PLATO IN THE LIGHT OF YOGA

Gold Jeffrey

One of the reasonsthat interestin Plato has persistedfor 2,500 years is that his dialogues are multifacetedand complex. There are a varietyof Plato. Despite this useful and interesting ways to approachand interpret I plan to look at Plato from an atypical perplethoraof interpretations, I to interpretthe dialogues of Plato In this propose essay, spective. lens of the Yoga philosophy. I am not making any historical through of ideas from Indiato Greece. I am claimclaims alleging transmission ing, however, that seeing Plato'sthoughtthroughthe categoriesof Yoga one. Certainthemes in is both a neglected approachand an illuminating Plato that are often ignored stand out more prominentlyand become more intelligiblewhen we examine his dialoguesfromthe perspectiveof Yoga philosophy. Forexample, the geographicalsection of the Phaedo (108c-115a) is an obscure and elusive passage that has provided difof Plato. If, however, we utilize certainthemes in ficulty for interpreters that passage, both the excerpt itself and in Yoga philosophy interpreting in its connection to major topics the dialogue become more comprehensible. One of the majorthemes in the Phaedo that receives little attention of Patanjaliare far from scholars is the theme of liberation.Interpreters of of liberation than the more likely to emphasize interpreters concept is Plato. That liberationis a prominenttheme in Patanjali'sYoga-Sdtra to the In Plato's attention of scholars contrast, Yoga. acknowledged by theme of liberationin the Phaedo has received considerablyless attention from Plato scholars. I shall attemptto fill that lacuna by discussing the role of liberationin Plato's philosophy, paying special attentionto as a centraltheme in thatdialogue, other the Phaedo. Ifwe see liberation and overlooked by scholars (e.g., the geooften neglected passages, mentioned section above), begin to make more sense in the graphical context of the Phaedo. I shall begin by discussing the concept of liberation in Indian and Freedom,Eliadestates: "It is not the thought. In Yoga:Immortality of truth that is the supreme end of the Indiansage; it is libpossession word 'moksa' eration,the conquest of absolute freedom."1The Sanskrit is often translated into English as freedom or liberation. Sometimes, Butthe term Pataijali seems to 11.18). 'apavarga'is used (e.g. Yoga-Sutra is which means independence, aloneness, or isolation. prefer 'kaivalya', He the nature of kaivalyain the Yoga-Sotra.2 discusses Pataijalifrequently specificallyconnects kaivalyawith the cessation of ignoranceor avidya and the inclination toward discriminativeknowledge or viveka (11.25) work (IV.34)defines and explains (IV.26).The final sutraof Patainjali's the ultimatestate of kaivalya.

Professor of Philosophy at EastTennesseeState University

PhilosophyEast& West Volume 46, Number1 1996 January 17-32 ? 1996 of by University Hawai'iPress

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Patafijali's commentators acknowledge and recognize the central role of kaivalya or liberation in his thought. For example, in Patanjali and Yoga, Eliade states: "The conquest of this absolute freedom constitutes the goal of all the Indian philosophies and mystic techniques, but it is above all through Yoga, through one of the manifold forms of yoga, that India believes that the goal has been reached."3 Heinrich Zimmer,4 ErnestWood,5 Bhoja,6 Swami HariharanandaAranya,7 and Georg Feuerstein8 all support the idea that seeking deliverance (or liberation or release) is absolutely central to Yoga. The emphasis on liberation we find in the secondary literature on Yoga has no parallel or counterpart in the secondary literature on Plato. Plato's commentators do not underscore the role of lusis (freedom or deliverance) in Plato's writings. The dialogue which deals most directly with Plato's concept of liberation is the Phaedo. Yet, there is relatively little scholarly commentary on the role of liberation in that dialogue.9 Despite the lack of attention to liberation that one finds in most of the secondary literature, Plato himself goes to considerable lengths to describe philosophy itself as liberating. In the Phaedo, Socrates repeatedly claims that the philosophical soul seeks release. Socrates states (Phaedo 67d): "And the desire to free the soul is chiefly, or ratheronly, in the true philosopher. In fact the philosopher's occupation consists precisely in the freeing and separation (lusis kai chorismos) of soul from body."10 In discussing purification, Socrates states that purification consists in "separating the soul as much as possible from the body" (67c). When that occurs, the soul is "freed from the shackles of the body" (67d). Later in the dialogue (82e-83a), Socrates sums up his view: Everyseeker of wisdom knows that up to the time when philosophytakes it over his soul is a helpless prisoner,chained hand and foot in the body, compelled to view realitynot directlybut only throughits prisonbars, and walis lowing in utterignorance.And philosophycan see that the imprisonment ingeniouslyeffected by the prisoner'sown active desire, which makes him firstaccessory to his own confinement.Well, philosophytakes over the soul in this conditionand by gentle persuasiontriesto set it free.'1 Plato's image in the Phaedo of the soul as a "helpless prisoner, chained hand and foot in the body" is developed in the Allegory of the Cave (Republic V1.514a-518d).12 In that allegory, the prisoners, who are chained and fettered in a dark cave, can only see the shadows cast on the wall of the cave. Eventually (515c), one of the prisoners is delivered or freed (lusin) from bondage.13 The allegory of the cave is not only similar to the passage in the Phaedo quoted above, it also bears a striking resemblance to the myth at the end of the Phaedo. In that myth, people, believing themselves to be living on the surface of the earth, are actually living beneath the earth in hollows.14 Socrates states:

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Althoughwe live in a hollow of the earth,we assumethatwe are livingon the surface, and we call the air heaven, as though it were the heaven through which the starsmove. And this point too is the same, that we are too feeble and sluggish to make our way out to the upper limit of the air. If someone could reach to the summit,or put on wings and fly aloft,when he put up his head he would see the world above, just as fishes see our world when they put up theirheads out of the sea. And if his naturewere able to bearthe sight, he would recognizethatthat is the true heaven and the true lightand the true

earth. 109d-e) (Phaedo This image in the Phaedoof livingbeneaththe surfaceof the earthin a darkerand less pure region is precisely the image we find in the Alleof the lower world are gory of the Cave. In the Phaedo, the inhabitants "feeble and sluggish."Inthe Allegoryof the Cave, they are chained and bound. In the Phaedo, we have a very clear image of freedom when Socratesdescribesthe personwho reachesthe summitas the personwho is able to "put on wings and fly aloft." In the Allegoryof the Cave, we have the imageof a prisoner who is releasedfromthe chains and climbing out of the cave onto the surfaceof the earth. Socratesmakes it very clear that the prisonersin the Allegoryof the Cave are similarto us. When Glaucon points out (515a) that Socratesis painting a strange picture with strange prisoners, Socrates responds, "They are like us." Justas the prisonersare surrounded by darkness,we are "in the dark,"that is, in a state of ignorance.Movingout of the cave into the sunlight representsthe ascent of the soul from a state of ignorance to a state of illumination.It also representsthe transitionfrom Therefore,in Plato'sthought,there is a connection bondage to liberation. between liberationand illumination on the one hand and ignoranceand on At the other. both the bondage beginningof the allegory(514a) and at the conclusion of the allegory (518b), Socrates makes it clear that the centralfocus of the allegory is paideia (learningor education).At 515c, Socrates makes clear the connection between the prisoners'situation and ignorance when he says: "Considerthen what deliverance from their bonds (lusin desmon) and the curingof their ignorance (iasin aphrosuneis)would be if somethinglike this naturallyhappenedto them." Platothen describesthe liberationof one of the prisoners. This is the I side of the earlier from the Phaedo (82e) where flip passage quoted Socrates describes the soul as "a helpless prisoner,chained hand and foot in the body, compelled to view realitynot directlybut only through its prison bars, and wallowing in utter ignorance (amathia)."In the Phaedo passage, Plato connects imprisonmentwith ignorance; in the Republicpassage, he connects deliverancefrom bondage with the cessation of ignorance. It seems clear, therefore,that, for Plato,we are imprisonedby our ignorance,and with wisdom comes liberation. That ignorance is the main source of our bondage is also a central Jeffrey Gold

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theme in Yoga. Eliade repeatedly states that, in SamkhyaYoga, ignorance is the cause of our bondage and knowledge is the cause of our liberation.15 Forexample, he states: Thewretchedness of human lifeis notowingto a divinepunishment orto an to kind but Not and of but sin, original ignorance. any every ignorance, only of Spirit, the ignorance thatmakesus confuse of the truenature ignorance and Yoga the experience.... ForSamkhya Spiritwith our psychomental has its in of 'Spiis defined. Since problem clearly origin ignorance suffering with rit'-thatis, inconfusing can 'Spirit' psychomental states-emancipation if the is be obtained confusion abolished.16 only Eliade later quotes the Samkhya-Sutra (111.22, 23), which states: liberation; throughignorance,bondage."17 "Throughknowledge, 11.2-4)that ignorance Patanjalihimself makes it clear (Yoga-Satra is not one of the obstacles (klesas)to samadhi, it is the only (avidya) source or breedinggroundof all the other obstacles. Laterin the YogaSutra (11.23-26) Pataiijalipoints out that the (false) identificationof purusa (self) with prakrti(phenomenal world) is caused by ignorance (avidya).Finally(11.25-26),he statesthatthe dispersionof ignoranceand the practiceof discrimination (viveka)lead to liberation(kaivalya). Thus, for both Plato and Patanjali,ignoranceis the cause of our bondage and knowledge is the source of our liberation. Furthermore, although I wouldn't want to say that the knowledge that Plato seeks is identical to the knowledge Patanjaliseeks, there are some strikingsimilarities.Pataijali defines ignorance(avidya)as follows a transientobject as ev11.5): (Yoga-Sutra "Avidyaconsists in regarding an as as erlasting, impureobject pure, misery happinessand the not-self The Yogi with discriminativeknowl(anatman)as the self (atman)."18 with the eternal, edge (viveka)would, therefore,not confuse the transient the pure with the impure,miserywith happiness, and the not-self with the self. Similarly,Plato's philosopherwould not confuse the transient, impureworld of the senses with the eternal, pure world of the Forms.19 Nor would Plato'sphilosopherconfuse miserywith happiness(although the ignorant,unjust person is characterizedby Plato as someone who makes preciselythatconfusion).20 point that ignorance Lastly,Patanjali's also be found in the not-self can the Allegoryof the confuses the self and Cave.21Therefore,it appearsthat Plato and Patanjalinot merely agree that knowledge is essential for liberation,but also hold similarviews concerningthe type and content of the knowledge required. To summarize,both Platoand Patafjaliplace liberationin a central with wisdom place in theirphilosophy.Second, both associate liberation and bondage with ignorance.Third,both speak of the wise personas the one who can distinguishthe eternalfromthe transient,the self fromthe East & West not-self,and miseryfromhappiness. Philosophy

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How is liberationachieved? For Pataijali, we must begin with his classic definitionof Yoga (Yoga-Sotra 1.2):"Yogais the suppressionof the How arethe modof the mind(Yogascitta-vrtti-nirodhah)." modifications ifications or fluctuationsquieted, calmed, or suppressed?Once again, 1.12):"Theirsuppression(is broughtabout Patanjaliis clear (Yoga-Sotra This (vairagya)."22 by) persistentpractice (abhyasa)and non-attachment in the view is repeatedvirtuallyverbatim BhagavadGTta.23 I will begin with a discussion of vairagyaor detachment. Patanjali defines detachmentas follows (Yoga-Sutra 1.15):"When the mind loses it acquiresa state all desirefor objects seen or describedin the scriptures detachment." The termtranslated which is called of utterdesirelessness as "desirelessness"is vitrsna.That term is also translatedas "without thirst"or "withoutcraving."Thus, detachmentrequiresa lack of thirst, craving, or desire for objects. The Bhagavad GTtapresents a similar and the BhagavadGTta view.24The Yoga-Sutra identifydetachmentwith the loss of desire. When we turn to Plato, an emphasis on detachment and desirelessnessis also evident. In the Phaedo, afterSocratesdefines death as the separationof the soul and the body, he discusses the philosophical life (Phaedo 64c-68b). In that discussion, Socrates makes it clear that the philosopheris not concerned with the so-called pleasures (hedonas)connected with food and drink,sex, fancy clothing, and other bodily adornments(Phaedo64d). At Phaedo65c-d, it is pointedout that the philosophical soul seeks to be alone, independent, separate, and detached from bodily desires. In terms of the previously mentioned pleasures(food, drink,sex, etc.), Socratesmaintainsthatthe philosopher "findsno pleasure in such things"and "thinksnothingof physical pleasures" (65a). Like Pataijali's sage, who acts without thirst or without craving,Plato'sphilosopheris detached from pleasureand pain and unmoved by desire and aversion.Therefore, desirelessnessand detachment are not simply centralconcepts in Yoga, they also play a role in Plato's thought. In a passage that connects desirelessnesswith liberation,Socrates states (Phaedo 66c): "Wars and revolutions and battles are due for simply and solely to the body and its desires.All wars are undertaken the acquisitionof wealth, and the reasonwhy we have to acquirewealth is the body, because we are slaves in its service." I pointed out that, for Patanjali, there are two ways to calm Earlier, the modificationsin the mind. Having looked at one of the ways (detachment), let us now turn to the second, namely persistentpractice. states (Yoga-Sutra to acquire sthitior a tranquil 1.13):"Exertion Patafijali A greatdeal of state of mind devoid of fluctuationsis called practice."25 in is devoted to a dismaterialfound books 2 and 3 of the Yoga-Sutra cussion of Yogic practices. All eight limbs of Yoga are to be practiced. Forexample, posture(asana),controlof breath(pranayama), sense-withGold concentration(dharana),and meditation(dhyana) Jeffrey drawal (pratyahara), 21

all involve diligence, effort,discipline,and practice.Vyasa (commenting on Pataijali'ssutra11.28) insiststhat it is throughpracticethat ignorance is reduced, impurities are attenuated,and discriminative enlightenment
is attained.26

Practiceis also centralin Plato'sthought."Itmay be that the restof mankindare not aware thatthose who apply themselvescorrectlyto the pursuitof philosophy are in fact practicingnothing more nor less than dying and death."27Philosophyis the practice of death and dying. For the soul Plato,that means that the philosophermust practiceseparating fromthe body. Socratessays that "realphilosopherstrainfor dying ..." (Phaedo67e).28Thistrainingor practice is, as odd as it sounds, a philosophical pursuit,and as a philosophicalpursuit,it is associatedwith the search for truth.Socratesasks: "Then when is it that the soul attainsto truth?" (Phaedo65b). He answersthatthe soul attainstruththroughrea(Phaedo65c). He continues: soning (logizesthai)
such Surelythe soul can best reflect[reason]when it is free of all distractions as hearingor sightor pain or pleasureof any kind-that is, when it ignoresthe body and becomes as far as possible independent,avoidingall physicalcontactsand associationsas much as it can, in its searchfor reality.(Phaedo65c)

In his discussion of the forms, Socrates makes the following (very similar)point:
Then the clearestknowledgewill surelybe attainedby one who approaches the object so far as possible by thought (dianoia),and thought alone, not permitting sight or any other sense to intrudeupon his thinking,not dragging to reason:one who sets himselfto trackdown in any sense as accompaniment each constituent of realitypurelyand simplyas it is by means of thoughtpure and simple:one who gets rid,so faras possible,of eyes and ears and, broadly speaking,of the body altogether,knowingthat when the body is the soul's partnerit confuses the soul and preventsit fromcoming to possess truthand intelligence.29

Plato's point that the soul can reason, think, and reflect most clearly when not distractedby the senses is very similarto Patainjali's emphasis on pratyahara or sense-withdrawal.In the Yoga-Sutra (11.54), Patanijali as the mind and the sense organswithdrawing characterizes pratyahara themselves from their respective objects. This is similar (though not identical)to Plato'spoint that the soul reasons best when it withdraws itselffromthe senses and theirobjects. The precedingpassagesfromthe Phaedo make it clear thatthe philosophical pursuitof truthis accomplished only when the soul reasons, reflects,and thinks.Two pointsseem to follow fromthis. The firstpoint is The that reasoning,thinking,and reflectionrequirepracticeand training. second point is that,for Plato,the soul reasonsbest when it is isolatedor East &West withdrawnfromthe body. Philosophy

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To summarize briefly, it seems to be the case that, for Plato, liberationrequiresknowledge. Knowledgedepends on one's abilityto think and reason clearly. Thinkingand reasoningclearly requirethat the soul be isolated from the body. This isolation of soul from body is similarto Patanjali'spoint that liberationrequiresthe destructionof the union or alliance between purusa(self) and prakrti (phenomenalworld). Patanjali "The dissociation of Purusaand Prakrti 11.25): says (Yoga-Sotra brought about by the dispersionof Avidya [ignorance]is the real remedyand that is the Liberation of the Seer."30 Vyasa has an interesting commentary: When Adarsana lack of discernment] ceases, the allianceof [ignorance, Buddhi whichis partof prakrti] and Purusa ceasesandthereis [intelligence, cessation of bondage forall time,whichis isolation of the Seer,i.e. complete stateof aloofness of Purusa and non-recurrence of future contactwith the Gunas.31 It appears, therefore,that liberationrequiresthe total isolation and aloofness of Purusafor Patanjali,and it requiresthe total isolation and aloofness of soul for Plato. Furthermore, this isolationdemands training and practice.ForPatanjali, we must,among otherthings,practicebreath control and meditation. Are there any parallels to these practices in Plato?At firstglance, it does not appearthat Platoadvocatespranayama (breathcontrol)or meditation.However, if I may conclude this essay in a of the daring manner, I would like to suggest a symbolic interpretation eschatological myth that occurs at the end of the Phaedo. Such a symbolic interpretation points in the directionof a Platowho both alludedto and advocated practicesakin to meditationand pranyama. Likethe other three eschatological myths in Plato,32 the myth at the end of the Phaedo (107d-114d) begins with a discussion of the wanderingsof the soul afterdeath. Whereasall four myths in Plato include a discussion of the "judgment"of the soul, only the myth in the Phaedo has an extended geographicaldescriptionof the earth.Socratesdescribes the earthas filledwith hollows, underground and subterranean rivers, pasis that Plato's detailed of the earth sages. My hypothesis very description is not an attemptat giving an accurategeographicalaccount of the earth; it is rathera symbolic discussion of what Eliadecalls "mysticalphysiology."33I am suggestingthat when Plato is talkingabout the earth, he is really discussing esoteric physiological states of human beings. In discussing the mysticalphysiologyof Yoga, Eliadestates: Thebody-both the physical andthe 'subtle'-is madeup of a certain numberof nadTs or but also 'conduits,' 'vessels,''veins,' 'arteries,' (lit., 'nerves') andof cakras butusually translated (lit.,'circles,' 'disks,' 'centers'). Simplifywe couldsaythatthe vitalenergy, in the form of 'breaths,' circuingslightly, that the and the nadTs cosmic in a latent exists, state,in lating through energy the cakras.34 Gold Jeffrey

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Justas Eliadespeaks of vital energy or breathcirculatingthroughthe nadTs (conduits)and cakras(centers),Platospeaks of hot and cold rivers flowing in and out of hollows and channels deep within the earth. For example, at Phaedo 111c-e, Socratesstates: Inthe earthitself,all overits surface, thereare manyhollowregions....All thesearejoinedtogether some channels, underground by manyconnecting some from one basin to there flows narrower, wider, which, another, through a great volumeof water-monstrous subterranean rivers of waters unceasing bothhot and cold-and of firetoo, greatrivers of fire,and manyof liquid mud.... Plato'sdescriptionof hot and cold energy flowing throughchannels and basins is remarkably similarto Eliade'sdescriptionof vital energyflowing and cakras. Socratesgoes on to point out that the movena.ds through ment of the waters is caused by an oscillation inside the earth(Phaedo 111e). He then quotes Homer, who refers to Tartarusas the earth's deepest chasm into which all the riversflow (Phaedo111e-1 12a). Given this symbolic interpretation, Tartarus would representwhat Eliadecalls the muladharacakra.Eliadestates:"The moladhara(mula= root)is situated at the base of the spinal column, between the anal orifice and the genital organs (sacrococcygeal plexus)."35Plato's great rivers of fire remind the reader of kundalinT. Eliade states: "The awakening of the kun.dalinT arouses an intense heat.... [T]hepartthroughwhich the kun.dalinT passes is burninghot."36In both Plato and Yoga, we have a of hot and cold energy (in the formof water,air, and fire)surging picture throughchannels, conduits, and hollows. ForPlato(Phaedo 112a-b), the streamsthat surgeto and fro are accompanied by air, wind, or breathinside the earth. "Andjust as in our breathingthe air is constantlyflowing in and flowing out, so in the interiorof the earththe wind swaying about with the waters,and entering or leaving a given place, causes gusts of appalling violence."37 Plato goes on to say that the waters and air flow throughmany channels but some with long eventually "dischargethemselves back into Tartarus, others more direct.... courses [S]ome lands, winding through many earth once or more than full round the a once, circle, winding complete like snakes, descending as low as they can before once again plunging the riversthen flow uphill Afterplunginginto Tartarus, into Tartarus."38 (Phaedo 112d-e). My hypothesisis that Plato is carefullydescribing,using coded language, a meditationtechnique that appears to involve moving hot and cold energy up and down the spinalcolumn throughthe cakras. Like Patanjali,Plato is careful not to put too many details in because if Platohad been privyto writing.Thisshould not be surprising, or especially the Orphic the esoteric secrets found in Pythagoreanism exercised the utmostcare and written East have & West would he Philosophy mysteryreligion,

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of the Phaedo accautiously. Virtuallyevery standard interpretation influenced and was Phaedo that the by Pythagorean heavily knowledges is of And, althoughour knowledge Orphism limited, Orphic doctrine.39 we do know that the Orphic cult practicedsecret ritesof initiationand Secret initiationritesof a Mysteryreligionare specifically purification.40 mentioned by Socratesat Phaedo 69c-d. In view of this, I am putting forth the bold hypotheses that (1) these secret Orphic rites may have included something analogous to meditation and pranayama; and (2) Plato, throughoutthe geographicalsection of the myth in the Phaedo, was speaking symbolically and guardedly about these Orphic techniques. Why offer such bold hypotheses?The reason I advance these hypotheses is the explanatorypower they offer.My hypothesescan explain a section of the Phaedo that has not yet adequately been explained. of the Phaedo admit that the geographicalsecStandardinterpretations tion at the end of the dialogue is mythological.41 Hackforth and Bluck both insistthat it is symbolic.42Forexample, Hackforth states:"Platohas symbolismas well as an eschatological."43 given his mytha metaphysical Hackforth does not back up his general claim with any speHowever, cific interpretations of the symbols. He makes no attemptto explain the numerous detailed descriptionsinvolving hot and cold runningwater, and so forth. Nor does any other interpretation that I hollows, Tartarus, have read. In short,the standardinterpretations claim thatthe end of the Phaedo is mythologicaland symbolic, but provideno explanation,interof the symbols. My interpretation, however, can pretation,or translation and detailed of the hot and the hollows, give quite specific explanations cold currents,the riversof fire, and Tartarus. All of these symbols represent very specific internalstates or processes akin to the mysticalphysithe hot and cold ology describedin Eliade.The hollows representcakras; and Tartarus, the currents,pranaand apana;the riversof fire, kundalinT; muladharacakra. Furthermore, my hypothesis can explain why that very peculiar geographical discussion belongs in the Phaedo. Other commentators provide no explanationof the relevance of that section to themes in the Phaedo. But,on the Yogic interpretation of Plato,the main theme of the Phaedo is liberation.The esoteric physiology at the end of the Phaedo that one can providesa specific technique of meditationand pranayama use as a means of acquiringliberation. to Eliade, According Yogateaches of are tools meditation that in the acused techniques indispensable of liberation.44 Paramahansa medialso describes quisition Yogananda tation as a technique for liberation.45 I am suggestingthat Plato makes the same connection. Another hermeneuticalbenefit of this interpretation concerns the Gold have offered Jeffrey Socraticdoctrineof the unityof virtue.Manycommentators

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of the unity of virtue as it appears in the early Socratic interpretations Fewer commentatorshave nodialogues, especially the Protagoras.46 ticed the appearanceof that doctrinein the Phaedo. However,the unity of virtue is discussed by Socratesat Phaedo 69a-c. What is interesting, for these purposes, is that in that passage, Socratesdraws a direct connection between true virtue and the secret rites of initiationand purification found in the Mystery religions. My suggestion is that the five virtuesdiscussed by Plato representthe five lower cakrasfound in Yoga philosophy. Given standarddescriptionsof those cakras,the following correspondencescome to mind:self-controlis correlatedwith the earthy, cakra; heavy, constrictivenatureof the mQladhara justicewith the watery, nurturing, healing of the svadhisthanacakra;courage with the fiery, intense energy of the maniipora cakra;piety with the devotional natureof the heartor the anahatacakra;and wisdom with the intellectualnature of the throat,tongue, and mind represented The by the visuddhacakra.47 doctrineof the unityof virtueis that all the virtuesare the same. My hypothesis is that the reasonthat the virtuesare identical is that each true virtuerepresents the susumnicor balanced state of the relevantcakra.At Phaedo 68c-69b, Socratescontraststrue virtuefromwhat is commonly or popularly called virtue (e.g., bravery through fear or temperance throughdesire). These popular concepts of virtue would representthe imbalancedstate of the relevantcakra;true virtue would representthe balanced state. The meditationtechnique hinted at in the geographical section of the Phaedo is a techniquewhose aim is to balance the cakras. Letme conclude this essay with a briefsuggestionabout how readfruit.If Plato throughthe lens of Yoga mightbearfurther interpretative ing we understandthat Plato's main emphasis is on liberation,we may be of Plato as antiable to combat and reject the common interpretation of Plato has often been time and anti-life. Since the Augustine, body characterizedas a haterof the body. Forexample, Hackforth speaks of Plato's"disdainor even hostilitytowardthe 'flesh.'"48He also speaksof Plato's "contempt for all that empirical world which is apprehended through the senses."49 If, however, we focus on Plato's view on liberation,we get a very differentPlato.The desire to be liberatedfromthe body is very differentfrom hating the body. Gandhi desired liberation from the British,but didn't hate the British.Teenagersmay desire freedom from their parentswithout hatingthem. Furthermore, given Plato's own views, the desire to be liberatedfrom X is not only differentfrom hatingX, it is incompatiblewith hatingX. Hatredis a formof aversion, and aversion is simply anotherdesire (a desire to avoid). Given Plato's views on detachmentfrom desire, it is hard to imagine that he would advocate hatred of desire. Hatred is incompatible with detachment. What Plato objects to is enslavement. Recall Socrates'claim at Phaedo &West 66c: "All wars are undertakenfor the acquisition of wealth, and the East Philosophy 26

reason why we have to acquire wealth is the body, because we are slaves in its service." It is liberation fromdesire, not hatredof desire,that Plato advocates. If you hate something, if you desire to push something away, it's got you, and you are not free of it. Plato'semphasis on liberation helps us to avoid the caricatureof Platoas a philosopherwho hates the flesh. In conclusion, I would like to stress that reading Plato throughthe fruit.First of all, it restoresthe eyes of Patafjalibears much interpretative place of importancethat liberationholds in Plato'sthought.Secondly, it helps us to see the connection between liberationand wisdom in Plato's thought.Thirdly,it connects the concepts of practiceand detachmentto Plato'sviews on liberation.Fourthly,it sheds light on the geographical section of Platoand drawsa connection between the unityof virtueand that geographical section. Finally, it presents a more charitable interpretationof Plato than the standardones that present Plato as one who despises the flesh.

NOTES

I would like to thank the following individualsfor helpful and critical evaluation of earlier draftsof this essay: Bill Kirkwood,Niall Shanks, Gail Stenstad,LauraWaddey, John Hardwig,and Kim Hugh LaFollette, Rogers.I would also like to thank Shelly and Deborahfor all their wisdom and support. 1 - Mircea Eliade, Yoga:Immortality and Freedom,2d ed. (Princeton: PrincetonUniversityPress,1969), p. 4. 2 - Patafjali, Yoga-Sotra 11.25; 111.49-51; 111.55; IV.26;and IV.34. 3 - Mircea Eliade,Patafnjali and Yoga(New York:Funkand Wagnalls, 1969), pp. 6-7. 4 - HeinrichZimmerstatesthat Yoga "outlinespracticaltechniquesfor the gaining of release" (Philosophiesof India [Princeton: Princeton 280). Press, 1951], p. University 5 - ErnestWood says: "Often and often the goal of the yogi is described in yoga literature as 'liberation"'(Yoga [Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1962], p. 62). 6 - Bhoja,in commentingon a section of the Yoga-Sutra(IV.22),stated that "any knowledgewhose object is not deliveranceis valueless." See Eliade,Yoga:Immortality and Freedom,p. 13. 7 - Swami Hariharananda to a translation Gold of Jeffrey Aranya,in an introduction

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9-

10 -

11 -

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the Yoga-SQtra, states:"Thatis the ultimategoal of Yoga, which is perpetualpeace of mind or KaivalyaMoksa, i.e. liberation"(Yoga of New YorkPress, StateUniversity Philosophyof Patanfjali [Albany: 1983], p. xxiii). to a translationof the YogaGeorg Feuerstein,in an introduction that the is "morethanwhat (in Sutra, explains philosophy Yoga-Sotra) is commonly understoodby that term."Feuerstein goes on to state that,for Patanjali, philosophycontains "strongethical prescriptions and above all, includes a methodfor the systematictransformation of consciousness with the ultimate purpose of achieving 'liberaA New Translation and Comtion"' (The YogaSutraof Patanfjali: Vermont: Traditions Inner International, 1989], mentary[Rochester, p. 6). For translationswith commentaries,see: David Gallop, Phaedo: with Notes (Oxford:ClarendonPress, 1975); R. HackTranslated with an Introduction and ComPlato's Phaedo: Translated forth, mentary(Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress,1972); and R. S. with an Introduction, Notes, and Bluck,Plato'sPhaedo: Translated, In these 1955). texts, neiBobbs-Merrill, Appendices(Indianapolis: on nor the reletherthe introductory the comments specific essays vant sections of the Phaedo reveal sensitivityto the importanceof Plato'sPhaedo, pp. 3-24, the concept of liberation.See Hackforth, 41-43, 48-51, 56-57; Bluck, Plato's Phaedo, pp. 1-36, 46-47; and Gallop, Phaedo, pp. 79-98. Forbooks about the Phaedo, see: RonnaBurger,ThePhaedo:A PlatonicLabyrinth (New Haven:Yale UniversityPress, 1984); David Bostock, Plato's Phaedo (Oxford: and PolitClarendonPress,1986); Paul Stern,SocraticRationalism of Plato'sPhaedo (Albany:State ical Philosophy:An Interpretation Universityof New YorkPress, 1993); and KennethDorter,Plato's Phaedo: An Interpretation (Toronto:Universityof Toronto Press, 1982). Withthe exception of Dorter(pp. 10, 19-22), the concept of liberationis downplayedor ignoredin these texts. fromthe Plato,Phaedo67d. Unless otherwisenoted, all translations Thattranstranslation. Phaedoare takenfromthe HughTredennick lation may be found in EdithHamiltonand Huntington Cairns,The PrincetonUniversity CollectedDialogues of Plato(Princeton: Press, 1963). the view that "the See also Cratylus 400c, where Socratesattributes to body is an enclosureor prisonin which the soul is incarcerated" the Orphicpoets. For an expanded treatmentof this allegory as an allegory of libStudentsout of the Cave: The eration, see JeffreyGold, "Bringing FirstDay," TeachingPhilosophy11 (1) (March1988): 25-31.

13-All translationsof the Republic are by G.M.A. Grube, Plato's Hackett,1974). Republic(Indianapolis: 14 - Phaedo 109b-110b. and Freedom,pp. 9, 13, 14, 15, 18, 28. 15 - Eliade,Yoga:Immortality 16- Ibid.,p. 14. 17- Ibid.,p. 28. will be 18 - Unless otherwise noted, all translationsof the Yoga-Sutra from Swami Hariharananda Aran.ya. the world of Forms 19 - Inthe Phaedo(78c-80b), Socratesdistinguishes fromthe physicalworld.The Formsare invisible,unchanging,pure, and eternal. Physical objects are changing, visible, impure, and At Phaedo 79c, Socratespoints out that when the soul transitory. of the body (e.g., sight or hearing)to be uses the instrumentality aware of the visible, transientworld, it "loses its way and becomes confused and dizzy, as though it were fuddled."Socratescontinues (Phaedo 79d) by statingthat the soul achieves wisdom or underwhen it investigates"the pure and everlasting standing (phronesis) and immortal and changeless."At the end of book 5 of the Republic (475b-480a), Socrates distinguishes the lover of sights and sounds from the lover of wisdom (the philosopher).At 480a, Socratesidentifiesthe loverof sightsand sounds as the loverof opinion or doxophilist.The lover of sights and sounds, who is unawareof the Formof the Beautiful, believes in beautifulthingsbut not Forms (476c). Socratessays that that person is in a dream state. The philosopher, however, is able to distinguishFormsfrom sensible particularsand is very much awake (476d). In short,the philosopheris able to discriminate the pure fromthe impureand the eternalfrom the temporal.The philosopherdoesn't confuse realitywith appearance, shadows and illusionfromsubstance,or the dreamstatefrom the waking state. This is remarkably similarto Pataijali'sview that the of the is confusion transient with the eternal,the pure ignorance with the impure. 20 - Forexample, at the end of book 1 of the Republic(354a), Socrates concludes his argumentwith Thrasymachus by stating:"So the just man is happy, and the unjust one is wretched." This is despite claim that (344b) "when a man, besides appropriThrasymachus' the ating possessions of the citizens, manages to enslave the owners, as well, then ... he is called happyand blessed, not only by his fellow-citizens but by all otherswho learnthat he has runthrough the whole gamut of injustice." For Socrates, the ignorant,unjust Gold tyrant,despite appearances,is actually wretched. In Socrates'and Jeffrey 29

Plato's view, ignorant and unjust people may think they are happy when, in fact, they are not. This theme is found in both the Republic and the Gorgias (especially in the discussion between Socrates and Polus, at 461 b-481 b). 21 - At the beginning of the allegory, when Socrates is describing the darkness and the fetters, he points out (Republic VII.515a) that the prisoners (who are "in the dark") cannot see themselves or each other. Since the allegory is symbolic, and vision and sight are symbols that represent illumination and knowledge, the fact that the prisoners can't see themselves seems to imply that they lack selfknowledge or self-awareness. That the prisoners who are ignorant lack self-knowledge seems similar to Patanjali's idea that victims of avidya confuse self with not-self. 22 - Translation by Dr. I. K. Taimni, p. 20. 23 - In chapter 6 of the Bhagavad GTta, when Arjuna points out to Krishna (VI.34) that the mind is restless and impetuous, as difficult to control as the wind, Krishnaresponds (VI.35) that it is difficult to curb the restless mind, but it is possible through constant practice and detachment. 24 - In chapter 2 of the GTta, Arjuna asks Krishnafor a description of the man of stabilized mentality. The concept of stabilized mentality is something like the notion of a calm, serene, peaceful, unwavering mind. Krishna's description of the sage with these qualities is as follows: 55. When he abandonsdesires, All that are in the mind, son of Prtha, Findingcontentmentby himselfin the self alone, Then he is called of stabilizedmentality. in sorrows, 56. When his mind is not perturbed And he has lost desirefor joys, His longing,fear,and wrathdeparted, He is called a stable-mindedholy man. 57. Who has no desiretowardsany thing, And gettingthis or that good or evil Neitherdelightsin it nor loathes it, His mentalityis stabilized. 71. Abandoningall desires ... Man moves free fromlonging, Withoutself-interest and egotism, He goes to peace.

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This passage serves to reinforcethe idea that stabilizationof the mind (calming the fluctuationsof the mind) requiresboth desirelessness and nonattachment.The passages in the Bhagavad GTta emphasize repeatedlythatthe sage whose mind is stable abandons, are of the BhagavadGTta lacks, or has no desires. (All translations Harvard from FranklinEdgerton,The Bhagavad GTta [Cambridge: UniversityPress,1972].) continues his discussionof practiceas follows (Yoga-Sutra 25 - Patanjali 1.14):"Thatpracticewhen continued for a long time without break and with devotion becomes firmin foundation." see Swami Harihar26 - For Vyasa's commentaryon the Yoga-Sutra, ananda Aranya. Vyasa's commentary on this particularsOtrais found on pp. 203-204. 27 - Phaedo 64a (Blucktranslation). 28 - Phaedo 67e (Hackforth translation). 29 - Phaedo 65e-66a (Hackforth translation). 30 - Translation by Dr. I. K.Taimni,p. 198. 31 - Swami Hariharananda Aranya,p. 198. 32 - The four eschatological myths in Plato are: Phaedo 107d-114d; RepublicX.614b-621a; Phaedrus246c-257b; and Gorgias523a527e. and Freedom,p. 239. 33 - Eliade, Yoga:Immortality 34 - Ibid.,pp. 236-237. 35 - Ibid.,p. 241. 36 - Ibid.,p. 246. 37 - Phaedo 112b (Hackforth translation). 38 - Phaedo 112c-d (Hackforth translation). 39 - Forexample, see Bluck, Plato'sPhaedo,pp. 47, 52, 127, 195-196; Plato'sPhaedo, pp. 4-6, 15, 38, 42, 172, 185; Bostock, Hackforth, Plato's Phaedo, pp. 11-14, 29; and Dorter, Plato's Phaedo, pp. 177-178. Fortwo excellent sustaineddiscussionson Orphismand the Orphic influence on Plato, see Douglas J. Stewart,"Socrates' Last Bath,"Journalof the History of Philosophy 10 (July 1972): 253-259, and W.K.C.Guthrie,TheGreeksand TheirGods (Boston: Beacon Press,1966), pp. 307-332. 40 - See Stewart,"Socrates'LastBath,"p. 253; Guthrie,The Greeksand Gold TheirGods;and Dorter,Plato'sPhaedo, pp. 177-178. Jeffrey

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41 - See Bluck, Plato'sPhaedo, p. 127, and Hackforth,Plato'sPhaedo, pp. 167, 171-175. 42 - Hackforth, Plato'sPhaedo, p. 174; Bluck, Plato'sPhaedo, p. 127. 43 - Hackforth, Plato'sPhaedo, p. 174. 44 - Eliade,Yoga:Immortality and Freedom,pp. 14-15. "A Yogiwho faithfully 45 - Accordingto Yogananda: practicesthe techis meditation technique] graduallyfreed from nique [a kriyayoga of a Yogi [Los Angeles: Self-Realization karma"(Autobiography Publishers, 1974], Fellowship p. 275). 46 - See especially TerryPenner, "The Unity of Virtue,"Philosophical Review38 (January 1973): 35-68, and GregoryVlastos,"The Unity 25 (1972): Review of Metaphysics of the Virtuesin the Protagoras,"
415-458.

and 47 - Fordescriptionsof these cakras,see Eliade, Yoga:Immortality

Freedom, pp. 241-245.

Plato'sPhaedo, p. 4. 48 - Hackforth,
49 - Ibid., p. 5.

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