavelength
o Bohrs Model of the Atom
The electron can circle the nucleus only in allowed paths or orbits
The electron (hydrogen atom) is in the ground state when it is in the orbit closest to the nucleus
Electrons in orbits farther from nucleus have greater amounts of energy
o Bohrs Explanation of Spectral lines:
The electron can absorb energy and jump to a higher energy level (ground state to excited state)
The electron will fall back to the lower energy state and a photon of light is emitted
** Bohrs model could not explain:

4
1. Spectral lines in atoms other than hydrogen
2. The chemical behavior of atoms
o De Broglie
Suggested electrons can be considered waves confined to the space around an atomic nucleus
De Broglie equation predicts that all moving particles have wave characteristics
- = h/ mv
o Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
It is fundamentally impossible to know precisely both the velocity and position of a particle at the
same time
Its impossible to assign fixed paths for electrons

- Atomic Orbitals & Quantum Numbers
o Atomic Orbitals: region around the nucleus which describes the electrons probable location (fuzzy cloud)
o Quantum numbers specify the properties of electrons in orbitals
1. Principle Quantum Number (n):
Indicates main energy level occupied by the electron
As n increases, the electrons energy & avg distance from nucleus increases
2. Angular Momentum of Quantum Number (l):
Indicates the shape of the sublevel
s orbitals: l=0
p orbitals: l=1
d orbitals: l=2
f orbitals: l=3

o Electron Configuration
s
2

p
6

d
10

f
14























5


For ions, go back or forward based on electrons lost or gained

o Orbital Notation




o Shorthand Notation
Use Noble Gas that comes before the element

o Three Rules for Electron Configuration
Aufbau Principle
- Electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy first
o Determines order of orbital filling
Pauli Exclusion Principle
- An atomic orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
- 2 electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins
Hunds Rule
- When electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, one electron enters each orbital until
all orbitals contain 1 electron





- Atomic Radius
o Def: distance between nuclei of 2 adjacent atoms
o Group Trend: Increases
Reason- Energy levels increase, therefore there is greater distance between nucleus & valence
energy level
o Period trend: Decreases
Reason- Since there is increased nuclear charge, there is a stronger attraction between nucleus
& valence electrons (pulls it closer decreases radius)
- Ionic Radius
o Def: size of an ion
o Cation (group) Trend: Atoms become smaller when they form cations
(+)
Reason- Gets smaller bc it lost an energy level
o Anion (period) Trend: Atoms become larger when they form anions
()
Reason- More electrons in the same area, which increases repulsion, therefore increasing
distance between electrons
- Ionization Energy
o Def: Energy needed to remove an atoms most loosely bound electron
o Group Trend: Decreases
Reason- # of energy levels increases therefore the attraction between the nucleus and valence
electrons decreases
o Period Trend: Increases

6
Reason- Increased nuclear charge therefore increased attraction between the nucleus and
valence electrons


- Electronegativity
o Def: An atoms ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond (electron attracting power)
o Group Trend: Decreases
Reason- Increased shielding w/ more energy levels, so valence electrons are farther from
nucleus therefore decreased attraction
o Period Trend: Increases
Reason- The nuclear charge increases, therefore stronger attraction for negative electrons bc
the atom is smaller

**Group is DOWN (columns)
Period is ACROSS (rows)

- Stable Octet
o Inner energy levels have a more stable configuration (8 electrons)
o More energy is needed to break up something that is stable (remove electrons from an energy level
completely filled w/ 8)

- Types of Chemical Bonds
o Ionic- Metal & Nonmetal
Transfer of electrons
Very large electronegativity difference
o Covalent- 2 Nonmetals
Sharing of electrons
Nonpolar Covalent- Equal sharing, resulting in a balanced distribution of electrical charge
- Same nonmetals (except C-H)
- Little to no electronegativity difference
Polar Covalent- Unequal sharing
- Two different nonmetals
- Different electronegativities

o Metallic- 2 Metals

















7
- Chemical Nomenclature
1. Binary Compounds
2 types of elements
ide ending
Ex: NaCl = sodium chloride
Al
2
S
3
= aluminum sulfide
- Rules for all ionic compounds:
1. Cation first, anion second
2. Compounds are electrostatically neutral
Cations with more than one charge:
Cu
1+
copper CuCl copper (I) chloride
Cu
2+
copper CuCl
2
copper (II) chloride
- -ous ending: smaller charge
- -ic ending: higher charge
2. Ternary Compounds (ionic)
3 or more types of elements
Include Polyatomic Ions
- Typically end in ate or ite if oxygen is included

- Lattice Energy
o The energy required to separate one mole of the ions of an ionic compound (endothermic)
o The energy released when one mole of an ionic compound is formed is exothermic
o The greater the lattice energy the stronger the force of attraction between ions the stronger the
ionic bond the more stable the ionic compound
o Each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions, & vice versa
o Lattice energy depends on
Size of ion (Smaller ions = stronger attraction)
Charge of ion (greater charge = stronger attraction)
- Properties of Ionic Compounds
1. Most are crystalline solids (crystals) at room temp
o Compounds of crystal are arranged in 3-D patterns
o Ionic crystals are very stable
o (+) ions Strong force of attraction (-) ions
o Ions will arrange in different patterns (minimum repulsion, maximum attractions)
2. Ionic compounds conduct electric current
o In the molten state (liquid)
o When dissolved in water (in solution)
Crystal structures break down ions can flow conducts an electric current
o Not when solid
3. Ionic compounds have
o High melting points (NaCl, 500 C)
o High boiling points
4. Ionic compounds are brittle
5. One unit of an ionic compound is called a formula unit
o I mol NaCl = 6.02 x 10
23
formula units
- Special Ions
1. Mercury
Mercury (II) = Hg Mercury (II) chloride = HgCl
2
Mercury (I) = Hg
2
Mercury (I) chloride = Hg
2
Cl
2

2. Peroxide : O
2


8
Hydrogen peroxide = H
2
O
2

Sodium peroxide = Na
2
O
2
Sodium oxide = Na
2
O
- Hydrates compounds with water associated with their crystal structure
CuSO
4
- 5H
2
O copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate

1 Mono 5 Penta
2 Di 6 Hexa
3 Tri 7 Hepta
4 Tetra 8 Octa
9 Nona 10 Deca

- Mole Conversions
o 1 mole = 6.02 x 10
23
particles
atoms
ions
formula units
molecules

- Covalent Bonding & Orbital Overlap
o Valence Bond Theory
Explains bonding in terms of atomic orbitals
- When atoms share electrons the electron density is concentrated between the
nuclei atomic orbitals from ea h of the 2 atoms merge overlap occurs and
different atomic orbitals become a molecular orbital (orbitals share a region of space)
o Sigma Bond- A bond formed from when a line joining the 2 nuclei passes through the middle of the
overlap region (internuclear axis)
All single bonds are sigma bonds
o Pi bond- A covalent bond in which the overlap regions lie above or below the internuclear axis
(sideways overlap of p orbitals)
Multiple bonds are made of a combination of sigma and pi bonds
- Double bonds: Sigma-Pi
- Triple bonds: Sigma-2Pi
o Multiple bonds are made up of a combination of sigma and pi bonds
Single bond- 1 sigma bond
Double bond- 1 sigma & 1 pi bond
Triple bond- 1 sigma & 2 pi bonds
- Resonance
o Occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a single molecule or ion
o Ex: Nitrate Ion (NO
3
)






- Coordinate Covalent Bond
o When both electrons in a shared pair come from one atom
o Ex: Formation of hydronium


9





- Hybridization
o Instead of 2 types of orbitals, it make 1 type
o To determine type of hybridization, count number of domains around the atoms (domain- a bond or
lone pair)
o 1 domain: s
2 domains: sp
3 domains: sp
2
4 domains: sp
3
o Ex:






- Polar Bonds
o A type of bond that forms when electrons are not shared equally
o Lower electroneg. Higher electroneg.
Ex: C Cl

- Percent Composition
mass of element
x 100 = percent by mass (%)
mass of compound


- Molecular Geometry & Polarity

Shape Number of
atoms bonded
to center atom
Number of
Lone Pairs of
Electrons on
center atom
Bond angle AX # Example
Tetrahedral 4 0 109.5 AX
4





nonpolar
Trigonal
Pyramidal
3 1 107 AX
3
E










polar
Trigonal Planar 3 0 120 AX
3


10




nonpolar
Bent (Angular) 2 2 105 AX
2
E
2




polar
Linear 2 0 180 AX
2



nonpolar
o Pyramidal & bent are typically polar
o AX #
A = # of center atoms
X = # of attached ions
E = # of lone pairs on center atom

- States of Matter (Solids, Liquids, Gases)
o Intramolecular Forces: a force of attraction within a molecule
o Intermolecular Forces (IMFs): a force of attraction between two molecules
Dipole-Dipole
- Dipole- a molecule with 2 poles (+ / -)
- The attraction between the negative pole of one molecule & the positive pole of
another molecule








Hydrogen Bond
- The attraction between the positive pole of one molecule (hydrogen) & the negative
pole of another molecule (nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine)
- **Strongest IMF







London- Dispersion Forces
- Due to the movement of electrons
- L-D forces exist between all molecules
- The only force of attraction between nonpolar molecules

11
- *Weakest IMF






- Moving electrons may form a temporary dipole
- Force of attraction between a temporary positive & temporary negative pole of
another molecule
- Group 17 (Diatomics: H O Br F I N Cl)







o Gases
Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
- A theory explaining the states of matter
- Based on the concept that the particles in all forms of matter are in constant motion
- Provides a model of what is called an ideal gas
An ideal gas: an imaginary gas that perfectly fits all the assumptions of the KMT
Kinetic energy: energy of motion
5 Assumptions of the KMT:
1. Gases consist of large #s of tiny particles spaced far apart relative to their size
2. Gas particles are in constant, rapid, random motion. Therefore they possess kinetic
energy
3. Gas particles collide w/ each other & their container
- Collisions are considered elastic
- Elastic collisions: KE can be transferred between particles but total KE
remains constant. (A collision in which there is no net loss of KE)
4. There are no force of attraction or repulsion between gas particles (not true)
5. The avg. kinetic energy of gas particles depends on the temperature of the gas
KE = mv
2
m= mass v= velocity
- All gases at the same temp have the same avg. KE
KMT & Nature of Gases
1. Expansion: Gases expand to fit container
- Bc of lack of attractive forces & their constant motion
2. Fluidity: The ability to flow
- Bc of lack of attractive forces
3. Low Density:
- Bc the particles are spread for apart
4. Compressibility: The ability to be compressed (pushed together)
- Bc density is low, there is more space for particles to be compressed
5. Diffusion & Effusion:
F
2

Cl
2
Br
2
I
2
L-D forces are getting stronger
More electrons = stronger L-D force
Gases
Liquid
Solid

12
- Diffusion- The spontaneous mixing of particles of 2 substances caused by
their constant motion
- Effusion- A process by which gas particles pass thru a tiny opening
Diffusion & Effusion
- Depends on the relative velocities of gas molecules
- The velocity of gas varies inversely with its mass
- Lighter molecules move faster than heavier molecules @ the same temp

Grahams Law of Effusion:
- The rates of effusion of gases at the same temp & pressure are inversely
proportional to the square roots of their molar masses

Rate A M
B
=
Rate B M
A


- Pressure
- Force / unit area
- Caused by collision of gas particles w/ sides of container
- Gas pressure- gas particles colliding with the sides of a container
- Atmospheric pressure- air particles colliding with objects

- STP
- 1 atm = 101.3 kPa
= 760 mm Hg
= 760 torr
- 0C = 273 K
- Pressure exerted by each gas in an unreactive mixture is independent of that
exerted by other gases in the mixture
- Partial pressure: the pressure of each gas in a mixture

Daltons Law of Partial Pressures:
- At a constant volume & temp the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of
partial pressure of component gases
P
total
= P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3

- Mole ratio = gas pressure ratio
mole A pressure A
total mole total
pressure

Boyles Law
- Pressure is inversely proportional to volume
P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2

Charles' Law
- Volume is directly proportional to Kelvin at constant pressure
V
1
V
2
=
=

13
T
1
T
2

Gay-Lussacs Law
- Pressure is directly proportional to Kelvin temp. at constant volume
P
1
P
2

=
T
1
T
2

Combined Gas Law
- Combines Boyles, Charless, & G-L Law
- No variable is constant
P
1
V
1
P
2
V
2
=
T
1
T
2
Avogadros Principle:
- Equal volumes of gases @ the same temp & pressure contain equal numbers of
molecules
PV = nRT
R: 0.0821 L atm / mol K
(constant)
- Solve for molar mass:
mRT DRT
M= -------- = ------
PV P
- Solve for density:
MP
D= -------
RT

P= pressure
V= volume
n= number of moles
R= ideal gas constant
T= temperature
M= molar mass
m= mass
D= density

- Liquids
o Particles are not bound together in a fixed position (constant motion)
o Liquids are fluid take the shape of their container
1. Relatively high density
Strong force of attraction between particles, less space between them
2. Incompressibility
No empty space to be compressed
3. Ability to diffuse
The molecules are constantly moving & arent fixed so they move around other molecules
4. Surface tension- a force that tends to pull adjacent parts of a liquids surface together, thereby
decreasing surface area to the smallest possible size
Capillary Action- spontaneous movement of liquid through tiny tubes

14
Cohesion- molecules are attracted to each other
Adhesion- molecules are attracted to other things
5. Viscosity- measure of resistance to flow
Stronger fore of attraction
6. Evaporation and Boiling
Vaporization- the process by which a liquid changes to gas
o Evaporation- the process by which particle escape from the surface of a nonboiling
liquid and enter gas state
o Boiling- the change of a liquid to bubbles of vapor that appear throughout the liquid
Different IMFs cause different substances to evaporate at different rates
o Strong IMF slow evaporation
o Medium IMF medium evaporation
o Weak IMF fast evaporation
Why is evaporation a cooling process?
o Energy is needed to change the water form a liquid to a gas. The energy that is used is
removed from the area where the water was. This removal of heat energy is cooling.
Vapor pressure- the pressure caused by the vapor particles above a liquid
o Vapor pressure equilibrium: rate of evaporation = rate of condensation
o Low temp- more liquid, less vapor
o High temp- less liquid, more vapor

- Phase Diagram





b.









o Phase diagrams- a graph of pressure as a function of temperature that shows the conditions under
which the phases of a substance exists
o Triple point- indicates the temp & pressure conditions at which a solid, liquid, and vapor of the
substance can coexist at equilibrium
o Critical point- indicates critical temp & pressure
Critical temperature- temp above which the substance cant exist in liquid state
Critical pressure- the lowest pressure at which the substance can exist as a liquid at the critical
temperature
- Energy & States of Matter
o Energy- the ability to do work or produce heat
Potential energy- energy due to composition or position of an object
Kinetic energy- energy of motion
o Chemical systems have both PE and KE
o Heat (q)- energy that is in the process of flowing from a warmer object to a cooler object

15
o Calorie (cal)- the amount of energy required to raise the temp of 1 gram of water by 1C
o Joule (J)- 1 cal = 4.18 J
o To determine heat absorbed or released:
Change in temp (AT)
Mass (m)
Specific heat (c)
o Specific heat (c)- J/ g C or cal/ g C
The amount of heat required to raise temp of 1 g of a substance by 1C
Each substance has its own specific heat (unique composition)
Specific heat of water = 4.18 J/ g C


o Heat Curve

















A, C, E: energy absorbed s converted to KE (temp increases)
B, D: energy absorbed is converted to PE (energy used to overcome force of attraction between
particles, separation)
o More energy is needed for separation of D
o Heat of fusion- the energy needed to melt 1 g of a substance (or 1 mol of a substance)




o Heat of solidification-
AH
fus
= - AH
sol

o Heat of vaporization- energy needed to vaporize 1 g of a substance (or 1 mol of a substance)
o Heat of condensation-
AH
vap
= - AH
cond





- Types of Mixtures
o Homogenous mixture- uniform composition throughout
Solution
q = mc AT
q = AH
fus
mol

q = AH
vap
mol


16
- Salt in water, sugar in water
o Heterogeneous mixture- No uniform composition. Larger particles, Tyndall Effect (scatters light)
Colloid
- Milk, shaving cream, fog
Suspension: particles settle out
- Oil & vinegar, salad dressing
o Solute- the substance being dissolved (sugar)
o Solvent- the substance in which a solute is dissolved (water)
o Aqueous solution- a solution with water as a solvent
- The Dissolving Process (dissolution)
o Dissolving takes place on the surface of the solute
Polar water molecules are attracted to the solute particles & pull the particles apart
- Molecules separate from other molecules (ex: sugar)
- Ions in an ionic compound separate or dissociate
Dissociation- the separation of ions in ionic compounds by water
Solvation: the solvent particles surround the solute particles
- Hydration: the water molecules surround the solute particles
- Miscible: one liquid dissolves in another liquid
- Immiscible: one liquid does not dissolve in another liquid
- Heat of solution: the overall energy change that occurs during the solution formation
process
o Endothermic or Exothermic
o Rate of Dissolution
Factors affecting the rate of dissolution:
1. Stirring the solvent
- Solute comes in contact w/ solvent at a faster pace. Solute will separate
quicker (increased KE)
2. Increasing temperature
- Average KE of particles increases
3. Decreasing the solute particle size
- Many small particles instead of 1 large particle results in increased surface
area. More places for solvent to come in contact w/ solute

o Solubility- the amt of solute that can be dissolved in a given amt of solvent
Depends on
1. Nature of solute
2. Nature of solvent
3. Temp. of solution
As NaCl is added to water
The dissolution process begins
Water will become concentrated with ions
Re-crystallization will start to occur
Eventually equilibrium will be established
- Solution equilibrium- physical state in which the opposing processes of
dissolution & crystallization of a solute occur at equal rates
Saturated solutions
Equilibrium
Contains the max amt of dissolved solute
Particles fall to the bottom
Unsaturated solutions

17
Contain less dissolved solute than a saturated solution
Particles dissolve
Supersaturated solutions
Contain more dissolved solute than a saturated solution
Particles crystallize
o Dissociation Equations
Show the dissociation (separation) of ions when ionic compounds dissolve
Ex:
NaCl
(s)
Na
1+
(aq)
+ Cl
1-
(aq)

(NH
4
)
3
PO
4(s)
3NH
4
1+
(aq)
+ PO
4
3-
(aq)


- Effects of Pressure on Solubility
o As pressure of a gas increases, solubility of a gas in liquid increases
Gas + Solvent Solution
o Le Chateliers Principle
When a system in equilibrium is disturbed by a stress, it attains a new equilibrium position
that minimizes the stress (ex of stress: change in temp/ pressure)
Concentration
Increase in concentration causes equilibrium to shift away from it
Decrease in concentration causes equilibrium to shift towards it
Temperature
Increase in temp will favor endothermic
Decrease in temp will favor exothermic
Pressure
Increasing pressure will favor the forward reaction ()
- Rate of dissolution increases
- Amt of reactants decrease, amt of particles increase
- **Same as decreasing volume
Decreasing pressure will favor the reserve reaction ()
- Rate of crystallization increases
- Amt of reactants increase, amt of particles decrease
- **Same as increasing volume
o Henrys Law
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas on
the surface of the liquid (at constant temp)
Ex: pressurized soda bottles
Unopened bottle few bubbles high pressure above solution
Opened bottle many bubbles low pressure above solution

- Solubility Curve










- For solids in water
o As temp | solubility |
- For gases in water
o As temp | solubility+
- Point on curve = saturated solution
- Point below curve= unsaturated solution
- Point above curve= supersaturated solution

18








- Concentration of Solutions
o Molarity- the number of moles of solute in one liter of solution (M)
M = moles of solute / L of solution

o Molality- concentration used in colligative property calculations (m)
m = moles of solute / kg of solvent

o The number of moles of solute does not change during a dilution
M
1
V
1
= M
2
V
2

- Colligative Properties of Solutions
o Vapor Pressure Lowering
As the number of solute particles increases, the proportions of water molecules decrease.
Few molecules can escape the liquid and therefore decreases vapor pressure
o Freezing Point Depression
If you put solute in water, it lowers the freezing pt (bc it interferes with the crystal pattern
within a solid)
At
f
= K
f
m i
o Boiling Point Elevation
If you put solute in water, it raises the boiling pt (bc IMF is stronger)
At
b
= K
b
m i
- Electrolytes
o Electrolyte
A compound that conducts an electric current in aqueous solution or molten state
All ionic compounds are electrolytes
Acids & bases are electrolytes
Weak electrolyte: only a fraction of the solute exists as ions
Strong electrolyte: almost all of the solute exists as ions
o Nonelectrolyte
A compound that does not conduct electric current in either aqueous solution or the molten
state
Many molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes (sucrose)
Some very polar compounds will ionize in water so they are electrolytes in aqueous solution
(acids)

- Chemical Equations represent chemical reactions
o Must follow law of conservation of mass equations need to be balanced
o





H
2
+ O
2
H
2
O
reactants products
bonds break bonds form
endothermic exothermic

19
- Types of chemical reactions
o Synthesis Reactions
2 or more reactants
1 product
A + B AB
Ex: CaO + H
2
O Ca(OH)
2

o Decomposition Reactions
1 reactant
2 or more products
AB A + B
Ex: CaCO
3
CaO + CO
2

o Single Replacement Reaction
Atoms of an element replace atoms of a second element in a compound
Must check activity series (only higher elements can replace lower elements!)
A + BX AX + B (cationic replacement)
Y + BX BY + X (anionic replacement)
Ex:
- Zn + 2HCl ZnCl
2
+ H
2
(cationic)
- Cl
2
+ 2NaBr 2NaCl + Br
2
(anionic)
o Double Replacement Reactions
Exchange of ions between two compounds
AX + BY BX + AY
Ex: AgNO
3
+ NaCl AgCl + NaNO
3

o Combustion Reactions
Oxygen is a reactant
Release of heat and light
C
X
H
Y
+ O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O
Ex:
- Mg + O
2
MgO
- C
6
H
6
+ O
2
CO
2
+ H
2
O
- Net Ionic Equations
o Complete ionic equation- ionic equation that shows all of the particles in a solution as they exist.
Break up aqueous solutions
o Spectator ions- ions that do not participate in a reaction
o Net ionic equation- ionic equations that include only the particles that participate in a reaction
Ex:
Complete Ionic: CuCl
2
+ 2Na + SO
4
Cu + SO
4
+ 2Na + 2Cl
Spectator ions: Na and SO
4

Net Ionic: CuCl
2
Cu + 2Cl

- Thermochemical Reaction
o A chemical rxn that includes energy (enthalpy) change
Exothermic
- 2H
2
+ O
2
2H
2
O + 481.6 kJ
- 2H
2
+ O
2
2H
2
O AH = -481.6 kJ
Endothermic
- 2H
2
O + 481.6 kJ 2H
2
+ O
2

- 2H
2
O 2H
2
+ O
2
AH = + 481.6 kJ

- Hesss Law

20
o The overall enthalpy change in a reaction is equal to the sum of enthalpy changes for the individual steps
in the process
- Heat of formation
o The change in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of a compound from its elements
with all substances in their standard states at 25C
o AH
F
of all free elements & diatomic molecules = 0

- Entropy & Enthalpy
o Enthalpy: change in energy
Exothermic: -AH
Endothermic: +AH
o Entropy: a measure of the degree of randomness of the particles in a system
+AS
-AS

-AH +AS Spontaneous -AG
+AH -AS Non-spontaneous +AG
+AH +AS Depends on which is dominant Undetermined
-AH -AS Depends on which is dominant Undetermined

- Gibbs free energy
o AG = AH - TAS

- Rates
- Potential Energy Diagrams

























21


o Collision Theory
Atoms, ions, & molecules must collide in order to react
Reacting substances must collide w/ the correct orientation
Reactive substances must collide w/ sufficient energy to form the activated complex
- Effective collisions produce product
Activated complex
- Temporary, intermediate substance
- The arrangement of atoms that may form products or break apart to reform
reactants
Activation energy (Ea)
- The min amt of energy that reacting particles must have to form the activated
complex that becomes product
o High Ea = slow rxn rate (less collisions will be effective)

- Factors affecting rate
o Temperature
As temp increases, avg kinetic energy of the molecules increases
This increased motion results in more collisions between particles
Collisions also are more energetic
More collisions will be effective
Increasing temp will increase rxn rate
Ex: glow sticks
o Concentration of Reactants
When the concentration (molarity) of reactant particles is increased there will be more
particles in a given space
Frequency of collisions between particles increases
Increasing concentration will increase rxn rate
- Why is smoking where oxygen tanks are used very hazardous?
A combustion rxn can occur & its a violent rxn because this an increased
concentration of oxygen
o Particle size
If reactant crystals are broken up, the surface are increases
Since collisions happen on the surface, increased surface area will increase the frequency of
collisions
Decreasing particle size will increase rxn rate
o Catalysts
Catalyst: a substance that increases the rxn rate without being used up itself in the rxn
The catalyst lowers the activation energy needed by the reactants for an effective collision
More of the collisions between reactant particles will be effective
Will increase rxn rate
Inhibitors: substances that interfere with the action of a catalyst (slows down rxn)
o Nature of the Reactants (structure of particles)
In order for a collision to be effective, activation energy is needed to break the bonds of the
reactants
Some bonds are easier to break than others
Compounds w/ weaker bonds will react faster than stronger bonds
Rxn rates may differ due to the chemical nature of reactants

- Reaction Mechanism

22
o Elementary rxn: when reactants are converted to products in 1 step
o A one step rxn
o Rxn mechanism: a sequence of steps by which a rxn occurs
Includes all elementary rxns of a complex rxn
o Intermediate: a product of a rxn that becomes a reactant of another rxn within a rxn mechanism
Rxn order depends upon the mechanism by which the rxn takes place
o Rate Determining Step
The slowest step in the rxn mechanism
Overall rate of rxn cannot exceed the rate of the slowest step

- Rate Law
o [ ] = concentration (molarity)
o Example problem:
2H
2
+ 2NO N
2
+ 2H
2
O
Data showed that when
- [H
2
] doubles, rate doubles
- [H
2
] triples, rate triples
o Therefore, R is proportional to [H
2
]
1

- [NO] doubles, rate increased 4 x (4 fold)
- [NO] triples, rate increased 9 x (9 fold)
o Therefore, R is proportional to [NO]
2

R = k [H
2
]
1
[NO]
2
(3
rd
order rxn)
o Rate depends on the conditions at which rate was determined (temperature)
o Rate Law: an equation that relates reaction rate & concentration of reactants for a chem. rxn
o For one-step rxns
aA B
Rate Law: R = k [A]
a

o For one-step rxn with 2 reactants
aA + bB cC + dD
Rate Law: R = k [A]
a
[B]
b

o The order of rxn = sum of exponents

- Chemical Equilibrium: when the rate of the forward rxn = the rate of the reverse rxn
- Equilibrium Constant (k
eq
)
o The ratio of product concentrations to the reactant concentrations
o K
eq
indicates which part of the reaction is favored
If K
eq
>1 products are favored
If K
eq
<1 reactants are favored
If K
eq
=1 there is equilibrium
K
eq
= [p]
[r]
- Solution Equilibrium (k
sp
)
o Will predict whether a precipitate is formed
o Ion product (Q
sp
) > k
sp
(ppt formed)
o Ion prodcut (Q
sp
) < k
sp
(no ppt formed)
o Ion product (Q
sp
) = k
sp
soln is saturated and no ppt will form
o Precipitate math

- Acids: sour, corrosive, conduct electricity, blue litmus paper turns red
o Contain more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions

23
- Bases: slippery, bitter, conduct electricity, red litmus paper turns blue
o Contain more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions

- pH Math:
o H
2
O + H
2
O H
3
O
+
+ OH
-

K
w
= [H
3
O
+
] [OH
-
] k
w
= 1 x 10
-14
M
[H
3
O
+
] = [OH
-
] = 1 x 10
-7
M *neutral soln
o pH = -log [H
3
O
+
] [H
3
O
+
] = 2
nd
log (-pH)
o pOH = -log [OH
-
]
o pH + pOH = 14

- Acid-Base Models
1. Arrhenius Model
Arrhenius Acid: chemical compound that increases the concentration of H
+
(hydronium)
ions in aqueous soln
Arrhenius Base: chemical compound that increases the concentration of OH
-
(hydroxide)
ions in aqueous soln
2. Bronsted-Lowry
B-L Acid: hydrogen ion (proton) donor
B-L Base: hydrogen ion (proton) accepter
- NH
3
+ H
2
O NH
4
+
+ OH
-

Base Acid Acid Base




3. Lewis Model
Lewis Acid: electron pair accepter
Lewis Base: electron pair donor






- Strengths of Acids and Bases
o Acids
Strong Acids: completely ionize in aqueous soln (100% of molecules will ionize)
- HCl
- HBr
- HI
- HNO
3

- HClO
4

- H
2
SO
4

- HClO
3

Weak Acids: ionize slightly in aqueous soln (ex: 1% of molecules will ionize)
- At equilibrium, the molarity of acid is greater than the molarity of [H
3
O
+
]
K
a

- Acid dissociation constant
- Reflects the fraction of acid that is in ionized form
Conjugate acid-base pairs

24
- The larger the K
a
, the stronger the acid
- K
a
= [H
3
O
+
] [CH
3
COO
-
]
[CH
3
COOH
+
]
- A 0.100 M soln of CH
3
COOH is partially ionized. [H
+
] is 1.34 x
10
-3
M. What is the acid ionization constant?
- [CH
3
COOH
+
] [H
3
O
+
] [CH
3
COO
-
]
Initial 0.1000 M ________ ____________
Change -1.34 x 10
-3
M +1.34 x 10
-3
M +1.34 x 10
-3
M

Equilibrium 0.0987 M +1.34 x 10
-3
M +1.34 x 10
-3
M

K
a
= [1.34 x 10
-3
M] [1.34 x 10
-3
M]
[0.0987]
K
a
= 1.82 x 10
-5
o Bases
Strong Bases: dissociate completely into metal ions and hydroxide ions
- Ex: Group 1 & 2 Metal Hydroxides
NaOH
KOH
Ca(OH)
2
Weak Bases: react with water to form the conjugate acid of the base & the hydroxide ion
- NH
3
+ H
2
O NH
4
+ OH
-

- K
b
= [NH
4
+
] [OH
-
]
[NH
3
]
K
b

- Base dissociation constant
- The larger the K
b
, the stronger the base

- Neutralization
o Double Replacement Rxn
o Acid + Base Salt + Water
HCl + NaOH NaCl + HOH

- Titration
o A method for determining concentration of a soln by reacting a known volume of that soln with a
soln of known concentration
Standard soln: the soln of known concentration
Equivalence point: [H
3
O
+
] = [OH
-
]
The point at which the two solns used in a titration are present in chemically equal amts.
End point: the point in which the indicator changes color
o N
a
M
a
V
a
= N
b
M
b
V
b

o N
a
= # of H
+
ions
o N
b
= # of OH
-
ions

- Salt Hydrolysis
o A reaction between water molecules and ions of a dissolved salt
o Anion hydrolysis: Anions of dissociated salt react w/ water
Anion of salt is conjugate base of the acid from which it was formed
Removes proton
Results in basic salt

25
Increase in [OH
-
] (pH increases)
o Cation hydrolysis: Cations of dissociated salt react w/ water
Cation of salt is conjugate acid of the base from which it was formed
Donates proton
Results in acidic salt
Increase in [H
3
O
+
] (pH decreases)
o Strong acid + strong base neutral salt (no hydrolysis)
o Strong acid + weak base acidic salt
o Weak acid + strong base basic salt
o Weak acid + weak base undetermined

- Buffers
o A buffered solution- resists changes in pH when limited amounts of acid or base are added
o Weak acid & salt of weak acid
CH
3
COOH + H
2
O CH
3
COO
-
+ H
3
O
+

- If acid is added
o Equilibrium shifts left
CH
3
COO
-
reacts with H
3
O
+
to form CH
3
COOH
- If base is added
o Equilibrium shifts right
OH
-
react w/ & remove H
3
O
+
to form H
2
O.
o Weak base & salt of weak base
NH
3
+ H
2
O NH
4
+
+ OH
-

- If acid is added
o Equilibrium shifts right
OH
-
accept protons from H
3
O
+
to form H
2
O
- If base is added
o Equilibrium shifts left
NH
4
reacts with OH
-
to produce NH
3
and H
2
O
o Buffer capacity
The amt of acid or base buffer soln can absorb without a significant change in pH
The greater the concentrations of buffering molecules & ions in soln, the greater the buffer
capacity
- Redox Reactions
o Oxidation Reaction:
A rxn in which an element or ion becomes more positive
Atom or ion loses electrons
o Reduction Reaction
A rxn in which an element or ion becomes more negative
Atom or ion gains electrons
o Oxidizing Agent
The substance that oxidizes another substance by accepting electrons (reduced substance)
o Reducing Agent
The substance that reduces another substance by losing electrons (oxidized substance)
o Half-Reaction
Shows half of a redox reaction
Oxidation: 2Na 2Na
+
+ 2e
-

Reduction: Cl
2
+ 2e
-
2Cl
-

Cl
2
+ 2Na 2Na
+
+ 2Cl
-



26
o Assigning Oxidation Numbers
Atoms in a pure element have an oxidation number of 0
The more electronegative element in a binary compound is assigned the number equal to
the negative charge it would have as an anion
F has an oxidation number of -1 in all compounds
O has an oxidation number of -2 in all compounds
- Except peroxides (oxidation number= -1)
- Except when bonded to F (OF
2
) (oxidation number = +2)
H has an oxidation number of +1 in all compounds containing elements that are more
electronegative than it
H has an oxidation number of -1 in all compounds with metals
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral compound is = 0
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a monatomic or polyatomic ion is equal to
the charge of the ion

- Electrochemistry: deals with electricity related applications of oxidation-reduction rxns
o Electrochemical cells- Any device that converts chemical potential energy into electrical energy or
electrical energy into chemical potential energy
o Voltaic cells
A type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy to electrical energy by a
spontaneous redox rxn
Electricity caused by the movement of ions from the oxidized substance to the reduced
substance
Half cell: one part of a voltaic cell in which either oxidation or reduction occurs









** The more active of two metals (higher on the activity series) will be more easily oxidized)













Salt Bridge- A pathway constructed to allow the passage of ions from one side to another
Electrode- A conductor in a circuit that carries electrons to or from a substance
- Anode (-): An Ox
o The electrode in which oxidation occurs

27
o Electrons are produced here
o Size decreases
- Cathode (+): Red Cat
o The electrode in which reduction occurs
o Electrons are consumed here
o Size of electrode increases (Red cat gets fat)
Electric Current- A flow of charged particles

o Electrochemical Cell Potentials- The electrode with the more positive reduction potential will be
reduced when connected to an electrode with a more negative reduction potential
Reduction Potential (v)- The tendency of a substance to gain electrons
- Standard Electrode Potential: E
0
= 0.00 V
- E
0
cell
= E
0
red
- E
0
ox

- + E
0
cell
= spontaneous
- - E
0
cell
= not spontaneous

o Batteries- One or more electrochemical cells in a single package that generates electrical current
Corrosion- the loss of metal that results from an oxidation-reduction reaction of the metal with
substances in the environment
Electrolysis- The process that used electrical energy to bring about a chemical reaction
- Electrolytic cells- An electrochemical cell in which electrolysis occurs