VLF CABLE TESTING

INCLUDING TANGENT DELTA & PARTIAL DISCHARGE

WITH A BRIEF LOOK AT CABLE FAULT LOCATING. Michael T. Peschel High Voltage, Inc. Copake, NY. USA www.hvinc.com
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SUBJECTS COVERED
What Is VLF VLF Applications IEEE Standards Lab and Field Results How To Perform The Test Myths about VLF Who Uses VLF Selecting a VLF Model Selecting A Cable Test Method VLF Conclusion Tan Delta Testing VLF Partial Discharge Testing Cable Fault Locating

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THIS CAN BE PREVENTED

In-service failures cause great damage to faulted cables and adjacent cables. Not so if failed under a VLF test.
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WHAT IS VLF?

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A VLF HIPOT IS SIMPLY AN AC OUTPUT INSTRUMENT BUT AT A LOWER FREQUENCY. THE LOWER THE FREQUENCY OUTPUT, THE LOWER THE CURRENT AND POWER REQUIRED TO TEST HIGH CAPACITANCE LOADS LIKE CABLES. DONT OVERCOMPLICATE IT. ITS A SIMPLE AC WITHSTAND TEST. VLF IS THE EASIEST, LEAST EXPENSIVE, MOST CERTAIN WAY OF TESTING THE AC INTEGRITY OF A CABLE.
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DROP THE FREQUENCY

Very Low Frequency: 0.1 Hz and lower. By decreasing the frequency, it is possible to test miles of cable with a small and affordable unit. Output frequencies range from 0.1 0.01 Hz. IEEE400.2 recognizes frequencies as low as 0.01Hz.
At 0.1 Hz, it takes 600 times less power to test a cable, or any other high capacitance load, than at 60 Hz. At 0.01 Hz, 6000 times higher capacitive loads can be tested than at 60 Hz with the same power consumption.

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VLF EXPLAINED
Xc = 1 2 x pi x f x C The lower the frequency, the higher the capacitive reactance, or Xc. The higher Xc , or resistance across the power supply output, the lower the current/power needed to apply a voltage.

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60 Hz vs. 0.1 Hz
At 60 Hz. a 1 F cable has an Xc of 2.65 kOhms. At 22 kV peak, it requires 8.3 amps of current to test. Total power supply rating must be 183 kVA. At 0.1 Hz, the Xc is 1.59 megohms. At 22 kV, the current needed is 14 mA. Total power supply needed is only .304 kVA.
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(22 kV is the typical test voltage for 15 kV cable)

60 Hz. vs. 0.1 Hz.

60 Hertz 0.1 0.02 Hertz

50 kVAC @ 3 kVA Can test ~ 50 of cable

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40 kVAC @ 1.2 kVA Can test ~ 5 miles of cable

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APPLICATIONS

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IEEE STANDARDS EXIST

Power Cable
IEEE 400-2001 & IEEE 400.2-2004

Large Rotating Machinery

IEEE 433-1974

Diagnostic Testing:
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Tan Partial discharge

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CAN OTHER LOADS BE VLF TESTED?

Yes, but no standards exist that define the test. Most other loads are low in capacitance, permitting 60Hz AC hipots to be used. Sometimes large insulators are VLF tested if a powerful enough 60Hz hipot is not available.
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WHY TEST CABLES WITH AC VOLTAGE?

Cables are designed to carry AC voltage. They are factory tested with AC voltage. Cables operate under AC voltage stress. Cables should be tested with AC voltage. Why would you not use AC if you could?
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Can Now AC Stress Test Cable

z

With VLF, utilities, testing services, industrials, and others can now AC stress test cables in the field. Just like with vacuum bottle or rubber glove testing, now a go/no-go AC stress test can be performed on power cable. If a cable cant hold 2 3 times normal voltage, its not healthy. Find the problem, make the repair, and move on. At the very least, every newly installed and repaired cable should be VLF tested before energizing, since many failures are due to installation damage, faulty workmanship, stress from in-service failures, or over voltage thumping.
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Other Methods Dont Get It Done.

DC Hipot 5 kVdc Megger DC Hot stick adaptor 24 hour soak

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VLF IT!

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IEEE STANDARDS

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NORTH AMERICAN STANDARDS FOR VLF TESTING

IEEE 400-2001 overall cable testing standard sanctions VLF testing of cables. IEEE 400.2-2004 standard for VLF cable testing IEEE 433-1974 covers VLF testing for rotating machinery. Now being updated. Standard for smaller motors/gens. under consideration.
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MOTOR & GENERATOR TESTING

IEEE Std. 433-1974 (1974)
z

Recommended Practice For Insulation Testing of Large AC Rotating Machinery with High Voltage VLF. Refers to Large AC Machines 10 MVA/6 kV & above. Test Waveform: Must be Sinusoidal. Test Frequency: 0.1 Hz. Test Voltage: 1.63x 60 Hz RMS Level
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CABLE TESTING
IEEE400.2-2004
z

Recommends test voltage of 2 - 3V0 (V0 equals line-to-ground voltage) Test duration is 15 60 minutes Best recommendation is for 30+ minutes

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IEEE400.2 FIELD TEST VOLTAGES

For Shielded Power Cable Systems Using Sine Wave Output VLF
---------------------- 0.1 Hz Test Voltage -------------------System Voltage phase to phase kVrms Installation phase to ground kVrms/kVpeak Acceptance phase to ground kVrms/kVpeak Maintenance phase to ground kVrms/kVpeak

5 15 25 35

9/12 18/25 27/38 39/55

10/14 20/28 31/44 44/62

7/10 16/22 23/33 33/47

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Test voltages are generally 2 3 time the line-to-ground system voltage.

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Cable Test Voltages Determined

12.5 kV system = 7,217 V0 or line-to-ground. x3 21.7 kV Maintenance test The peak of the sine wave is the factor driving the inception of partial discharge. Hence, the 22 kV test spec is used for the peak of a sine wave VLF. The test is equivalent to ~ 2x V0 rms. Also, kV/mm insulation varies greatly. Need at least 2Vo.
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WHY 2Vo 3Vo

The IEEE standard says 2 3V0 for 15 - 60 minutes. Cables routinely see 2x normal voltage due to reflected waves, transients, etc. VLF test voltage must be at least 2x normal line-to-ground.

Must use enough voltage for enough time to let the VLF do its job of growing electrical trees to failure.

An abbreviated test or a test too low in voltage is worse than no test.

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XLPE TREE GROWTH

Test voltage factor (V/Vo rms) 2 3 4

IEEE 400-2001

Sine wave VLF rapidly grows electrical trees to failure.

Growth rate at 0.1-Hz sinusoidal test voltage (mm/h) 2.3 10.9-12.6 58.3-64.2

A 15kV 133% cable has an insulation thickness of 5.9 mm. In a 30 minute test, nearly all defects triggered into pd will grow to failure.
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RESULTS FROM FIELD USE AND LABORATORY RESEARCH

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VLF TEST RESULTS

Numerous case studies show that if a cable passes a proper VLF test, there is a > 95% assurance of no in-service failure in the next few years. Nothing is perfect, but only a few percent possible failure rate post VLF testing is very good. Far better by multiples than with other testing methods. Bottom line: If a cable can hold 2 3 times normal voltage for 30-60 minutes, its good for years.

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XLPE TESTING STATISTICS

TNB in Malaysia
Minutes to failure 0 - 12 13 - 30 31 - 45 46 - 60
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3 V0 @ 60 minutes

17,435 VLF tests performed 2,179 cable failures

Failures 1472 469 129 107 % of total 67.62 21.54 5.93 4.92
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89.16%

2.78% of tested cables failed later in service. (Many cables were PILC) Tests conducted 2001 2002. Continue to buy VLF and test all cables.

XLPE TESTING STATISTICS

Japan:

Furukawa, Chubu & Tokyo Electric

Research done to determine test voltage and duration versus expected life. Results were: A 33 kV cable tested at 60 kV peak @ 0.1 Hz has a 97% probability of no failure for >3 years.

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Germany went through extensive research and testing and produced some of the first VLF products more than 20 years ago. German standard calls for 3Vo rms/peak for 60 minutes. Following a successful VLF test, there is a >98% chance of no in service failure for the next several years.

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Most US users test at the IEEE recommended voltages for 30 minutes. When in doubt, err on the high side for voltage and/or longer duration

Consensus of data shows that once passing a VLF test, better than 95% of cables will not fail in service in the next few years.

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The World View Of VLF

DC not recommended by cable companies for cables > 5 years & in moist environments
IEEE Germany Japan Malaysia
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2 3Vo for 15-60 minutes 30+ minutes @ 3Vo recommended. 3Vo for 60 minutes 3Vo for 15 minutes 3Vo for 60 minutes
Over 40 countries have purchased the HVI VLF
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HOW TO PERFORM A VLF TEST

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TEST PROCEDURE
z z

VLF testing is easier than DC testing. Isolate cable ends like with DC testing, although no cleaning and bagging is necessary. Remove all arrestors, capacitors, transformers, etc. Connect VLF HV lead to conductor & ground to shield. After selecting appropriate test frequency, apply voltage There are no leakage currents to read. Test is go/no-go If cable holds, test is over. Cable is good for years. If cable fails, make repairs and repeat test, or replace. If second insulation failure occurs, maybe stop testing and replace.
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z z z z z z z z

Most models can test all three phases at once, saving time.

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VLF Test Hookup Per IEEE400.2

Some VLF units have no return wire. HV output and ground cables only.
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CABLES INCLUDED WITH TWO PIECE MODEL

Ground hook HV output from tank Cable connectors hook or clamp

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2 test leads for capacitance measurement Phase jumpers Interconnect with grounds Scope bnc
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VLF-4022CM

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OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Select Frequency 3. Rotate to zero
(Zero start intlk)

6. Rotate to raise voltage 5. Press HV On

4. Press Main Power

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2. Turn to mA
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WHAT IS CABLE FAILURE INDICATION?

Thermal overload on panel will trip Voltmeter will indicate breakdown

Current will spike

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FAULT LOCATING NECESSARY

When VLF testing, severe cable defects will fail. A thumper will be needed. Trouble trucks should be equipped with a VLF and thumper sized for the cable class.

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COMMON VLF MYTHS

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VLF IS DESTRUCTIVE TO INSULATION.

NOT TRUE. Cable is factory tested at voltages far higher than field VLF levels. VLF is destructive to existing defects that are severe enough to be triggered into partial discharge during the test. Thats the point of the test light up defects and let them grow to failure. Minor defects and good insulation are not effected.

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VLF AGGRAVATES DEFECTS THAT FAIL LATER IN SERVICE

Only if the test is not properly performed, like any testing method. The proper VLF voltage must be applied for a long enough time to permit defects triggered into pd to grow to failure. An improper test is worse than no test at all. The same can be said for 60Hz hipoting, pd testing, and other tests. If done wrong, problems could result. If done correctly - positive results.
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VLF IS REALLY ALTERNATING DC

Not true. At 0.1 Hz there are polarity reversals every 5 seconds. Even at 0.01Hz there are reversals every 50 seconds. That does not compare at all to a 15 minute, constantly negative output DC hipot test. Space charges and traveling waves are not developed in insulation during a VLF test. The IEEE recognizes frequencies down to .01Hz as ok.

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VLF EFFECTIVENESS IS UNPROVEN

Very wrong. Tell that to the hundreds of users over more than 15 years that have tested tens of thousands of cables with great success. Tell that to the IEEE, CEA, EPRI, cable companies, utilities, and many international organizations that have all endorsed VLF. A VLF instrument is just a low frequency AC hipot. Simple product simple test simple physics. There is nothing to not work.
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ONLY 0.1 HZ IS A VALID TEST

The IEEE standard recognizes frequencies down to 0.01Hz. While it is true that most of the worldwide research over the last 20 years into testing levels and durations has been done at 0.1Hz, that does not mean lower frequencies are ineffective. Its a tough argument to make that 60 Hz is ok, DC is ok for a lot of things including new cable, 0.1Hz is ok, but 0.05Hz is not?
.1Hz
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60Hz

.05Hz

DC

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ONE WAVEFORM OUTPUT IS BETTER THAN ANOTHER

Of the three major VLF vendors, two output waveforms are offered: sine wave & cosine-rectangular (trapezoidal). Both work well to VLF hipot cable, although the sine wave output grows electrical trees faster - see IEEE400. -However A sine wave VLF is better suited for use as a voltage source for tan delta and partial discharge testing, both desirable add-ons to VLF testing. Also, a sine wave is necessary for motor/generator testing per IEEE433.
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WHO USES VLF

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UTILITIES INDUSTRIALS

TESTING SERVICES CONTRACTORS

Other methods of cable testing have their place, but VLF is embraced worldwide as the easiest, most effective, most economical method of cable testing. Over 500 VLF units have been shipped from High Voltage, Inc. over the last eight years, delivered to 40 countries and many US locations. Other VLF products have shipped from other vendors for even longer.
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COUNTRIES USING HVI VLF

HVI has shipped over 500 VLF products to the following:
USA Canada Taiwan Indonesia So. Korea Australia Saudi Arabia England Costa Rica Bolivia Israel
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So. Africa Singapore Hong Kong Belgium Puerto Rico Holland New Zealand Japan Malaysia Russia Spain

Slovak Republic Czech Republic China UAE Vietnam Panama Jordan Germany Cyprus Honduras Lithuania

Thailand Mexico India Bulgaria Fiji Venezuela Finland Greece Qatar Argentina
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SELECTING A VLF MODEL

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WHAT SIZE CABLES ARE TO BE TESTED? Do you do Install, Acceptance & Maintenance testing?
From IEEE400.2
System Voltage phase to phase kVrms Installation phase to ground kVrms/kVpeak Acceptance phase to ground kVrms/kVpeak Maintenance phase to ground kVrms/kVpeak

5 15 25 35

9/12 18/25 27/38 39/55

10/14 20/28 31/44 44/62

7/10 16/22 23/33 33/47

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The above chart only covers ratings to 35kV. VLF testers exist that can test cables rated up to 230kV.

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WHAT CABLE LENGTHS ARE TO BE TESTED? VLF units are rated by the uF of load they can test.
Example: 15 kV XLPE 750mcm 220 mils ~ .1uf/1000

Model VLF-25CM 0 - 25 kV Peak 0.1 Hz @ 0.4 f Load

Can test up to 4000 of 15 kV cable depending on size. Perfect URD model
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Most Popular Utility Model VLF-6022CM Can test cables rated to 35 kV.

0 - 60 kV Peak 0.10 Hz @ 1.1 f Load 0.05 Hz @ 2.2 f Load 0.02 Hz @ 5.5 f Load

Example: 15 kV XLPE 750mcm 220 mils ~ .1uf/1000

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At 0.1 Hz can test ~ 2 miles. At 0.02 Hz can test ~ 10 miles.

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MODEL SIZES AVAILABLE

(all vendors included)

Voltage ratings from 20 kV 200 kV Load ratings from 0.4 uF 50 uF For a 15 kV cable, 0.4 uF can test ~ 4000 Some models can test > 30 miles of cable
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WILL IT BE USED FOR TAN DELTA & PD TESTING?

Sine wave output is needed to use VLF as a voltage source for td and pd testing. IEEE433 for VLF testing rotating machinery requires a sine wave output. Leave all your future testing options open by buying a sine wave VLF.
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Other Models
90 kV peak 120 kV peak up to 5.5 uF Up to 2.75 uF

40 kV peak up to 5.5 uF

200 kV soon available 65 kV peak up to 22 uF

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VLF THUMPER
Complete URD Cable Care System Combination VLF AC Hipot and Thumper
VLF Output: Load Rating: Discharge: Radar Ready 0 - 30 kVAC peak 1.0 uF @ 0.1 Hz
~ 1.5 miles of 15 kV cable

0 12 kV @ 650 J

VLF Cable Burning Mode

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SELECTING A CABLE TEST METHOD

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CABLE TEST METHODS

AC Power Frequency. AC Series & Parallel Resonant. DC Hipot. Very Low Frequency (VLF) AC Hipot. Tan Delta, Partial Discharge, And Other Diagnostic Methods.

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SEVERAL METHODS WHAT TO USE?

Ideally, VLF, Tan Delta, and Partial Discharge should all be used. However, there are real world factors affecting the decision.

1. 2. 3.

Type of test results desired Ease of use Cost of equipment

There is no one perfect method that does it all. A variety of approaches is needed to meet all the requirements encountered.
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WHATS THE GOAL?

Verify new installation? Verify repaired cable? Verify critical cable? Help to prioritize cable replacement or injection?

z z z z

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WHATS THE SITUATION?

z z z z z z z z z

Direct buried must pinpoint problem to repair Cable in conduit or trench - replaceable Cable in raceways visible and easily replaceable How old is cable What is the failure history How easy is it to repair Is there alternate feed should failure occur during test Is fault location and repair available? How much downtime can be tolerated?
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EXAMPLES OF SITUATION vs. METHOD

New Install: Diagnostic test not appropriate, the insulation is presumed good. VLF it to make sure there are no installation flaws or pulling damage. Old suspect cable: There may be many defects, dont VLF. Use TD to see how degraded cable is. If modest degradation, then PD possibly followed by VLF. Critical cable in conduit: PD test to expose location and severity of defects. If no PD tester available, VLF. Direct buried, hard to repair: TD test to evaluate condition to prioritize cable injection. Prioritization for replacement or injection: If a comparative condition assessment test is desired, tan delta is the easiest method. Post repair test: VLF repaired cable to make sure it holds no further damage caused by over voltage thumping or from original failure.
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SO, WHAT TO DO?

NO SHORT AND EASY ANSWER. If an effective method is beyond the economic reach and ability to operate of 90% of the market, then its not a solution. A combination of methods is needed: some easy and economical (VLF) and some more complicated and more expensive (TD & PD), and each yielding different but important data about your cable.

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IT ALL STARTS WITH A VLF

Fact: As more industrial customers, utilities, and specifying engineering companies spec VLF testing, per IEEE400.2, you will need a VLF. Fact: In addition to performing VLF AC stress tests, a VLF hipot is the foundation for other tests, like partial discharge and tan delta. You need VLF for pd and td. To learn the most about the health of your cable, all three tests, if economically and logistically feasible, are recommended. If not all possible, VLF should be the fallback.
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SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

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VLF TESTING SUMMARY

Has the virtues of DC test equipment (low cost, small size, light weight, easy to use) but is AC. Does not have the negative consequences of DC. Requires 1/600 1/6000 of the kVA of power frequency. Can be used for breakdown tests and predictive tests such as Tan Delta and Partial Discharge. (sine wave VLF units) Internationally accepted Standards exist and more are in the process of issuance.
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z z z

CONCLUSION
The surest way to verify the AC integrity of any load is perform an AC stress test. Its easy and certain. The load holds voltage or fails. VLF testing is easily performed with minimal training. Worldwide standards and decades of history exist. Some VLF models are very portable and affordable.

VLF makes Tan Delta and Partial Discharge diagnostic testing easier and more economical.
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OTHER CABLE TEST METHODS USING VLF

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YOU HAVE YOUR VLF. WHAT ELSE CAN YOU DO?

Accessorize. Add on a Tan Delta measurement instrument. Partial Discharge detection instrument.
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TANGENT DELTA or TAN

Dissipation Factor or Loss Angle Measurement For Power Cables Non Destructive Testing To Determine Insulation Quality (Similar to Power Factor Testing)
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TAN DELTA MEASUREMENT

Using VLF @ 0.1 Hz
z

z z z

Evaluates overall condition of cable (rather than localized problems as with PD measurement) Absolute values, variations, and trending of values are of interest for predicting insulation integrity Tan Delta is more easily measured at VLF (magnitude increases as frequency decreases) Requires VLF sinusoidal applied test voltage Excellent way to evaluate Water Trees Useful to help prioritize replacement, injection and helps to determine what additional test may be useful
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CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER TREES

z z

Addition of a parallel R-C Component Water trees increase resistive current through insulation The R component is voltage dependent (nonlinear I = V/R) Tan Delta values increase with increasing voltage

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Simplified Cable Model and Phasor Drawing

Tan Delta = IR/ IC - measured in radians
I
The tangent of this angle is calculated

IC

IR IC = tangent of

Cable Cross Section

Cable insulation

IR

With perfect insulation, a cable is a near perfect capacitor, with a 90 phase shift between voltage and current. Less than 90 indicates insulation degradation. Cables can be rated good, marginal, or bad. Not extremely precise but valuable for prioritizing cable replacement or injection. Also helps to determine what further tests may be worthwhile.
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TAN DELTA VS. VOLTAGE NEW AND AGED XLPE CABLES

New and Aged 15 kV XLPE Cable (Nov 2000) 0.06 Aged 0.05 Loss Angle (Tan Delta)

0.04

Aged cable non-linear tan delta #s versus voltage New cable linear tan delta #s versus voltage
10

0.03

0.02 New Cable 0.01

0 0 2.5 5 VLF Voltage (kV rms) 7.5

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TAN DELTA NUMBERS VERSUS INCREASING VOLTAGE & RATIO OF 2Vo/Vo

L1: tg delta 0.1Hz L2: tg delta 0.1Hz L3: tg delta 0,1Hz

0.006 0.004 0.002 0.000 0.0 1.0

Voltage x Vo

tandelta

2.0

3.0

0.1 Hz x Vo

phase 1 tgdelta L1

phase 2 tgdelta L2

phase 3 tgdelta L3

phase 1 (2Uo-Uo)

phase 2 (2Uo-Uo)

phase 3 (2Uo-Uo)

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

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0.0018 0.0019 0.0026 0.0035 0.0044

0.0008 0.0009 0.0011 0.0018 0.0026

0.0013 0.0014 0.0019 0.0025 0.0032

0.0035 0.0019 0.0016

0.0018 0.0009 0.0009

0.0025 0.0014 0.0011

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Dissipation Factor Tan Delta From IEEE Std 400-2001

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TAN DELTA LOSS ANALYZER

60kV model Used with VLF as voltage source

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HV Divider Signal analyzer/controller

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TAN DELTA TESTING

Advantages
z z z

Less destructive than VLF, DC, or 60 Hz testing Allows prioritization of cable replacement or injection Easier to use and interpret than other diagnostic methods Can be destructive if cable very degraded Gives overall condition of cable, not singularities Not best for mixed type cable runs More useful with historical data
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Disadvantages
z z z z

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VLF PARTIAL DISCHARGE TESTING

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SEE UNDERGROUND CABLE DEFECTS

A PD detection system can show you the location and severity of insulation and accessory defects. Using a VLF as the voltage generator to apply voltages up to 2Vo, long cables can be tested with portable equipment.

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OFF-LINE VS. ON-LINE PD TESTING

Off-line testing using a VLF permits over voltage analysis. Can measure PDIV and PDEV up to 2Vo. On-line pd testing can only detect pd at operating voltage, missing defects with a PDIV > 100% of operating voltage, yet cables routinely see twice normal voltage due to reflected waves, transients, switching surges, etc. Useful for accessory checking. Off-line testing may be less convenient, but the information gained is far more valuable.
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0.1Hz vs. 60Hz PD TESTING

Both frequencies initiate pd at defect locations. Both can measure PDIV, PDEV, magnitude, and location. The benefit of VLF is smaller size, lower weight, far lower cost, and can test longer cables. A 100lb VLF can do the job of a 2000lb 60Hz series resonant
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THE BEST OF EVERYTHING

Start with a VLF tester to perform AC withstand testing. Add a Tan Delta accessory for evaluating the overall condition of a cable to help prioritize replacement, injection, or to determine what other tests might be helpful. Add a Partial Discharge accessory to map the location and severity of pd in the insulation and splices, or to determine what other tests might be helpful. Perform all three tests to get the most complete profile possible of your cable.
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CABLE FAULT LOCATING

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FAULT LOCATING ON NETWORK SYSTEMS GET THE RIGHT TOOLS FOR THE JOB Thumper Features Needed For PILC Multiple output voltage taps High joules >2000 High burn current >200mA TDR/radar capability w/current pulse
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THUMPING CONCEPT
1. Thump with low voltage but high joules. A powerful burner or VLF is needed to reduce fault voltage. Thumper must have 2 or 3 output voltage taps. 2. Need high joule rating to make loud noise and to generate strong current pulse for tracing. 3. Good use of TDR helpful, even in network systems.

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VLF AIDS FAULT LOCATING

VLF hipoting is the best method of burning down faults. Permits use of lower voltage, less expensive thumpers. Utilities should have VLF anyway for cable integrity verification.
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LISTENING DEVICES NECESSARY

Dont handicap your efforts by not buying a top level listening device. Acoustical & electro-magnetic needed TEC X35 from TEC Power Corp SDAD from Aquatronics
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SDAD
Acoustical & Magnetic

X35
Electro-Magnetic

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Solid & PILC

Networks Only

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THE IDEAL SETUP FOR NETWORKS

VLF-6022CM 60 kV, 0.1 0.05 Hz Load rated to 5.5 uF

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CDS-3632U 9/18/36 kV @ 3200 joules 280 mA burn current

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FAULT LOCATING - A SYSTEM APPROACH

Properly sized & featured thumper Quality listening device TDR Other knowledge of network system Accurate maps
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Thank You
Mike Peschel - High Voltage, Inc. www.hvinc.com

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