06.

2 For a corrected system a lagging power factor

ffrom 0.9 - 0.98 should be aimed at. Electricity
supply authorities frequently stipulate a power
factor greater than 0.9.
06.3 The simple way dopted to improve power
factor is to add large amounts offixed capacitors
and improve the DISPLACEMENT POWER
FACTOR neare, t to unity. But in many cases,
during certain operating conditions the
capacitors deliver more Reactive Power than
what is required by the loads and excess VAR
i exported into the system (LEADING POWER
FACTOR CONDITIONS). This is the case with
most con umers who add large amounts of fixed
capacitors as the loads are never constant and
stable but always varying. A lag only power
fac tor meter would regi.. ter a LEADING
POWER FACTOR CONDITION AS A UNITY
POWER FACTOR CONDITION. Weather the
current Jags or leads, there would be loss of
power. OnJy a quadrant meter would register
the LEADING POWER FACTOR
CORRECTLY.
06.4 Though the simplest way of improving power
factor is by onnecting fixed capacitors.
irnpro lng and maintaining a power factor better
than 0.98 i not possible with fixed capacitors.
Some form of swi tc hi ng is r q uired to
dynamicaUy track the react ive power
requirement and compensate it. Un.les thi i
done it will not b possible to maintain a hi bh
power factor.
07.1 In fact under harmonic rich envi ronments it is
recommended that the addi ti on of capacitors is
limited and the DISPLACEMENT POWER
FACTOR is not INCREASED BEYOND THE
LIMIT AS THIS COULD LEAD TO
RESONANCE CONDITION, which could
degrade the TRUE POWER FACTOR. THE
lNCREASE IN HARMONIC CURRENTS
WOULD DO MORE DAMAGE TO THE
SYSTEM THAN WHAT COULD HAVE
HAPPENED WITH OPERATION AT A
LOWER LAGGING POWER FACTOR.
07.2 Th . distortati on in the system (both voltage and
cunent) is increased with the proliferation of
NON-LINEAR LOADS. The DISTORTION
POWER FACTOR IS NOT UNITY EVEN if
the DISPLACEMENT POWER FACTOR IS
MAINTAINED AT UNITY, wi th distortions
present in the system.
07.3 The neces ity and size of the capacitor either
for power factor correction or HARMONIC
CORRECTION AND FILTER AS AN
ADDITION TO POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION has to be decided based on
upply ystem problem such a harmonics.
07.4 TIle major sources of harmonic are such devices
as THYRISTORS, CONVERTORS.
INDUCTION AND ARC FURNACES,
WELDING EQUIPMENTS, COMPUTERS,
UPS DISCHARGE LIGHTING AND OTHER
NON-LINEAR LOADS.
07.5 CAPACITORS THEMSELVES DO NOT
GENERATE HARMONICS, BUT THEY CAN
EITHER REDUCE OR INCREASE THEM
DEPENDING UPON PARTICULAR
CIRCUMSTANCES.
07.6 Harmonic cun-ent distort the y tem voltage,
give rise to losses, and can produce resonance
phenomena . Care is needed when shunt
capacitors are used for power factor correction
in systems with "Harmonic Generator' loads.
The capacitor , witb inductance of the supply
system, for m a resonant circuit, in whi ch
individual hannonic currents, depending on the
ratio of the capaci tors c nnec ted can be
considerably magnified.
07.7 For reasons given above the capacitors used for
power factor cor rection in system with
"Harmonic Generator" loads are connected
through series inductors. Such arrangement is
ca.lled inductively buffered capacitors. This
arrangement relives the supply system not onJy
of lagging reactive power, but also of harmonics.
07.8 The harmonic current fl owing in the supply
system can be considerably reduced by u ing
tuned filter . Fil ters are Series-Re onant circuit.
The harmonic urrents flow preponderably in
the filters and not in the main system. Since they
are capacitive at the fundamenta.l frequency
the tuned fi lters not only reduce the
DISTORTION POWER but also contribute
to th COMPENSAnON OF THE
FUNDAMENTAL-FREQUENCY REACTrYE
POWER. Filters must always be built up
upwards from the lower harmonic order. They
are frequently applied to the 5
lh
7th 11 th and 13
th
Harmoni s.
07.9 HARMONICS AND DISTORTION
I . DISPLACEMENT POWER FACTOR DPF = cose
= KW (of fundamental )!KVA (of fundamental)
= P/Q
2. When harmonics are present
S =-,J(P2+Q
2
+D2)
where S =Apparent power =V lot al nn. , I IotaI rms
P =Real Power= V
om
, I rms x c OS<P
Q = L V
k
Ik Sine<Dk
D = Di tortion Power =
o = -,J(S2_P2_Q
2
)
DISTORTION POWER FACTOR =D/S
TRUE POWER FACTOR or TOTAL POWER
FACTOR = P 1(Vtolalml' X Il0lalnn)
08. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS:
08.1 The supply authorities stipulate a power factor
greater than 0.9. They impose a penalty for
power factor less than 0.9. Th rate of penalty
for poor power factor in Tamil Nadu are:
(i). Below 0.9 lag and up to 0.85 lag at 1 % of the
current con umption charges for every reduction
of 0.01 in power fac tor from 0. 7.
(ii). Below 0.85 lag and up to 0. 75 atl.5% of the
curr nt consumption charges for every reduction
of 0.01 in power factor from 0.9.
Eleclricallnslallalion Engineer NewsleHer March 2010 11
(iii). Below 0. 75 lag is - at 2% of the current 08.S Minimizing the transmission loss:
consumption charges for every reduction of 0.01
in Power Factor from 0.9. Minimizing "T LC" becomes subject to 0.9 P.F(C) 1.0
Incentive for Improving Power Factor:
0. 0 Where T
LC
i' transmission loss
Where the power factor of HT SERVICES exceeds
0.95, a power factor rebate at 0.5% of the amount of
P.F(c) = corrected po wer factor at minimized
current consumption charges for every increase of 0.01
transmission loss.
in power factor above 0.95 hall be allowed.
08.6 A transformer supplying an apparent power'S"
draws a reacti e power Qtr. A large capacitor
improvement exceeding 0.95 w uld tempt to
08. 2 (i) The rati ng for incenti ve for power factor
r ating t han the tran former reacti ve power
add FIXED DISPLACEMENT POWER
consumption at full load is selected in order to
CAPACITORS and i mprove the
compensate for part of the reactiv power on
DISPLACEMENT POWER FACTOR nearest
the connected loads. However the capacitor
to UNITY. For a corrected system a lagging
rating must be limited as shown in the table to
power factor from 0.9 to 0.98 may be ai med.
avoid resonance during light load periods at the
5'" and 7
th
harmonics which are generally most
08. 2 (ii ) But fixed capacitor group corre tion method
in evidence in supply sy tern.
should not be bluntly applied in all cases
Improving and maintaining a power factor better
TABLE:
then a 0.98 is not pas ible with fixed capacitors.
Some form of switching like (thyrister
Transfonner Permissible capacitive power of
switching, automatic power factor correction
controller) is required to dynami cally trace the
LIGHT LOAD as % of the
reactive power and compensate it. But in many
Impedance
Voltage Uz transformer rating SN
cases, during certain operating conditions,
the capacitor delivers more reactive power 4l){ 40% of th capacity of the transformer
than what is required by the loads as the loads
rating SN
are never constant and stable but always
6l){ 20% of the capacity of the transformer
operat ion. LEADING POWER FACTOR
varying. This is actually a leading power factor
rating SK
OPERATION COULD BE DETECTED AND
18% of the capacity of the lran former 8%
MONITERED ONLY BY 4- QUADRANT
rating SN
POWER FACTOR METER. LEADING
POWER FACTOR OPERATION IS NOT
10% 12. 5% of the apaci ty of the
DESIRABLE, since it may affect the dielectric
trans fanner rating S
strength of capacitor and insulation of cables
apparatus and other curren t carrying
08. 7 If the capacitor is connected directly to the motor
components.
terminals, the capacitor rating must not be
08.3 UNDER HARMONIC RICH greater than 90% of the no load reactive power
ENVIRONMENTS it is recommended that the consumption of lhe motor. Higher value can
addition of capacitor is limited and displacement cause self-excitation as the motor run down.
power factor is not increased beyond the limits
as this could lead RESONANCE CONDITIONS 08.8 System with mixed load may be compensated
wh ich could degrade the TRUE POWER as per the following guide.
FACTOR. Capacitors themselves do not I-----------r------------l
generate harmoni cs. Hannonic load as Selection of power factor
But they can either reduce or increase harmonics
correction method
proporti n of the total load
depending upon particular circumstances. The increase Linear load 70%
CAPACITORS
in harmonic current would do more damage to the +Harmonic load 30%
system than what could have happened with operations
at a lower lagging power factor. Linear load + Capacitor with blocking
inductors (Detuned Filters)
08.4 Economic aspects: HanTIoni load above 20%
and up to LOO%
Assuming the specific cost of the in talled capacitor
to be (Rs K I microfarad) the cost of energy (R KJ Linear load 50% + Tuned Filters
KWH) the annual losse Wa, the interest rate "in and Harmonic load above 50%
the expected capacitor life N year, then the total and up to 100%
annual co t is,
AC=K x Wa+(AIP)KcxC
08.9(a) The capacitor must be suitable for operation
Where AIP=[(i )(i+N)n)/[(i+ 1)n -1
under abnormal conditions to over voltage.
Note: The most economical capacitor is not necessarily RMS VOLTAGE DOES NOT EXCEED 110%
yielding minimum energy losses. of RATED ==
ElectrIcal Installation Engineer - Newsletter March 2010 12
V ,= ~ l + THDV2~ 1.1 '= THDV ~ ~ 0 . 2 1 = 45.8%.
nn
- =0.458 pu
(b) The reacti ve p wer KVAR) doe not exce d
135% of rating.
(c) Peak voltage does not exceed 120% of rated.
Vpeak / VI =1 + VCF 1.2 ,= VCF ~ 0.2.
(d) The capacitor mu t be suitable for continuous
operation with a rated peak current of 1.8
times normal current. '= I peak / If = 1 + CCF
=1.8 ,= CCF 0.8. It may be Inns ~ 1.3 I,
THD I = 1.32 - 1=0.8306 =83.06%
In addition to the e factor the capaci tor manufacturer
is pennitted a manufacturing tolerance on out put
of -0+ 10.
08.10 Central correction i particularly suitable when,
a. A large number of smaJlloads.
b. Different power consumptions.
c. Switched on for varying periods are
c nnected to the system.
ADVANTAGES:
I. The correction equipment is easy to check
because of its central ized anangemenl.
2. The capacitor rating is always matched to the
reactive power requirement.
3. Havi ng regard to the considered factor, a lower
capacitor rating tban wonld be required for
individual correctlon is often sufficient.
Automati c switching OFF capacitors i'
recognized as an ideal method of oblaining th
full electrical and financial benefits from a
capacitor instal lation, the resulting economics,
and convenience for outweighing tbe initi al cost.
Opti mum power factor is advised under all
conditions and there is no possibility of the
equipment being inadvertently left out of
commission. A bank of capacitor with the
required total capacitor KV AR controlled in
equal tage by a muJti step relay and air break
contacts connected to lbe main bus bar is used
in many applications. A power factor correction
unit is characteriL.ed by its power rating and the
number of steps. In five tep unit of a rating
e.g. 250KV AR, the capacitor power can be
switched in steps of 50 KVAR. To acttieve
sufficiently accurate control and at the same
time to avoid too frequent operation of the
capacitor, it is appropriate practice to choose a
number of step" between 5 and a maximum of
10.
08.1 1 On small installation individual correction can
be applied to motors, which are constantly in
operation. The balance of the correction required
can be connected to the MAIN BUS BARS OF
THE SUPPLY SYSTEM and controlled by a
FUSE SWTTCH.
NOTE: The supply authorities stipulate the limit of
the maximum amount of KVAR, which may
be witched to the main bus bar of the upply
ystem.
08.12 [f the plant as a whole or part, i correct d as a
block, (generally known as bulk of group
correction the capac itor 1. located at som
convenient poi nt on the system, such as sub
lat ion)
08.13 Large industrial sites involving different kind
of manufacturi ng process s oft en requires a
combination of bulk and indi vidual correction
to provide the most economic means of power
factor correction. It hould be remembered that
di..,tri bution boards and circuits can carry a great
useful load, if the capacitors are instaJ led as near
as po sible to the source of low Power factor.
08.14 Tuned Filter must alway' be built up upwards
from the lowest harmonic order. They are
7
th
,11
th
frequenlly applied to th 5'h, and 13
th
harmonics.
08.15 In many cases it is sufficient to provide filters
only for the 51b harmonic . The harmonic
currents flowing in the system can be reduced
by 70 to 90% by such treatment.
09. DESIGNING ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
THAT INCOPORATE SYSTEM-WIDE
HARMONIC CORRECTION.
09.1 One of the requirements in electrical system
design is to meet the recommended levels set
out in IEEE standard 519-1992. IEEE
Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in POWER SYSTEM. This
standard set out limits for both voltage and
current harmonk level at different points in
an electlical , ystem.
09.2 For the benefit of both the loads and the
electrical system a variety of approaches have
been implement f hal reduce harmonic loads
in electrical system
With ut some fonn of corrective action in place
ha rmoni c produced by no n linear l oads
penneate throughout an electrical system with
a variety of consequence, including over
heating and premature failure of components
in an environment f increa ed system losses
and voltage distortion
09.3 Electro magnet is u ed to deliver cost effective
and reliable transformer based harmonic current
and voltage distortion reduction. An example
have such an approach is the implementation,
of phase mul tiplication, a technique whereby
separate but similar harmonic producing loads
are fed 111TOugh transformer having relative
phase shift.
The effectiveness of a phase multiplication
strategy various as a functioning between the
ource and similarly of load profile making it
very difficult to meet the current distention
limits in the reasonable degree of certainty
09.4 Another method of harmonk treatment is the
active filter, the mo t popu lar is a curre nt
barmoruc treatment that involves injecting the
appropriate magnitude of harmonic current out
of phase with that produced by the load thereby
cancelling load produced harmonic currents.
This approach is able to provide very effective
and a predictable harmonic current reduction
Electrical Installation Engineer - Newsletter - March 201 D 13
across to frequency spectrum. Deliveri ng a 09.8 The combi nation of different method of
predictable harmonic current reduction across harmonic reduction can also be implemented
the frequency spectrum, delivering a predictable in order to improve the all over effectiveness
reduction of current TIID, typicaUy below 5% of the total harmoni c treatment. Tn many
thereby meeting the harmonic current limit set faci lities a hybri d approach may be a co. t
at in IEEE standard 5 19 - 1992 effective and reliable approach that meets aU
09.5 A method of integration of the two terminology
(namely electromagnetic based aDd active
filter ) on an electrical sy, tern basis is applied
the requirement for harmonic current and
voltage limits a prescribed by IEEE standard
519 - 1992.
so as to deliver reliable harmonic correction that There are many advantages to the hybrid
predictably meets IEEE recommended limits. approach to harmonic cancel l atio n. It
09.6 In tuned - filter, nam ly a capacitor / inductor
combination, reactors are often lIsed in the
variable frequency drives as the defaulL way to
tr at their harmonic currents when install ed in
predictably meet the hannonic current limiL') sct
out i n IEEE standard 519 - 1992 in a cost
effective and reliable manner. Substantial
harmoni c current reduction can be achieved by
line with harmonic producing source reactor
reduce current harmonic as a function of ils
using low cost and reliable electro-magnetic
ba ed technology to greater and leaving smaller
reactance, but thus achievement is at expense
of an increase in voltage distortion in the load
but more sophisticated job
technology.
to a active
side of the reactor The potential application of hybritl approaches
Because of lhe undesirable increase in voltage
distorti on at the load the use at a full harmonic
are many given the existing densi ties of non
linear loads in today's electrical , y tem such
treatment should be carefully evaluated with
respect to whether or not the I ad can operate
satisfactory under such condition
as variable peed drive, welders, arc furnaces
and electronic loads the personal computer
and robots.
09.7 In respoll e to the need for the predi table
harmonic reduction active (electronic based)
10. CAPACITORS FOR END-USER
CAPACITOR APPLICATION
harmonic correction has been developed to
GUIDEANCE NOTES:
address either current & voltage waveform of
volt the active approach i not encountered by
orne of the short - comings of other harmonic
currents uch on load imbalance for pbase
multiplication or fixed target harmonic
frequencies for tuned filters.
The most popular active technology is a current
harmonic treatment that involves injecti ng the
appropriate magnitude of harmonic current out
of phase with tllat produced by load, there by
cancelling load produced harmonic current
(i)
(ii )
The application of power factor correction
capacitors is generally motivated by
economics to eliminate utility power factor
penalties, but there are reasons from the
perspective of power quality as weU. The
reason that an end user might decide to apply
power factor correction capacitors are
To reduce the electricily utility bill .
To reduce 12 R Losses and therefore heating in
lines and transformers.
The concept of active harmonic cancellation
CWACSTM (current wave active correction
sy, tern TM) in simple t term involves injecting
(iii) To increase the voltage at the load. increasing
production and l or the efficiency of the
operation.
a wave form that is out of phase witb 50HZ (iv) To reduce current in the lines and
portion of the load profile LIp to th point of the transformers allowing additional load to be
connection of the CW ACS to the system, the served without building new circuits.
demand on the electrical system is effectively
reduced the 50 HZ component
There can be power quality problems a the
re ult of adding capacitors. The most common
Improved power factor results as a functi on of are harmonics problems. While power factor
reducing th distortion power factor and is a correction capacitors are not harmonic sources,
natural positive by - product of harmonic they can interact wilh the sy tern LO accentuate
cancellation. CWACS does not change the the harmonics that are already there. There are
displacement power factor. also swilching transient effects uch as
The examples where active technology can be
very co 1effective on a stand-alone basis are
magnification of utility capacitor
tran ients
witching
1. Loads in the correctness barmonic spectrum
and I or
lO.1.Location for
capacitors
power factor correction
2. Electrical system where even harmonic are
present
The precision of active harmonic correction is
very de irable
Its high cost per harmonic ampere prohibits
to implement on a facility on wide basis.
The benefits realized by in tailing power factor
correction capacitor include the reduction of
reactive power flow on the system. Therefore,
for best result, power factor correction should
be located as close to the load as possible.
However this may not be the most economical
solution or even the best engineering solution,
Electricallnslalla1ion Engineer Newsletter - March 2010 14
due to the interaction of harmonics and capacitors. This fonnula assumes that the transfonner is the bulk
of the total impedance of the power system up to the
--I point at which the capacitor is applied.
1
As mentioned above one
power qUality problem that mCOMrNGSOPPL"l - r . ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 -
arises is that the voltage rises
C4 DlSTRlBDTED
LOAm
too hi gb when the capacitors
Tel .............
remain energized at low load
UTlllZA.nON OR C4
])ISTORTlOK BUS
levels . One common
FIGURE -1 LOCATION OF POWER FACTOR symptom of t his is loud
CORRECTION
humming in the supply
Often capacitors are installed with large induction
transformer and, in some cases over beating due to
motors (C] in figure 1). This allows the capa" itor and
over excitation of the core. Another symptom is th
motor to be switched as a unit. Large plants with
loss of excessive numbers of incandescent light bulbs
extensive distribution system often install capacitors
coincident with the in tallation of a capacitor bank.
at the primary voltage bus (e
l
) when uti lity billing
Thus, this formula should be applied to investigate
encourages power factor correction. Many times
whether it is feasible to leave the capacitors energized.
howeve r power factor correction and harmonic
If not, some control strategy mu. t be devised to switch
distortion reducti on must be accomplished with the
the capaci tors off at light loads.
same capacitors. Location of larger harmonic filters
on tbe di , tri bution bus (C
2
) provides the required
10.3. Reduction in power system losses
compensati on and a low impedance path for harmonic
currents to flow keeping the harmonk currents off
Since losses are inversely proportional to the power
the util ity system.
factor squared (PF), the reduction in power system
The disadvantage of placing capacitors only at the
losses is estimated from
util ization or distribution bus is that there is no
reduction of current and line losses within the plant.
91 power loss ox 100 ( P FOri&IOJi / PF </ ~ Eqn. (10-1)
Comcl
Lo s and current reduction is achieved when the
% Loss reduction = 100 [1-(PFangino.JPFc=,..Yl ~ Eqn. (10-2)
capacitors are disuibuted throughout the system. Some
where % loss reduction = percent reduction in losses
industrial end users install capacitors at the motor
PF original =original power factor (pu)
control centers which is often more economical than
PF corrected =corrected power factor (pu)
putting the capacitors on each of the motor. The
capacitors controls can be tied in with th motor This formula basically applies to a single capacitor on
controls so that the capacitors are switched when a radial feed. However itis also approximately correct
needed. if the capacitors are well distributed throughout the
plant so that each major branch circuit experiences
10.2. VOLTAGE RISE:
approximately the same percentage loss improvement.
The voltage rise from pi, cing th capacitors on an
Keep in mind that this formula gives the percen t
inducti ve circuit is a two edged sword from the power
reduction possible over the present losses upline from
quality Landpoi nt. If the voltage i low, then the
the capacitor. Tbere is no reduction in losses in
capacitors provide an increase to bring the voltage to
the lines and transformers between the capacitors
tolerable limits. However i f the capacitors are left
and the load.
energized when the load i turned off, the voltage can
10.4. Reduction in the line current
rise too high resulting in a sustained over Voltage.
The percent line current reduction can be approximated
The voltage rise realized with the installation of
from
capacitors is approximated from
% M= 100 [1- ( c ase b 'relcase f' ) ] --7 Eqn. (10-3)
el o a ler
% I1V = Kvar XZ (O/O) / kVA
cap Ix ~
where %11 1= percent current reduction
Where % 11V = percent voltage rise
= power factor angle before correction
e before
Kvar
cap
=
capacitor bank rating
= powt:!r factor angle after correction
eafler
kVA
=
step -d wn tran fonner rating
"
Z
=
step-down tran former impedance %
tx Again thi applies only to currents lip line from the
capacitor.
Eleclrical lnstallalion Engineer - NewsleHer March 2010 15
10.5. Displacement power factor vs True power
factor zero, the maximum to which you can correct the true I
The tradi ti onal concepts of selecting power factor
correction are based on the assumption that loads on
the system have linea r voltage -c urre nt
characteristics and that ha rmonic distortion can be
ignor ed. With these assumption , the power fac tor is
equal to the displacement power factor (OPF). OPF is
calculated using traditional power factor tri angle
method (figure 2) and is often written:
APPARENT
POWER
K/::jVA X,VAR
REACTIVE
POWER
EoW ( A CTIVE POWER )
FIGURE - 2
KW
DPF = - = cose -7 Eqn. (10.4)
KVA
Where K wand K va are the fundamental frequency
quantities only
Hannonic distortion in the voltage and current caused
by nonlinear loads (on the system), changes the way
power factor must be calculated.
True power factor (TPF) or Total power Factor (TPC)
is defined as the rate of real power to the total volt
amperes in the circuit
TPF = KW / KVA = P / (V rms x I rms) -7 Eqn. (lO.S)
As before the power factor is defined a the ratio of
KW to KVA but in this case tbe KV A includes
barmonic distortion volts-amperes. The total KV A
(apparent power) is det rmined by muJtiplying tbe
true rms voltage by the true rm current. It can be
significantly higher than the fundamental frequency
KV A. The active power P is generally increased only
marginally by the distortion.
TPF is the true mea ure of the efficiency with which
the real power is being used. In the trivial case of DO
distortion it defaults to the DPF. Capaci tors basically
compensate only for the fundamental frequency
reactive power (va rs) and cannot completely correct
the true power factor to unity when there are harmonics
present. In fact , capacitors can make true power factor
worse by creating resonance condition which magnify
the harmonic distortion. On typical power systems, the
Irrns term in the above equation is general ly the one most
affected by harmonic distortion although the V term
rrn'
may also be increased. As uming the oltage THD is
power factor can be approx i mately by
TPF = -.1(1 11 +THD2 ) -7 Eqn.10.6
current
THD in PERUNIT OPF is still very important to most
indu trial customers because utility billing for power
factor penalties is generally based on it. Most revenue
metering schemes currently account only for the DPF.
However, this could change bec ause modern
electronic meters certai nl y have the capabili ty to
compute the TPF, which will be considerably lower
for some types of industrial loads.
10.6. Selecting the amount of capacitance:
For reference for those wi shing to apply capacitors to
correct the power factor the kvar raling of capacitance
required to correct a load to a desired power factor is
given by
KVAR =KW (tanCP . - tan<l> )
ong new
Where KV AR = required compensation in KV AR
KW = rea] power in KW
CP .
ong
=
origi nal power factor phase angle
CP
new
=
desired power factor phase angle
PF .
ong
= original power factor
PF
new
=
desired power factor
Table 10-1 summari zes the above equation in tabular
form.
After selecting estimated capacitors sizes, two power
quality checks should be done:
1 . Determine the no load voltage rise to make sure
that tbe voltage will not above 110%. wben the load
is minimum, .If it does, you will have to switch some
of the capacitors off or apply fewer capacitors only
by automatic PF correction controlled.
2. Determine the impact of tbe capacitors on
harmonics.
Ifharmonics prove to be a problem, typicaJ options
are
A) Change tbe amount of capacitors, if possible;
Avoid certain switcbing combination. This is
generally the least expensive solution.
B) Convert some of the capacitors to one or more
filters, usually placed at the main bus.
C) Employ an adaptive control to monitor the
harmonic distortion and switch the capacitor s to void
reson ance. Thi. migh t be appropr iate for large
industrial loads where num rous switched capacitors
are corning on and off line randomly.
El ectrical Installation Engineer - Newsletter - March 2010 16
TABLE 10 - KW MULTIPLIER TO DETERMINE KVAR REQUIREMENTS
Original
PF
0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00
0.50 0.982 1.034 1.086 1.139 1.192 1.248 1.306 1.369 1.440 1.529 1.732
0.52 0.893 0.945 0.997 1.049 1.103 1.158 1.217 1.280 1.35] 1.440 1.643
0.54 0.809 0.861 0.913 0.965 1.019 1.074 1.133 1.196 1.267 1.356 1.559
0.56 0.729 0.781 0.834 0.886 0.940 0.995 1.053 1.116 1.188 1.276 1.479
0.58 0.655 0.707 0.759 0.811 0.865 0.902 0.979 1.024 1.113 1.201 1.405
0.60 0.583
.
0.635 0.687 0.740 0.794 0.849 0.907 0.970 1.042 1.130 1.333
0.62 0.515 0.567 0.620 0.672 0.726 0.781 0.839 0.903 0.974 1.062 1.265
0.64
0.66
0.451 0.503 0.555 0.607 0.661 0.716 0.775 0.838 0.909 0.998 1.201
0.388 0.440 0.492 0.545 0.599 0.654 0.712 0.775 0.847 0.935 1.138
0.68 0.328 0.380 0.432 0.486 0.539 0.594 0.652 0.715 0.787 0.875 1.078
0.70 0.270 0.322 0.374 0.427 0.480 0.536 0.594 0.657 0.729 0.817 1.020
0.72
0.74
0.214 0.266 0.318 0.370 0.424 0.480 0.538 0.601 0.672 0.761 0.964
0.159 0.211 0.263 0.316 0.369 0.425 0.483 0.546 0.617 0.706 0.909
0.76 0.105 0.157 0.209 0.262 0.315 0.371 0.429 0.492 0.563 0.652 0.855
0.78 0.052 0.104 0.156 0.209 0.263 0.318 0.376 0.439 0.511 0.599 0.802
0.80 0.00 0.052 0.104 0.157 0.210 0.266 0.324 0.387 0.458 0.547 0.750
0.82 0.000 0.052 0.105 0.158 0.214 0.272 0.335 00406 0.495 0.698
0.84 0.000 0.053 0.106 0.162 0.220 0.283 0.354 0.443 0.646
0.86 0.000 0.054 0.109 0.167 0.230 0.302 0.390 0.593
0.88 0.000 0.055 0.114 0.177 0.248 0.337 0.540
0.90 0.000 0.058 0.121 0.193 0.281 0.484
0.92 0.000 0.063 0.134 0.223 0.426
0.94 0.000 0.071 0.160 0.363
0.96 0.000 0.089 0.292
0.98 0.000 0.203
1.00 0.000
Energy conservation is a must for preservation of Environment and Earth.
Electrical Installation Engineer - Newsletter - March 2010 17
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
Voltage Tolerances
Current carried by the electrical power distribution
network varies at different ti mes of the day. Thi leads
t varying voltage drop in the supply cables. It is thus
impracticable to give each consumer exact nominal
supply voltage i. e., 415/240 V at his terminals. Supply
authoritie are,therefore. permitted certain tolerances.
Under the Indian Electricity Ru les, the voltage
fluctuati on may not vary by more than 5% abo e or
below the declared nomi nal voltage and the frequency
must be within I % of the declared frequency of 50
Hz. Thus the terminal voltage must be withjn the range.
228 V to 252 V for a nominal voltage of 240 y.
394.25 Y to 435.75 V for a nominal voltage of 415 V.
Conductors and Cables
All conductors must be ~ u r r o u n d e d by insul ation in
order to confine the current to the path the current is
intended to follow. In overhead transmission lines bare
conductors are used where air acts as in ulation
between the conductors. The only places where
additional insulation is required is at the supports
through which the lines are held suspended from the
ground. However for underground eli tribution cables
and for wiring installation in building it is convenient
to provide the conductors with in ulation of orne solid
fl exi ble material. The conductor wi th insulation is
called a cable. Amongst the earliest materials used for
cable in ulation wa long stri ps of paper wrapped
around the conductors. Paper works as good insulation
as long as it is kept dey.
Rubber as cable insulation wa used in mall cables
from a out 1910 to 1950. Rubber bas now largely been
replaced by plastics. The most commonly used plastic
material for cable insulation is poly-vinyl-chloride
(PVC). For cables which have to withstand high
temperatures, rubber like compounds such as silicon
rubbers are al 0 used. Much re earch i being done
leading to the fa t de elopmenlof 'uperior insulation
materials to answer the new need .
The insulation mentioned above are generally applied
to stranded conductors. Stranded c nductor con ist
of a number of copper or aluminium wires placed
together like a rope. Straneling is employed to make
Lhe cable flexible. Single strand copper conductors arc
used only in mali sizes. Single strand aluminium
conductors are often used in house wiring becau e of
prohibitive cost of copper wires.
Stranded conductor cables are expressed as e.g., 31.029,
7/.03A etc. The first number i.e., 3, 7, et . represents
the number of strand or wires in the cable, whereas,
the second number i.e ..029, .036 etc. represent" the
diameter of each strand in inch or mID.
Rating of Cables
Cable are always a ' igned a rating. For plastic or
rubber in ulatedcable this is based on the temperature
which the insulation can withstand. When several
plastic insulated cables run together in the same conduit
or duct their nonnal rating will be reduced since each
will tend to heat the other. Tables of cable ratings are
given in IS: 3961.
Voltage Drop
The minimum requi rement for selecting cable ' ize is
that it 'hould be able to carry the maximum expected
current without the insulation gelling damaged due to
heat. However, this is not lhe only criterion for the
selection of cable size. Selection of cable for supplying
a load should be made considering the permissible
voltage drop in the cable.
The voltage drop in a cable depends not onl upon the
current and th cro 's-sectional area of the cable, but
also upon its length. For short cables it is generally
sufficient to hoose the nearest size as per calculation
of currenl they are expected to carry but for long cables
it is necessary to select one or two size larger than the
minimum rating.
Voltage drop between the supply point in any building
and any outlet hould not be more than 2.5% of the
nominal voltage.
In buildings larger than residential houses, there may
be several lengths and , izes of cables between the
intake point and any outlet. Deci ion has to be taken
as to how much voltage drop oul of the total of 2.5%
is to be allowed at each point in the system. No general
rule can be given. The decision will depend upon
circumstances.
PROTECTION OF ELECTRIC INSTALLATION
AGAINST OVERLOAD, SHORT CIRCUIT AND
EARTH FAULT
BASIC CONSIDERA nONS
Every electrical in lallation and part of an installation
should take into account the following:
(i) There should be ready means of isolation of a
circuit in the event of any accident or for the
purpose of ervicing. This is provided by means
of switches.
(ii ) Conductors used should have adequate ize i.e.
cross-sectional area so that the current they will
carry will produce minimum heat and voltage
drop.
(Ui) Protection should be provided against excess
current and electric shock.
Protection against Excess-Currents
Rated current for a wire is lhal value of current which
doe not cause the temperature of the wire to reach a
value which would damage the insulation. Any value
of current through a wire beyond the rated value, which
causes the insulation to be damaged is called excess
current or over-load current.
Proper design of any electrical installation must, as
stated earHer, include safeguards to eo ure that the
current carrying capacity of the wiring i not exceeded.
The wire sizes of the differenl parts of an electrical
installation are selected according to certain expected
load. If the load exceeds this value, the system will
draw excess current:, th value of which will depend
upon the extent of overload.
Overloads on an electric installation could be cau 'ed
either by switching on heating loads or lights of a
higher power rating or by switching on a larger number
Eleclricallnstallalion Engineer - Newslet1er - March 2010 18
of heating loads or lights than what the wiring is
A reference to igure 1 makes it clear that if by some accident
de 19ned for. When the installation i supplying
one of the phase wires, say Red, come, into contact with the
power to motors overloads could occur due to
earth, it amounts to a short circuit. This i because the neutral
mechanical overloading of the motors or due to
at the ub-station is earthed. If one of the phase wires touches
mechanical fault in the motors causing large
earth. a return path is provided to lhe current.
friction at the bearing or due to januning of the
Since an exceedingly large current may flow due to an earth
rotors. Such overloads can cause damage [0 the
fault. fuses are provided to interrupt this current just as in
cable supplying power and also to the electrical
the case of short circuit.
load Lhey supply . Overload ause xcessive
PR los in the installation wbich re ult in
Protection against Electric Shock
heating. 1f the current in a conductor is allowed Tn figure 2 is shown a three core cable supplying power to
to double its rated capacity the beat in the an electric heater. The live and the neutral wire are connected
conductor is four times its nonnal rating. to the two ends of the heater element. The metal case of the
Excess current can also be caused by a hort
heater is connected to the earth (shown by dolled lines in
circuit which is usually an accidental ituation
the figure). The earth tenninal i inturn connected to the
earth electrode at the ub- Lation. In case the live wire, due
where wires of different phases or a phase wire
and the neutral wire come together. If short
to damage of its insulation or otherwise. touches the metal
circuit conditions are allowed to persist, even for
case of the heater, it effectively gets conn cted to the earth
a few seconds, the conductors will become hot
electrode at the sub-station (as shown in thick dotted line
in figure 3).
enough to melt, cau e in ulation to burn resulting
in fire in the surrounding material.
I-IETAL BOOY
METAL FRAME OF
The purpose of over-current protection
OF COllSUMERS
THE HEATER
OISTFUBUTIOM BOARD
is to provide a safeguard so that power SUS-STATlOIll
________ __ __ supply to the circuit wiU be interrupted
________ __
before any excess current may cause
damage either to the wires supplying
___,'"ifGRENf - -U-j'
power to the load or to the load itself.
EARTII c:lECTRIC
TERMIllAL O. CORE CABLE HEATER
We sball, in the following sections, NEU1RAl IS
THE: BUILDING
EARTHED AT
consider the methods employed for the
THE SUB-STATION
protection of electrical installations
supplying lighting and heating loads.
'GENERAL MASS/
OF THE EART ...
The protection device used for circui t
supplyi ng motor loads wi ll be
consi dered under Motor Protection.
Figure 2: Construction diagram of an electric heater
Protection against Short Circuit
incorporating earth wires.
When two phase wires or one ph e wire and
the neutral wire make direct contact due to
insulation breakdown, an exceedingly large
CUITent will fl ow in the circuit. This condition is
SUB- STATION
called short circuit. To prevent damage to the
wires of the circuit and to prevent out break of
fire, fuses are provided. Fuses, beside providing
protection against overloads. also provide
protection against short circuit currents by
blowing up in the shortest possible time a.<; soon
as a short circuit occurs. . --:.. - --. - - .....---=
Protection against Earth Fault
When one of the phase wires makes contact with
earth or any conducting material which is
Figure 3: path of fault current if' the filament of the
earthed, a short circuit exists between the wire
electric heater of figure 2 touches the metal frame.
and earth, leading to the same consequence' a
in a short circuit. This i called Earth Faull.
If this path has a low resistance, a large amount of current
will flow througb it causing the fuse provided in the live
wire to blow and thus protect the circuit. if the earth wire
(shown by broken line in figures 2 and 3) is not provided,
then as soon as the live wire accidentally make contact with
the metal frame, the latter will be at the same voltage as the
li ve wire. If a person unknowingly should touch the metal
frame of the heater. be will, as shown in figure 4, provide a
path for tbe current to flow between the metal frame and the
earth through his body. This can be dangerous to the human
li fe.
SUBSTAT ON
-'"
rE-
Figure 1: Line to earth fault
Electrical Installation Engineer - Newsletter - March 2010 19
,.. C I COVER HINGED
I TO CI FRAME
60cm

li b-station
ALTERNATE LAYERS
OF CHARCOAL OR
(OI<E
?'zmmt>
HOLE
SfCl10N xx
METAL BOOY
OF CO NSUMERS
SUB- STAlION DI S1RI Bu TION SOARD
__________ __
__________ __
EARTH
... - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
FAUL T
Figure 4: Path of fault current through human body when DO earth wire is provided.
However, when the metal frame is connected [0 the
earth through an earth wire of low resistance, a person
touchi ng the metal frame even when the live wire is in
touch with it, will provide two parall el paths through
which the circuit will be completed: one through the
human body and the other through the earth wire. The
earth wire will offer an easier path for the current to
flow because the human body has very high resistance.
Thus the earth wire work as a protective device again t
any electric shock in case of fault in the circuit.
EARTIllNG
The obj ect of earthing is to ensure that a fault to earth
produces the same condition as a hort circuit between
line and neutral cables. The ri k of shock will be
prevented' if the resistance of the path shown in broken
line (i.e. the earth wi re) in figure 3 is low enough
to cause a bigh current to flow . The path of earth
fault current includes the earth wire in the
consumer' s premises and the general mass of earth
between the con umer's earth point and the earth
electrode at the sub-station. In large towns and
cities where distribution is by underground cables,
the armour of the cables can be connected to the
earth terminal and this will generally form a path
of low resistance. Apart from this the presence of
metal work buried in towns (like the network of
pipes) will help reduce the resistance of earth
between a consumer and the sub- tation.
However, in small towns and rural areas the
distribution is nonnally not by underground cables
but by overhead lines. A separate earth wire runs
overhead alongside the overhead supply li ne. It i
however, not po sible to ensure that the resi lance of
uch a single wire, which may be several ki lo metres
long, is low enough. For this reason the earth wire
which originates from a solid earth at the
is, while it runs along the overhead distribution line ,
earthed at not less than four equally spaced points
during every 1.6 km run of the distribution line.
Earth Electrodes
In places where underground cable system exists, earth
terminals are obtained by connecting the terminals to
the lead sheath or steel armour of the cables. The lead
sheath or the steel armours serve as the earth electrode.
The re istance of sucb electrode ystem is very low.
In places where there is no network of underground
cables, care should be taken to select material for earth
electrodes which i resistant to corrosion in the type
of soil in which it will be used . Under ordinary
conditi ons of soil , use of copper, iron or mi ld ,teel
electrode' i recommended. When soil conditi ons are
such as are likely to cause excessive corrosion of the
electrode and the connections, it is recommended to
use either copper electrode or copper clad electrode
or zinc coated (Le. galvanised) iron electrodes.
There are two main types of earth electrodes in use,
viz: (i) Rod and Pipe electrodes and (ii ) Plate
electrodes.
(i) Rod and pipe electrodes (IS: 3043-1966)
These electrodes are made of metal rod or pipe having
a clean . urface not covered by pai nt enamel or poor
conducting material.
Rod electrodes of steel or galvanl ed iron should be
atleast 16 mm in diameter and those of copper should
be atleast 12.5 mm in diameter, see figure 4.14.
Fig. 5 A typical illustration of Pipe Earthing
Pipe electrodes hould not be rnaUer than 38 mm
internal diameter if made of galvanised iron or steel
and 10 nun internal diameter if made of cast iron.
The rod nd pip electrodes should not be less than
2.5 metre in length.
Electricallnslallation Engineer' Newsletter March 2010 20
1.5m
( "'IN)
CI COVER HINGED
TO CI FRAME
CI FRAME
CEMENT CONCRETE
(1: C 8 )
FUNNEL
BOLT, NUT. CHECK NUT &
WASHER TO BE . OF
ER FOR
t. G I FOR GI PLATE
Number of young chiLdren growing without the guidance ofexperience parents in our society.
the con.sequences ofthis trend arefar reaching and will decide the very future of our nationhood
programme. A life based on right O IL ness, primarily around rhe family and secon. darily
encompassing social and public [(fe, is the hallmark ofa great nation. We must address these
issues and motivate the younger generation to preserve the family values and traditions.
By Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, Former Presidellt ofIndia
Pi pes and rods should be driven to
depth of at least 2.5 m. Where rock is
encountered at a depth of less than 2.5
m the electrodes may be buri ed inclined
to the vertical. In this case also the
length of the electrodes should be at
least 2.5 m and inclination not more
than 30 from the vertical.
Pipes or rods, as far as possible, should
be of one piece. For deeply driven rods,
joints between section should be made
by means of a screwed coupling which
should not be of greater diameter than
of the rods which it connects together.
If it is necessary to reduce the depth of
burial of an electrode, this must be done
without increasing the resistance. Thi
is achieved by using a number of rods
or pipes and connecting them together
in parallel. The distance between two
electrode i n, uch a cas e shou ld
preferabl y be not less than twice the
length of the electrode.
(i i) Plate electordes (IS: 3043-1966)
Plate electrodes may be made of galvanised iron or
steel h ving a thickness of not less than 6.30 mrn. If
plate electrodes of copper are used these should have
a thickness of Dot less than 3.15 mOl. The size of plate
electrode should be 60 cm x 60 m. Plate electrodes
should be burried such that th top edge is at a depth
of not les than 1.5 m below the surface of the ground.
When resi tance of one plate electrode is higher than
the required value, two or more plates shoul d be used
in parallel, the two plates being separated from each
other by not Ie 's than 8.0 m.
The plates should preferably be set vertically. Plate
electrodes are recommended only when the current
carrying capacity is the main consideration, as for
I example, in generating stations and sub-stations. A
typical plate earthing i illustrated in figure 6.
Earth Wires
The minimum permissible size of earth wires is
determj ned mainl y by mechanical considerations
because they are more liable to m chanical inj ury and
should, therefore, be strong enough to resist any train
that is likely to be put on them.
All earth wires and earth continuity conductors should
be of copper, galvanized iron or steel, or aluminium.
Interco[Ulection [earth continuity conductor should
be in such a way that rel iable and good electrical
connection are permanentl y ensured. The path of the
earth wire should, as far as possible. be kept out of
reach of any person .
12.7 mm f GI PIPE
COPp
COPPER PLATE
ENLARGED DETAIL A
IScm
Figure 6 : Typical lllustration of Plate Earthing
If the metal sheath or armour have been u ed as an
earth electrode, the annour hould be bonded to the
metal . heath and the connection between the earth
wire and earthing electrode should be made to the
metal sheath.
The neutral conductor should not be used as earthwire.
For details you may refer to IS: 3043-1966.
Earthing of Domestic Fittings and Appliances
All plugs and sockets should be of three pin type, one
of the pins being connected to earth. Where lamp
holders are of metallic construction, they should
preferably be earthed. All pedestal lamp fittings of
metallic construction should be earthed.
Bodies of table fans, pedestal fan etc. should be
arthed by using three pin plugs. Where reguJators
are of metallic consDuction, the metallic covers should
be earthed by means of a separate earth wire.
Bodies of hot plates, ketlles, toasters, heaters, ovens
and water heaters should be earthed by using three
pin plugs. All non-electric metal work in a bath room
incl uding bath tub, metal pipes, sinks elc. should be
bonded logether and earthed ..
Refrigerator, air conditioners, coolers, electric irons
etc. should be earthed by the use of three pin plugs.
Courtesy: Electrical Design Estimating and Costing,
by K.B. Rail/a, S.K. Bhattacharya
Electrical Installation Engineer - NewsleHer - March 2010 21
MAJOR PROBLEMS IN CONTACTORS THEIR CAUSES AND REMEDIES
1. Excessive pitting and welding of contacts Chattering
Low voltage - Coil not picking up properly -
Broken Short circuit ring -
Chattering in , witching device -
Small cross section/long le,lgth of control cable -
Improper termination of c ntrol cable -
Inadequate capacity of control transformer -
Faulty switching devicesli ncorrect wiring for
e. g. In DC contactors nonnal NC u ed in place
of extended NC
Capacitor switching
Short circuit during star delta changeover
Reversing application (Cranes)
2. Over heating of main contact path
Foreign matter on the magnet pole face or
j amming of contact carrier preventing c ntact
closing
Improper termination of cables. Improper cross -
section of cable & busbar
Presence of harmonics
Improper ventilation of Panel
3. Noisy Magnets
Broken shading ring
Magnet faces not mating
Dirt or rust on magnet faces
4. Failure to pick up & seal
Low voltage
Coil open or shorted
Mechanical obstruction
Coil excitation without arc chute or arc chute
not properly fi xed
5. Failure to drop out
Coil not disconnected from supply -
Residual magneti m due to lack of air gap in the -
central limb of the magnet
Gummy substance on pole faces causing binding -
6. Overheating of coil
Overvol tage
Undervoltage-failure of magnel to eal in
Intertum short circuit of Coils (Coil getting
Excessively hot Turned brown in colour)
Dirt or rust on pole faces increasing the air gap
En ure correct voltage condWon . In ca e of persistent
low voltage change coil to lower voltage or change
control transformer tappi ng
The mechanical life of contactor is over. Replace the
contactor
Check & correct the condition in the control circuit
Select ize as per guideline in sect on control wiring.
Use proper lugs for termination
Use correct control transformer. Refer ect on control
transformer raling
Follow wiring diagram and use correct auxiliary
switch. Sect on connections for DC contactors
Use correct contactor & f !low guidelines
Use 7PU 60 20 timer
Use interlocked contactor with electrical interlocking.
Remove the foreign matter
Check the millivolt drop across cable slrandlbusbar &
terminals. The mV drop should be ~ 4 . 0 mV at rated
currents otherwise clean busbar or recrimp cable Refer
sect. on heaJthin ss of terminals.
Swtable derating to be employed.
Provide suitable cooling for the panels.
The mechanical Life of contactor is over
The mechanical life of contactor is over
Wipe/clean lightly with fine emery paper size 00
Correct voltage conditions-In case of persistent low
v Itage change to lower voltage coil or change
transfonner tap
Replace the coi l
Clean and check free movement of contact assembly
Ensure proper fitting of arc chute
Check wiring of the coil circuit
The mechanjcallife of contactor is over
Remove the foreign ubstance
Check & correct terminal voltage/ replace with higher
voltage coil
Correct terminal voltage/ replace wilh lower voltage
coil or change transformer tap
Replace coil
Clean pole faces. Don't use gTease olvents or sharp
objects while cleaning
Courtesy: Siemens
Energy is Life, Conserve it
Electrical Installation Engineer - Newsletter March 2010 22
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and other consent.
7 1. Electricity Guidance Notes for New, Extension
to Existing or Modification of Electrical Work.
2. Indian Electricity Act 1910 & Rules 1956.
Statutory Appeal.
8 Abstract - I Electricity-Policy on Captive
Power Generation Plant.
9 Abstract -II Electricity-Electrical Inspectorate
Services rendered by Inspectors-Scale of fees
Revised-Orders-Issued. Energy (B1) Dept.
10 Electricity - Code of Practice of Earthing
Cost
(Rs.)
300
200
150
75
50
40
75
30
50
(15-3043-1987) 50
11. T.N. Tax on Consumption or sale of Electricity
Act 2003 and Rules made there under. 75
12. Guidelines for Installation of Transformer
sub-station oil filled equipment etc. in the Buildings 60
13. Technical Hand Book on Electrical Information 10
14. Indian ElecbicityAct 2003, Indian Electricity Rules 1956 60
15. Electrical Data 50
16. Electricity Pack 400
N.B. Packing & Forwarding Charges Extra.
PLEASE NOTE: Out-station members are requested to send the payment by
D.O. only in favour ofTNEIE Assn ' A' Grade
ENERGY AUDIT & ENERGY CONSERVATION IN INDUSTRIES
l. INTRODUCTION:
- Fuel oils
Indian Industry is already in the midst of global market
- Gas
Indian market has got integrated into the world market.
- Coal, coke etc. are the normal forms of input to a
In almost aU the sectors, Competion is a reality.
process I or an industry. Any efficiency increa e in
Today, quali ty is no more a strategy but a necessary
the utilisation of the above forms of energy will
for survival. Cost and functionality of the products /
reduce the cost of the end product.
services are the trategie of competitjye advantage
II. What is Energy Audit?
Total cost management encompasses all the stages of
The first generation defined Energy audits as follows:
co t incurrence of a product life cycle.
"The energy audit serves to identify all of the energ
Cost Reduction program may be lhrough functional
treams into a facility and to quanti fy energy use
areas like,
according to discrete functions".
- Material management
"An Energy Audit may be considered as similar to the
- Per on a) management monthly closing statement of an accounting system.
- Office management
- Human resource development
One series of entries consists of amounts of energy
which were can umed during the month in the form
of electricity, gas, fuel oil, steam, and the second series
- Production management
Ii ts how the energy was u ed; how much for lighting,
- Marketing management
in air-conditioning, in heating, in process etc. The
- Environmental management
- Value management
energy audit process must be carried out accurately
enougb to identify and qualify the energy and cost
savi ngs that are li kely to be realised through investment
- Quality management
in an energy savings measure."
- Energy management
"An energy audit serves the purpose of identifying
Among til se, the last on was a neglected one for a
where a building or plant facility uses energy and
long time in the cost reduction program.
identifies energy conservation opportunities".
Energy management is the Science involving
"An energy audit is an essential activity for any
- Planning
- Directing and
- Controlling, the supply and consumption of energy
in various for ms and maximise utilisation and
minimise the energy cost and pollution.
organisation wishing to control energy and utility
costs" .
"Energy audit is the key to a systematic approach for
decision making in the area of energy management. It
attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its use
and serves to identify a]J the energy stream in to a
It may cover anyone of or more of the following facility" .
principles/ concept
III. Types of Audit:
- Demand management concept
Enerby audit attempts to balance total input of energy
- Better transfer of energy concept
with its u e. The type of energy audit to be performed
- Optimi ation of production
depends on
- Better qUality of raw materia]
- Function and type of industry
- Control measures
- The department to which final audit is needed and
- New technoiogie' with auto control
- The potential and magnitude of cost reduction
- Grid formation
desired.
- Tinle management
- Effective maintenance
The primary obj ctive of energy audit is to determine
ways & means to reduc energy consumption per unit
of product output or to lowering operation costs. The
- Efficient handling and
extent and type of energy audit should result in gains
- Efficient utills tion
commensurate with the efforts.
Effective Energy management can be througb energy
[i) Preliminary Audit:
audit, which is the tneme of the topic Preliminary audit is performed in a limited span of
Cost accountants, deal with different elem nts of COSlS
time. It focuses on major energy supplies and demand ,
and in particu]ar analyse the parameter related to the, e
accountings for at least 70% of total energy
elements, so can be reduced
requirements. This can be an effective follow up for
- Steam
- Compressed ajr
mea uring the progress of the Plant Energy
Management Program [if any] that has been drawn u
earlier. It may also form the basis for deciding the
- Electrical power modalities of detailed audit.
The Engineers and the Scientists are the real builders of a Nation.
Electrlcallnslallalion Engineer - Newsletter - March 2010 23
(ii] Detailed audit:
The detailed audit goes beyond quantitative estimates
to costs and savings. It includes engi neering
recommendations and well defined proj ects with
priorities.
It accounts for approximately 95% of energy utilised
in the plant. A long range plan can be drawn up on the
basis of data generated and anal ysed.
IV. Methodology:
There is no set methodology which can be readily tailor
adopted for conducting energy audit in all plants. What
works in one plant fail in another? It depends on,
- The Management philosophy
- History and culture of organisation
- Type of plant and machinery
- Financial conditions of the company and
- Technological and process intricacie
In ess nee, energy audit di rects and controls the energy
management programme.
V. Energy Accounting:
An important part of the overall energy auditing
program id to able to measure where you are and
determine where you are going. It is vital to establish
an energy accounting system at the beginning of the
program.
One of t he more i mportant a pect of energy
management and conser vation is meas uring and
accounting for energy consumption
In this stage, over all energy can umplion, its cost and
production figures for a period of the preceding 5 years
have to be collected. Energy / per unit of production i
analysed. Common unit of energy is adopted in all the
calculations. [Say KWhr/K.caIlGJ].
VI. Energy costing: relates to the foUowing types
of energy forms.
Electricity
Heat
Steam
Condensate
Water
Compressed air
Diesel fuel
Gas fuel [natural gas / LPG]
Process
Coal & other olid fuel like fire wood, etc
Unit energy
In remental energy etc
vn. Energy Balance Sheet: helps tbe energy auditor
in
High Lightino 10 es
Los area important than high con umption area
Giving data of various inputs
Identifying Lacuna in Recording / metering
Proper instrumentation / metering I Assesment
Creating Bench mark and set goal '
vm. Scope of Energy Audit : Covers the following:
Anal yse present consumption and past trends in
detail.
SegTegation of different processing areas and sub
metering
Compare standard consumption to actual
Preparati n of energy balance sheets
Re iew of energy balance sheets
Review records of maintenance
Efficienc y calculation of equipments and their
capacity utilisation
Automation study
Introduction of life cycle costing
Evaluation of energy saving techniques and their
adaptation
IX. Data Analysis:
A Pie diagram will indi cate different forms of energy
in the total energy Consumption of the industry
(fig 1)
Steam
air
Heating
(Fig 1)
Specific energy consumption can be hown in a graph
as shown in Fig (2)
Compressed
Coal
KWbr unit or
Production
In kg
o
2000 2001 2002 1003 2004 2005
Fig (2)
A Sankey di agram is usually drawn for accounting
energy use losses in the plant
HFailure is simply the opportll1zity to begin again, this time more intelligently." - Henry Ford.
Electrical Installation Engineer - NewsleHer - March 2010 24
400
Boiler
ProccssA
12'10

200
40
Heating n
50
The Process fl ow diagram with energy consumption
in each step / operation could be made which will
indi cate the order of energy consumption in different
operations.
X. Energy conservation Proposals for an Industry
are:
1. Introduction of energy saving policy.
2. Energy Budgeting
3. Reduction in waste of energy
4. Less idling of plant
5. Energy recovery
6. Energy control
7. Replacement of equipments strategy
8. Recycling selected materials
9. Improving the process
10. Recycli ng the waste
11. Use renewable form of energy
12. Time management
13. Improve maintenance
14. Improve operating sequence
15. Optimi e energy inputs
16. Optimise purchase cost of energy
17. Load smoothening
XI. Benefits of Energy Audit:
I. Minimum Energy costs
2. Better quality product
3. Improved production
4. Higher pr fits
5. Lower emission
6. Elimination of certain pro ess
7. Asses. m nl of replacement strategy for
equipments, plant and machineries
8. Identification of cost centres
9. Review of equipments
Xll. References:
I. PCRA - An approach to Energy audit
2. Energy Audi ts for bujldings, booklet prepared by
the energy effi ciency office of the Department of
the en vironment
3. Hand book of energy audit by Albert Thuman.
4. Energy audi t in HT establi ' hment Seminar
conducted by TNEB & EMC.
5. Life cycle costing - A Practical guide for energy
Managers- By Roben I .Brown Ph.D and others.
6. Energy Technology - by S-Rao & Dr.B.B.Parulekar
Dr. V. Shanmugavel

WER LI KS
1509001
94/95, Triplicane High Road,
Chennai - 600 005.
Ph : 28420695, Mobile: 9282143549
(i) HE TSHRINK BlE &
EPOXY CO POU DTYPE
CAB EJOI riNG KITS
From
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FRE I STA J NSERVICE
Electricallnstalialion Engineer - Newsletter - March 2010 25
INDIAN-AMERICAN'S 'POWER PLANT IN A BOX' UNVEILED
Breakthrough: (Left) Bloom Energy CEO K.R. Sridhar
sifts through sand on Wednesday on the eBay campus in
San Jose. California, to show che new silicon-based fuel
cell that promises to deliver cheap, clean energy to even
remote locations.
(Right) With California Governor Arnold
Schwarzenegger. - PHOTOS: AFP
Washington: A much-awaited energy venture, known
as a "power plant in a box," was unveiled by its
Indian-American initiator on Thursday, promising to
provide clean electricity to homes, office buildings
and even whole villages in the developing world.
Bloom Energy, one of Silicon Valley's most secretive
start-ups, unveiled its groundbreaking technology
'Bloom Box,' invented by rocket scientist K.R.
Sridhar.
'Bloom Energy is dedicated to making clean, reliable
energy affordable for everyone in tbe world, , said
Dr. Sridhar, principal co-founder and CEO of Bloom
Energy.
"We believe that we can have the same kind of impact
on energy that the mobile phone bad on
communications. Just as cell phones circumvented
1 ndlines to proliferate telephony, Bloom Energy will
enable the adoption of distributed power as a . marter,
localised energy source."
The key to the 'Bloom Box' is the "fuel cell device'
which consists of a stack of ceramic disks coated
with secret green and bl ack "inks." These disks are
separated by cheap metal plates.
The Bloom Energy Server, a smooth metal box the
size of a pickup truck, can generate electricity from
multipl e fuels while producing relatively few
greenhouse gas emissions.
, ... We are thrilled to be working with industry leading
companies to lower their energy costs, reduce their
carbon footprim, improve their energy security, and
showcas their commitment to a better future," Dr.
Sridhar said.
It also announced the availabi lily of the Bloom Energy
Server. a patented solid oxide fuel cell technology
which it said provides cleaner, more reliable, and more
affordable alternative to both, today' electric grid a
well as traditional renewable energy sources.
It provides distributed power generation, allowing
eu to efficienUy create their own electricity
onslte, the company said. 'Built using abundant and
aITorclable materials, Bloom's fuel cell technology is
different from the legacy ' hydrogen'
most people are familiar with," the company
saId 10 a statement.
Unlike renewable energy technologies like solar and
wind which are intermittent, Bloom's technology
could provide renewable power 24x7. It converts air
and nearly any fuel source, ranging from natural gas
to a wide range of biogases into electricity via a clean
electrochemical proces ,rather than dirty combustion.
The company claims that each server provides 100
kilowatts of power in roughly the footprint of a
parking space. Each system generates enough power
to meet the needs of approximately 100 average
United Stales homes or a small office building. For
more power, customer simply deploy multiple
Energy Servers side by side, and can even be used to
electricity for vilLages in the developing
countnes. The modular architecture allows customers
to start small and "pay as they grow.'
Founded in 2001, Bloom Energy traces its roots to
NASA (National Aeronautic ' and Space
Administration) Mars space programme. Among its
board of directors, is the former Secretary of State,
Collin Powell, who joined last year.
For NASA, Dr. Sridhar and his team were charged
with building technology to help sustain life on Mars
using olar energy and water to produce air to breath
and fuel for transportation.
They soon realised that their technology could have
an even greater impact here on the earth, and began
work on what would become the Bloom Energy
Server.
The . erver is distinct in four primary ways as it uses
lower cost materials, provides unmatched efficiency
in converting fuel to electricity, has the ability to run
on a wide range of renewable or traditional fuels, and
is more easily deployed and maintained. - PTT
Courtesy: The Hindu, dt:26.02.20IO
Use Resources Wisely - Generations have been doing it.
Electricallnslaliation Engineer - Newslener - March 2010 26
THE PRINCIPLES OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Under normal operating condition - certain electrical
loads (e.g. induction motor " w Iding equipment, arc
furnaces and fluorescent lighting) draw not only active
power from the supply, but also inductive reactive
power (kvar). This reactive power is necessary for the
equipment to operate correctly but could be interpreted
as an undesirable burden on the supply.
The power factor of a load is defined as the ratio of
active power to apparent power, i.e. kW : kYA and is
referred to as os0. The closer cos0 i. to uni ty, the
less reactive power is drawn from the supply.
If cos0 = I the transmission of 500kW in a 400 Y
three phase mains requires a current of 722 A. The
tran. mi 'sion of the same effective power at a cos0 =
0.6 would require a far higher current, namely 1203
A. Accordingly, dis t ribution and tran mis ion
equipment as well as feeding transformer ' have to be
dimensioned for this higher load. Further, their useful
life may decrease.
For systems with a low power factor the
transmission of electric power in accordance with
existing standard results in higher expenses both
for the supply distribution companies and the
consumer.
Another reason for higher expenses are losses incurred
via heat dissipation in the leads caused by the overall
current of the system as well as via the windings of
both transformers and generators.
If we aSSllme for our above example that the cos0 = I
the power dissipated would amount to about 10 kW,
then a power factor of 0.6 would reo Ull in a 180%
increase in the overall ill ' sipation i.e. 28 kW.
In general terms, as the power factor of a three
phase system decreases, the current rises. The heat
dissipation in the system ti es proportionately by a
factor equivalent to the square of the current ri e.
This is the main reason behind why Electricity Supply
Companie. / Board economies demand reduction of
the reactive load in their networks via improvement
or the power factor. In most cases, speci al reactive
current tariffs penalize con umers for poor power
fa tor.
Conclusion:
A reduction in the overall cost of electricity can be
achieved by improving the power factor to more
economic level
The supply will be able to support additional load
which may be of benefit for an expanding company.
Reducing the load on distribution network
components by power factor improvement will resul t
in an extension of their useful life
METHOD OF POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION:
OpPo' ing capacitive reactive power resulting from the
connec tion of a correctly sized capacitor c an
compensate for the inductive reacti ve power required
by the electrical load. This ensures a reduction in the
reactive power drawn from the supply and i called
Power Factor Correction.
Most common methods of power faclor corrcction are:
Single or fixed PFC, compensating for the reactive
power of individual inductive loads right on the spot
and reducing the load in the feeding leads (typical for
single, permanently operated loads with con tant andJ
or big power)
Group PFC - connecting one fi xed capacitor to a group
ofsimultaneou.ly operated inductive loads (e.g. group
of motors, discharge lamps)
Central PFC, typical for large electrical systems with
fluctuating load where it is common to connect a
number of capacitors to a main power di tribution
station or substation. The capaci tors are conLroUed by
a microprocessor ba ed relay which continuously
monitor the reactive power demand on the supply.
The relay connects or di. connects the capacitors to
compensate for the actual reactive power of the total
load and to reduce the overall demand on the. upply.
A typical power factor correction 'ystem would
incorporate a number of capacitor sections detemu ned
by the char ac teristics and the reacti ve power
requirements of the in tallation under consideration.
Sections of 12.5 kvar, and 50 kvar are usually
employed. Larger stages (e.g. 100 kvar and above) are
acbjev d by cascading a number of smaller sections.
Tbi has the beneficial effect of reducing fluctuations
in the mains caused by the inrush currents to the
capacitors and mi nimi e supply disturbances . Where
harmonic distortion is of concern appropriate systems
are supplied incorporating detuning reactors.
CAPACITOR SIZE CALCULATION CHART:
The reactive power which is neces ary to achieve
desired power fa tor is calculated by the following
formula:
Qc = P (tan0l tan02)
P
active power of the I ad to be connected
Qc reactive power of the required correcti ng
capacitor
cos01 original power factor before correction
new power factor
cos02
Place of worship is the temple within the body also. Therefore we must keep the
house clean, and the mind pure, and conduct our self with calmness.
Eleclricallnstallation Engineer - Newsletter March 2010 27
Initial Value Final Value of cos 02
of cos0 1 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1. 00
0.45 1.501 1.532 1. 561 1. 592 1.626 1.659 ] .695 1.737 1.784 1.846 1.988
0.50 1.248 1.276 1.303 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.441 1.481 1.529 1.590 1.732
0.55 1.035 1.063 1.090 1.124 1.156 1.190 1.228 1.268 J .316 1.377 1.519
0.60 0.849 0.878 0.905 0.939 0.971 1.005 1.043 1.083 1. 131 1. 192 1. 334
0.65 0.685 0. 713 0.740 0.774 0.806 0.840 0.878 0.918 0.966 1.007 1. 169
0. 70 0. 536 0. 564 0.591 0.625 0.657 0.691 0.729 0.769 0.811 0.878 1.020
0.75 0.398 0.426 0.453 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.592 0.631 0.673 0. 740 0.882
0.80 0.266 0.294 0.321 0.355 0. 387 0.421 0.459 0.499 0.541 0.608 0. 750
0.85 0.136 0. 164 0.191 0. 225 0.257 0.291 0.329 0.369 0.41 7 0.478 0.620
0.90 - 0.030 0.058 0.089 0.1 21 0.155 0. 192 0.234 0.281 0.34 1 0.484
0.95 - - - - - - - 0.037 0.078 0.126 0. 186 0.329
0.96 - - - - - - - - 0.041 0.089 0. 149 0.292
0.97 - - - - - - - - - - - 0.048 0.108 0.251
0.98 - - - - - - - - - - - 0.061 0.203
Example
Harmonic Filter Banks:
Load power =200 KW A filter circuit presents a very low impedance to the individual
Initial power factor cos01 = 0.60 harmonic currenl di erting the maj ority of the current imo the
Desired power factor cos0 2 = 0.90 filter bank rather than the supply. The resonance frequency of
The requir ment of capacitor = 200 xO.849 a detuned capacitor is always below the frequency of the fifth
= 170 KVAr harmonic. Reactive Power Compensation can be properl y
HARMONIC DISTORTION AND planned with the aid of the following diagram.
Fll..TERlNG:
Harmonic distortion levels in the electric
Whut is the purpose of I
mains have been increasing in the recent years
the equipmcnt
because of the large development and u e of
I
po wer el ectronics . Harmonic distortion is
Ilmprove Power Factor I
I
Reduce Harmonics
I
nowaday a common problem in plants and
I
facilities. It is often caused by tatic power
I[s < 20% of the load I
conversion equipment, such as variable speed
Harmonic generating
drives for motors, soft starters, rectifiers and

$
UPS systems. Harmonic distortion can cause
cables and transformers to overheat, circuit
breakers to tri p and computers ,
communication equipment to malfunction.
Is < 5090 of the load 1
Harmonic distortion of an AC upply can
Hamlonic generaling
results in any or all of the following:
$
~
Premature failure of capacitors.
Nuisance tripping of circuit breakers and
St:lIld:1rcl Deluned
other protective devices.
1('11)<10111 Designed I
Fai lure or maloperation of computers,
Capacitor C"padl(lr
Hannonic Filter
motor. drives, lighting and other sen itive Assemblies Banks
loads.
In operation, mo t of the stat ic converter,
need reactive power that has to be
Reactor
com pen ated by capacitors. When reactive
I ]
~ power compensation equipment is installed to
be ll sed with converters generating harmonics,
/\
resonance conditions can cause high harmonic
voltages and currents that can damage both,
capacitors and the electrical instaiJ ation.
cap\ll;ilOr
Electrical Installation Engineer Newsletter March 2010 28
ENERGY SCENARIO, ELECTRICAL ENERGY, UTILIZATION OF
ELECTRICAL ENERGY BY MEANS OF WIRING INSTALLATION
& ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Energy is one of the major inputs f r the economic development of any country. In the case of the developing
countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever increasing needs requiring huge
investments to meet them.
Figure 1.1 Major Primary and Secondary Sources
[s:-J....

r--._... ..
Steam
n::r
I
!

,

Hydro __ ... .- _ . _-_._ ---
EnrichmentJ
- --"
Natural Gas - ,
---,
_> ThenIIII
( (i WeI)----i--:l QIdcing
) Heat
and RaInIng
-)
_ __. _ _. ___ .L--_ _____-' __ ._
=:
I
I -_.. _ .. '1"""" Cool
1L .... c.u - -.-)
_ .)
------
!'-"

I r

---'
N On
... -: :a.
+
Petrochemical -fo--'
_________L..-_____ _._.
En rgy can b cIa ified into several types based n
or stored in nature. Common primary energy sources
the foll owing criteria:
are coal, oil , natural gas, and biomass (such as wood
and agricultural waste). Other primary energy sources
Primary and secondary energy
available include nuclear energy from radioactive
Commercial and Non-commerci al energy
sub tances, thermal energy stored in earth' s interior,
and potential energy due to earth's gravity. The major
Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
primary and econdary energy ources are shown in
1.2 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ENERGY:
Figure 1.1.
Pri mary en rgy sources are those that are either found
"There is no 'I' in 'TEAM' but there is an 'I'in 'WIN'." - Michael Jordan.
Electrical Installation Engineer' Newsletter - March 201 D 29
Primary energy sources are mostly converted in
industrial utilities into se ondary energy sources; for
example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and
Electricity. Primary energy can also be used directly
in Heat Engines, Auto Engi nes. Some energy sources
have non-energy uses, for example coal or natural gas
can be used as a feedstock in f rtiljzer plants.
1.3 COMMERCIAL ENERGY AND NON
COMMERCIAL ENERGY:
COMMERCIAL ENERGY:
The energy sources that are available in the market
for a definite price ar known as commercial energy.
By for the most important fom1s of commercial energy
are Natural Gas, electricity, coal, biomass (wood and
agricultural waste), and refmed petroleum products.
Conunercial energy forms [he ba i of industrial
agricullural, transport and commercial development
in the modern world . In the indu trialized countries,
commercialized fuels are predominant source not only
for economic productions, but also for many household
tasks of general population.
Examples:- electricity, li gnite, coal , oil , natural gas,
charcoal, biomass etc.
NON-COMMERCIAL ENERGY:
The energy sources that are not a ailable i n tbe
commercial market for a price are classified 3...<; Non
Commercial energy. Non-Commercial sources include
fuels such as fire-wood, catlle dung and agncuJtural
wastes. which are traditionally gathered by rural mass;
they are not bought at a price but are used especiall y
in rural households. Th se are also called traditional
fuels. Non-Commercial energy is often ignored in
energy accounting.
Examples: - Biomass energy such as fire wood, agro
waste in mral areas, , olar energy for water photo
vol taic el ctri city generation, Solar heat for drying
grain, fisll and fruits; drying wet cloths; anim I power
for transport, threshing, lifting wat r for irrigalion,
crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and
electricity generation.
1.4 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE
ENERGY:
RENEWABLE ENERGY:
Renewable energy is en rgy obtained from source
that are essentially inexhaustible.
Examples of Renewable energy sources include wind
power. solar power, geothenual power, tidal power
and hydroelectric power. Se figure 1.4.a. The m t
important feature of renewable energy is that it can be
harnessed without the release of harmful pollutant.
NON-RENEW ABLE:
Non-Renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels
such as coal, oil and gas which are likely to deplete
wi th time. See Fi gure l .4. b
Biomass Solar
\Alater Hydro G eotherrnal
\Vind
Renewable Energy - Figure 1.4.a
Nuclear Oil 1
~ t - - - - - - i '---..---'
Natural Gas 1-----1 Coal
Non-Renewable Energy - Figure 1.4.b
Fig. I A.a & l A. b Renewable and Non-Renewable
Energy
1.5 INDIAN ENERGY SCENARIO:
ENERGY SUPPLY
COAL SUPPLY
Coal dominates the energy mix in India contributing
about 55% of the total primary energy production and
65% of National Electricity Production. India ha huge
coal reserves, at lea t 84,396 million tones of proven
recoverable reserves at the end of 2003 .
OIL SUPPLY
Oil accounts for about 36% of India's total energy
conswnption. India' soil consumpt.ion by the end 01
2007 was expected to reach 136 million metric tor
(MT) of which domestic produclion accounted onl)
34 MT. India for its needs imports 70% of its crude
mainly from Gulf Nations.
NATURAL GAS SUPPLY
Over the years, there has been a marked increase ir
the share of Natural Gas in primary energy production
Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of nerg;
consumption in the country. By 2007, the demand fa
Natural gas is expected to be around 200 million cubil
metres per day (mcmd). Natural gas reserves in Indi:
are expected at 660 billion cubic metres by the end 0
2000.
"The empires of the future are the empires ofthe mind." - Sir Winston Churchill.
Electrical Installation Engineer - NewsleHer - March 2010 30
and ash content of imported price of coal are compared
ELECTRICAL ENERGY SUPPLY
to detennine the pri ce of indigenous coal per metric
The installed capacity of Electric Power Generating
ton.
Station under Public Supply Electrical Utilities was
1,12,581 MW as on 31 st May 2004, consi ting 28,860
MW hydro, 77930 MW lhermal and 2720 MW
nuclear and 1869 MW - wind and the remai.ning Diesel
etc. The gro s generation of power in the year 2002
2003 stood at 531 bi lli on ki lowatt hour (unit of
Electrical energy)
NUCLEAR POWER SUPPLY
Nuclear power contrjbutes to about 2.4 per cent of
electricity generated in India. India has five nuclear
power stations producino electricity. More nuclear
power reactors are under construction.
HYDRO POWER SUPPLY
India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential
for power generation of which onl y about ] 5 to 20%
has been harnessed so far. The hare of hydropower
in the country' s total generated unit' stands as 25%
a on 3 1" May 2004. It is as es ed that the exploited
potential at 60% load factor is 84,000 MW.
FINAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Final energy consumption i the actual energy demand
at the Ll er end. Thi i the difference between primary
energy consumption and the 10 . e that lake place in
transport, transmission & di tribution nnd refinement .
The act ual fi nal e nergy cons umpti n. incll1d in
projected estimate i gi cn in Table \ -\
TABLE 1.1 Demand for Commercial Energy for
final consumption Source:
Planning commission Business As usual
NATURAL GAS
The government is the sole authority for fixing the price
of Natural gas. The price per metric ton is fixed.
ELECTRICITY
Electricity tari ffs in all States in India are structured
in a relatively simple manner while hi gh tension and
low tension 'Bulk-power' (consumers) are charged
based on the Maximum Demand (KVA) and energy
(KWh); the other low tension commercial, domestic
etc. consumers pay only for the energy consumed
(kilowatt hours) as per tariff !>ystem in vogue in most
of the Electrical Distribution companie. . The
ELectricity Regulatory Commissions con tituted under
Electricity Act 2003 fix the Tariff for Elecu-ical Energy
Supply by Distribution Licencee.
1.7 BASICS OF ENERGY AND ITS VARIOUS
FORMS
1.7.1 DEFINITION
Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer
of energy from one form to another. In practical terms,
energy is what we use to manipulate the world around
us, whether by u iog our muscles, or by using
electricity energy or by u ing LPG gas f r cooking,
or b u. ing petrollDies I in m chani cal Heat Engines
ueh a Automobiles Aircraft, Traction of Rolling
stock of Railways , ships, prime movers of pump.
Energy comes in different foml S - heat (themlal), light
(radiant), mecbanical , electrical, chemical and nuclear
I-----=:;r--------,---..-----.----I energy.
Source Units 20012002 20062007 20U2012 1.7.2 VARIOUS FORMS OF ENERGY
Electri city Billion units 480.08 712.67 1067. 88 There are two types of energy-stored (potential) energy
Coal Millio[] Tones 109. 01 134.99 173.47 and working. (kinhetic). enler
gy
. For edxamplbe'dthe food
1-------11-------1- --+----1-- - -1 we eat contallls c emlca energy, an our 0 y stores
Lignite Mi lli on Tones 11.69 16.02 19.70
Natural Gas MiUion cubic metre.s 157.30 182.91 208.53
Oil products Million Tones 99.89 139.95 196.47
1.6 ENERGY PRICING IN INDIA
Price of energy does Dot reflect true cost La society.
The basic assumption underlying efficiency of market
price does not hold in oor economy. since energy prices
are under valued and energy wastes are not taken
seriou ly. Pri ing practi ces in India like many other
developing countrie are influenced by poLitical, . ocial
and economic compul ions at the state and central
levels. The Indian energy ector offers many examples
of cross subsidies.
E.g. LPG and Kerosene being sub idized by diesel,
petrol, and other petroleum pr duct f r tran p rt and
industrial usage. AI 0 indu:lriaI and commercial
con 'umer of electricity subsidize the agricultural and
domestic consumers.
COAL PRICE
Grade wise ba ic price of coal at the pithead excluding
tatutory levies for Run- ofMjne (ROM) Coal are fixed
by Coal India Ltd from time to time. Calorific value
this energy until we release it when we work or play.
1.7.2.1 POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of
position. It ex.its in various fonns.
CHEMICAL ENERGY:
Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of
atoms and molecule. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas,
propane, and coal are examples of stored chemical
energy.
NUCLEAR ENERGY:
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of
an atom - the energy that holds the nucleus together.
The nucleu of a uranium atom and thorium atom is
an example of nuclear energy.
STORED MECHANICAL ENERGY
Stored mechani cal energy is energy stored in objects
b. the applicati n of a force. Compre 'sed prings and
stret hed rubber bands are example of slored
mechanical energy.
GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY
Gravi tational energy is the energy of place or position.
Water in a [eser oir behind a hydropower dam i an
'A day without laughter is a day wasted." - Charlie Chaplin
Electrical Installation Engineer Newslener - March 2010 31
example of gravitational energy. [When the water is
released to spin the hydraulic turbines, it becomes
pri me mover (namely motor) energy (kinetic energy).
When electric alternator is coupled to prime rna er,
namely hyd raulic turbine alternating Current
Electrical Energy is produced which is transmi tted and
distributed LO the public con umers. Thus pri mary
gravitational energy is converted Lo secondary
electrical energy].
1.7.2.2 KINETIC ENERGY
Ki netic energy is energy in motion Examples are: the
motion of tidal waves, electrons, ions, mol cules and
substances. It exi, ts in various form . Motion of waves
is ti dal energy. Motion of electrons is electrical
energy called Electricity. Motion of ulO ms and
molecules in water, liquid, fluids, and gas when
heated to high temperature are Steam or Heat energy .
1.7.2.3 RADIANT ENERGY
Radiant energy is electrical energy that travels in
transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible
li ght, x-rays, gamma rays and radio wave . Solar
energy is an example of radiant energy.
1.7.2.4 THERMAL ENERGY
Th rmal nergy (or heat) is the internal energy in
substances - the vibration and movement of at m and
molecules within substances. Geothermal n rgy js
an example of primary source of thermal energy.
1.7.2.5 MOTION ENERGY
The movement of object or substances from one pl ace
to another is motion. Wind power and hydropower
are examples of motion energy.
1.7.2.6 SOUND
Sound is the movement of energy through sub tances
call ed medium in longitudinal (compression I
elongation) waves.
1.7.2.7 ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electrical energy is movement of ele tric charges,
namely electron with negative electric charges and
positive ions with po ilive electri al charge. The
quanti ties of negativ and po itive electric charges
equal and opposite. Electron theory states that all
matter is made of negative and positive electrical
charges and in a nonnal atom the amount of negati ve
electricity charges of the electron i neutralized
exactly by an equal amount of opposite or positive
electricity charge of the central nucleus containing
protons. Thus a normal atom exhibits no external
sign of electrification. However when external
electromotive force from electrical energy
generation sources like secondary Battery, dc
dynamo, ac alternator is applied on electricaJ
conductors, semi conductors and dielectric
conductor substances in a closed electric circuit,
electron are forced out from atoms and the balance
of central nucleus positive charges is disrupted. The
motion of negatively charged electrons and
positively charged ions take place in the electrical
circuit conductors and electrolytes at enormous
speed. By definition the movement of electrical
charged electrons and ions is flow of electrical
energy from the electricity energy production
source. The unit of electrical charge i coulomb. It is
to be noted that negative and positi ve electricity
charges cannot be generated but only electrical energy
can be pr oduced (generated) from energy of some
other form. Electrical energy is transmitted and
di stributed by mean of electrical conductors to public
consumers. By electrical energy generation, we mean
only energy conversion of some other primary
energy source.
1.8 ENERGY CONVERSION
Energy is defmed as "the ability to do work" In this
sense, examples of work include moving something,
lifting something, warmjng somethi ng, making
vibrations in the eardrum of humans & animals or
lighting something. The following are the examples
of the transfonnations of different types of energy into
heal and power.
Oil burns to generate heat (Chemical energy of Oil
is converted to Heat energy)
Heat boils waLer which is chemically stable and is
non-pollutant (Heal energy is transferred to water)
Water turns into team (Heat energy produces steam
at high temperature)
Steam energy prod uced turn. a Prime Mover,
namely Steam Turbine
Turbine turns an Electric Generator
Electric Generator produces Electricity namely. the
kinetic energy of turbine is converted into electrical
energy in Electrical generator
Electricity power (energy) light lamps, drive motors,
heat heaters, amplifies audio signals etc
Light lamps give off light and heat
Motors drive the pumps, compres ors
Heaters give off beat to cooking. produce hot water,
give off heat for space heating etc.
W use electrical energy to light out homes, streets,
public pl aces, assembly halls, offices. mall ,
commercial shop, , hotels and restaurant, to power
machinery in factories, LO power electric traction
motors of Rail way, to cook our food, to play music, to
operate our TV, D V D & Home Theatre, and to operate
our personal computers etc.
1.9 ELECTRICITY (ELECTRICAL ENERGY)
1.9.1 THE EFFECTS OF THE INTRODUCTION
OF ELECTRICITY
It would be bard to imagine the modem world as we
know it today without the use of electricity; almo t
every facet of our Ii ves is touched by lhi foml of
energy. Some of the ways it affects are shown below.
IN THE HOME
It is used for lighting, heating and cooking, a well as
operating such devices as vacuum cleaners, electric
irons, washing machine, mixer machines, wet grinder,
geyser. refrigerator, air conditioners, micro oven, kettle
and many other house-hold appliances.
HEALTH AND WELFARE
Ho pitals use electricity for operating theatre lighting,
x-ray machine, Scanning Machine, sterilizing
equipment, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning.
Electricallnslallalion Engineer Newsletter - March 2010 32
1.10.1 THERMAL PROCESS OF GENERATION
SECURITY
Electrical bells and buzzer ,fire alarm ystem intruder
Many of the power station are coal-fired for the
aJarm, and warning ystem of variou ort are also
purpose of raising steam to drive the turbo generators
operated by electricity for our safety and security.
which produce the electricity See fig. ] .1.
LEISURE PURSUIT
2 Electrical Installation Practice 1
Football and greyhound stadiums are provided with
flood-lighting track events with electronic timing and
t he photo fini h are done eleclficily
steam
effecti vely and accurately - 4-----
with the use of electricity
ENTERTAINMENT
The home especiall y has
been revol utionized by the
use of such devices as
television video recorders.
hi fi equipment, DVD audio 1.-_______---,
players etc. Theatres cinemas, clubs, pub and pop
concerts etc. have all been improved ince the advent
of electri al energy.
generator
condenser
(cooler)
boiler
waler
cool
or oil
LABOUR SAVING DEVICES
Fig. 1.1 The tbermal process of generation.
Devices such a electric drill planers, aws and
ancling rna hines ha e made life ea ier both at home
1.10.2 NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS
and work. In tl1e home appliances such as microwa e
vens, fryers and f ad proces, ors have taken ome of
There are very few nuclear power stations in India.
the drudgery away from household task '.
COMMUNICATION 1.10.3 OIL BURNING POWER STATIONS
The marathon race is based on a Greek soldier runni ng
over 41 km to deHver a mes, age. Today, the ame There are a few oil -fired power stations (Diesel,
message could be delivered instantaneously u ing Furnace Oil fired power stations).
electri city. Telephone system, mobile phone fax
machine, e- mail, and 'atellite communication for raclio,
1.10.4 NATURAL GAS BURNING POWER
television and communication have revolutionized the
STATIONS
way we communicate.
DATA STORAGE
There are a few Natural Gas fired power stations. Coal
The familiar site of the general office of any big
burning, Oil burning, Natural gas burning power
establishment is changi ng fast. Gone are the rows of
tation use fos it fuel and nuclear power stations use
filing cabinets and typists slaving away over ancient
nuclear fuel to heat water and produce steam to drive
typewriters or cribbling down letter in shorthand.
the turbines . This is called the thermal proce s.
This has been repl aced by word processing software
and per anal computer laptops etc. Also instead of
Combined power cycle Generation fire Natural Gas in
the filing cabinet , there are a few boxe, of data storage Gas Turbine .Gas turbine drives Alternator and
desks. The development f the Dat a processing
produces Electrici ty. Exhaust ga from Gas turbine
installati ons have been brought about with the use of
heats water and generates steam. Steam drives steam
electricity.
turbi nes and the Turbo-Alternator coupled (0 the steam
1.10 GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
Turbine generate Electricity.
(ELECTRICAL ENERGY)
1.10.5 HYDROELECTRIC SCHEME
consumer's electricity installations or consumption
comes in from power stations run by National Thermal
In India, the electricity upply for tbe va t majority of
In India there is a good continuous flow of water which
Power Corporation, National Hydro Electric Power
is tored in dam . The natural gravitational force of
Corporation. National and State Power Generation
flowing water through penstock pipes is used to drive
Companies, Private Power Producers, Wind Mill
the prime mover namely hydraulic turbine. This is
Generating stations, Co generation Power Plants
hydroelectric process. Fig. 1.2.
connected to Grid ystem.
Electrical Inslallation Engineer - NewsleHer - March 2010 33
I
33000 '11' 0 ,, 000 V \ 0
l1000 v 4 l 5V- 2<40 V
I,.nslonner tr.'ISIormor
eleclricily
generator
heedroce
tunnel
reserverr
1.2 - The Hydro-electric Scheme
1.10.6. Pumped Storage Schemes
A hydroelectric scheme which overcomes to some extent the problem of
dependency on weather variations is the pumped torage scheme. In si mple
tenns, this consi ts of a hydroelectric power station situated between an
upper reservoir and a lower re ervoir. The water is allowed to flow from
the upper reservoir through the turbine and out into the lower reservoir,
thus generating the electricity. When the water in the upper reservoir reaches
a certain level, pump. using off-peak electricity take th water from the
lower reservoir ba k t the higher]e el reservoir. The level of the water is
kept topped l1p by the natural rain fall in the area. Pumped torage power
plant an be br ught into use \ hen there are sudden high demands for
energy, during peak hour. I n I ndia, in Tamil Nadu. al Kad mpari there i '
one pumped storage h dr electric pow r station.
1.11 ALTERNATE MEANS OF ELECTRICAL GENERATION
1.11.1 WIND POWER
Thi s type of electrical generator is made using wind. In
India, th r are lot of Wind Power Generator Stations in
Tamil Nadll , Karnataka, Maharastra and Glljarat. The
aggregate generator capacity al the end of 2008 is about
5000 MW. The drawback in Wind Electricity
Generation is that the Electricity generat ion is not only
seasonal bUl also unsteady.
1.11.2 SOLAR POWER
Solar photo voltai c generation has already sLarted
Experimental Solar Thennal power generati n has been
instal led. There are Solar Theml al Power Generation
Plants in California in U.S. and in Ewope. The draw back
is the construction cost is highly expensive four to six
times the co t of coal fired thennal pow r tations.
1.12 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY AND GRID SYSTEM
275 000 or
400 000 v
from tho
A - I * - - ~
8 --1:><\---.
c ---IIHI-----.
2715o UOO or . 00000 V 132000 V 1o
to 132000 V 33000 V
Ir.nafor'fTlr.r H 3 n ..fOtrn r
All the Super-power Thermal
Power Station in Regional Ie
have been interconnected by 400
kY Transmi sion Grid system.
The major Grid systems in India
are Southern Regional Grid,
Western Regional Grid, Northern
Regional Grid, and Eastern
Regional Grid. All the Regional
Grids are al so being
interconnected by National Grid.
In the State level, all ele trical
power stalions are interconnected
by 220 kY or 230 kY
Transmission Grid system and in
tum they are interconnected to the
400 kV Regional Grid system. The
Super Thennal Power Stations of
NTPC, NHPC, etc are
in t erconnected by 400 kY
Tran mi sion line directly to the
Regional Grids an d then to
National Grid.
The main purpo e of the Grid
S tern is to operat e the
int rc nnected Po er Generating
S t ations, so th at the greate t
number of units of electricity are
generated by the m Sl efficient
power plants available. The
important advantage of Gri d
System are
Standardi7.ation of frequency
and voltage.
Less reserve plant required.
Security of supplie .
Energy transfer on regional and
also a country wide ba is.
Power tation sited n ar source
of fueL
No need for power stations to
be in town centre or load
centre.
Electrical Installation Engineer - NewsleHer - March 2010 34
ELECTRICAL ENERGY EXCELLENCE SERIES - 10
Energy ExceUence Recall:
B io DieseV Fuel- for produci ng Fuel for AutomobHes
As discussed in the Part I and 2, Excellence has to
and Engines and Pri me movers.
addre Effic iencie in all the t hree t ages of Bio Electrici ty - Electri ci ty obtained from Bio Sources
Conversion or Ge ne ration, T rans mi ssion and through any of the "Routes" of:
Distribution and Utili zation of Electrical Energy.
- Combustion and Steam and Turbine and Generator
Excellence revolves around
- Methanation and Bio Gas and Engine and Generator
NOD Fossil Sources for Energy
- Bio Gas and Fuel Cells and Electricity
Energy Efficiency in conversion to ' Forms' for use
and all uses of Energy
Apart rom other aspects like avoidance of Waste,
Techno)o2Y Choices for Bio Elect ricity Generation
a) AU Combustible Agricultural, Agro Industrial
and Municipal Solid Wastes:
uses for all remains and wasLes from the Proces e. ,
Compact Communities, Small is Beautiful and so on.
Contjnuing on the subject of Biomass as a Source,
different fonns of Energy including Electricity can be
obtained from Biomass and the Term Bio En rgy is
used the. e day to present the Power and Potential of
Energy from this Source as from Solar and Wind etc.
It is becoming more and more common these days to
desi gn Boilers and Combustion spec ially tuned to
different kinds of Biomass based on the Cal orific
Values , moisture content, and ot her special
considerations based on Chemical Compositions.
These will be combi ned wi th Turbine and Generators
to Produce Electri ci ty. The mai n challenges are
Bio Energy Forms
Suppl y, Seasonal considerations and upply Chain
Bio Energy in total can be under toad to contain 3
Management. As a very rough calculation, about 20
major areas namely
to 30 Tons per day (tonnage wi ll depend on Calori fic
Biomass for Generation of Heat and Electricity
Bio Gas - for producing Heat, Fuel for Automobiles
and Engines and Electricity through Engine and
Value and Moistu re content) of Biomass will be
required per MW Capacity and capacities ranging from
7.5 to 20 MW are fou nd quite feasi ble these days.
When Biomass availability is limi ted,
Alternator
In the Schematic Di agram below the various activities involved in a Typical Combustion System for Power
Generation by use of Poultry Litter as f uel is shown.
Fuel Reception
Fuel arrives n
coveted \roCks
Stack
Mainly
water vapor
Fuel Hall
Fuel stored
and conditioned
Condenser
Steam condensed
baclc 10 water
,
.....
,.
...
Bag House
T
emissions trealeeJ to
remOYB dust & gases
Ash Hnll
I'
Ash treated for
Boller
t
CombtJstion n
lurnace at SSO' C

Boller l\lrbJne
.....
Steam produce<! ElectJidty
aI450"C 9IIneratoo
Used steam
I
....
7
....
..

Fihl'ophos
fertilizer
Electricity
'old
One unit saved is two units produced
Electricallnstallallon Engineer Newsletter March 2010 35
b) Technology for Gas Generation and Processing and Use for Electricity Generation:
IS
Manu
iii er
Ognr
W: e
obi
n rgy
rm I
Anaerobic Process, which is used all over the worl d
Considering that India has over 20% of the World 's
fo r Bio Gas Generation from any Bio Degradable
Cattle population, added with huge Poultry population
Waste, produces a mi xture of Methane Gas and Carbon
and huge potential of wastes from vegetables and fruits
Di Oxide along with small percentage of some more
etc. Industri al, Agricultural and Municipal Wa te and
gases like Hydrog n Sulphide etc. The remains of the
was te Waters of all ki nds can all be used for
mass aft er only Gas Separ ati n, become valuable
"Organized and Efficient" Bio Gas Produc tion.
manure for Agricul ture. Bio Gas can be produced from
Examples of Su ccessful Gas Generation and
all kinds and forms of Bio Waste from Ani mals,
Utilization are Sugar and Sago Fact ry Wash waters
Homes, Agriculture and Industries. The fact i that the
and Sewage Treatment Plants.
Gas i.e. Methane mixed with few other ga e gets
produced naturall y in many cases, from all the wastes
listed above and if not ham sed and used. it, in fact,
adds to the 'Green House Gases'. Pr ducing Ga. from
Cow dung i. e. Gobar Gas' is known for a long time
Another dimension of the problem is the 'Time Taken
for the Gas Generation, which, through the Natural
Proce s takes about 35 to 45 days for the entire gas to
be eparated.
and it is cl aimed that we have over 40 Lakh, Gobar
Work ha been done and perfected in recent times by
Gas plants i n the Country, but a study of the condition
leading Institutions in the country addressing both the
and quantum of Gas generated and used from these
important issues of Speed of Gas separation and
Plants spread all over the cou nt ry coul d be
purification of the Gas including rea ' ibility of
disapp inting and it does not seem to have created
' Bottling' the Gas_
much impact.
Focusing on Animal and Bird Wastes and Electricity
The Quality and Calorific value of this 'Raw' Gas is
Ge neration, at present, Electric ity is generated in
low. In addition, the harmful effects of H,S etc. also
Capacities of KWs up to few MWs capacities (the
create problems when used di rectly for running
large Plants in India are of 1 to 3 MW Capacities) by
Engines etc.
use of the Biogas produced, in Engines and Generators.
In case the Gas can be cleaned and purified, the above
problems can be solved and it can become a valuabl e
source of Energy.
In large Size Plants it is seen that are is taken to
minimize harm ul effects of H
2
S, but in mall Plants
this i not taken care at all.
Energy saved Today is asset for future.
Electrical Installation Engineer - NewsleHor - March 2010 36
The Figure below show the System of Electricity Generation from Biogas.
aCE F 0 0 o Q R o F 0 10
When it comes to Biomass like Animal and Bird/ value, the question arises as to which is more efficient
Poultrv Wastes etc which can be used for both Bio and economical for Power Generation.
Metha-nation Process for Biogas Generation and can (To be continued)
also be burnt as a fuel as it has sufficient Calorific
S.Mahadevan, BE, FIE, MBA,
Consultant, Energy and Energy Effi ciency
Mobile: 98401 55209
c
JOI
ea Sh -nkable ype Cable Joint Kit
' Range:
1.1 111 122 I 33 KV
.:. HT & LT Stra ght Through
Joint.
.:. End Termination :
Indoor & Outdoor
Indoor Termination Kit
(Round Th
Electrical lnstallatioo Engineer Newsletter March 2010 37
I
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSERVATION
1. INTRODUCTION
Power cuts in varying degrees and for prolonged periods have been an
annual feature in almost all parts of the country for selreral years. As a
result most industrial users have learnt to live with less electrical energy
or make better use of it. Nevertheless there are mallY iireas where energy
can be u ed more efficiently. These are broadly
i) Improved Power Factor
ii) Improved Load Factor
iii) Reduction in Motor Losses
iv)
v)
Reduction in Compressed Air Losses
Variable speed drives
vi) Temperature control - heating and cooling systems
vii) Illumination
2. IMPROVED POWER FACTOR
This is one area where most large users have already taken action. Use
of capacitors, often with automatic control equipment, has become quite.
Im provement in the load factor can be achieved by studying the demand
profile over a 24 hour period. The maximum demand has to be recorded
every half an hour or I hour for thi s purpose. Thi s has to be done
manually at pre ent but suitable inst ruments. wi th a pri nt -out for 112
hour or I hour maxi mum demand. Su h demand analy. er are now
available from indigenous manufacturer.; .
A study of the demand profIle will enable one to adjust the t i m i n . ~ of
controllable loads so as to minimise the severit f the eak . Th
attached exhibit shows the demand profile based on hourly reading of
the maximum demand over 24 hours at one of the plants studied by us
recently. This pattern repeats itself almost every working day. It will be
seen that at 1000 hours there is an outstanding peak which is 150 KVA
higher than other peaks during the remaining working. On either side of
this peak are valleys of corresponding magnitude.
Thi s type of peaking could be avoided by taking a closer look at loads
which could be shifted backwards or forwards. e.g. compressors, ovens
etc.
3. REDU CTION IN MOTOR ENERGY LOSSES
According to an ICICI estimate, 70%of the electrical energy used in
industry is accounted for by motors. More than 80% of these are the
standard squirrel cage induction motors.
It is conunon knowledge that the efficiency of the squirrel cage induction
motor drops sharply when it is loaded at less than 50%of its rated hp.
This can be seen from the power factor recording of a 60 hp motor at
different loads, as shown below:
Load PF
Full load 0.88
3/4 Load 0.85
112 Load 0.80
114 Load 0.62
No Load 0.10
However, underloading of motors is inevitable in normal applications.
Firstly, there is the safety factor which tends to be generous. The usual
preference is to go in for the next higher size than the most suitable one.
Secondly, the need for a higher starting torque may dictate the use of a
higher size motor. In such cases, the normal running of the motor is weU
below its rated hp.
Changing the motor to a lower rated hp is an obvious solution but not
feasible in most cases.
There is now a solution available which is both technically and
economically feasible. This is the Motor nergy Loss Controller (MELC)
based on a NASA patent. Number of leading electrical engineering
companies are offering these products as Soft starters, which also helps
in reducing starting currents, helping to reduce the instantaneous demand,
especially with D.G. sets.
A further advantage of th MELC is that it eliminates th n ed for a
capacitor at the motor terminals for power factor improvement. The cost
effecti veness of the MELC is thus further improved.
4. RED CTION IN OMPRESSED AIR LOSSES
The main energy source for compressed air is electricity. In the
engineering industry, compressed air generation accounts for 10 to 15%
of the total electrical energy consumption.
Compressed air, however, is one of the least understood and the most
misused facility. From the large number of studies we have made, we
find that savings of the order of 30 to 50% are achievable in every
industry, even in industries otherwise noted for their efficient
management. And this saving can be achieved with very little investment.
Taking one example from our recent study of an engineering unit:
- Total electricity consumption
n5 million units/annum
- Energy consumpti on by compressed air plant
_ milliOIl uni t / annum
Smog po "bilit) in ompres ed uni ts i.e.air RsA.50
- O. rmllion I 'annum
The methodology of a hieving sa\ lO
e
ill om-pressed air U53ge i to be
dealt separately.
5. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
Unit recently, the eddy current coupling was one of the most commonly
used device for speed variation on squirrel cage induction motors.
Amore recent entrant which is the most energy-efficient, is the Frequency
Modulated Speed Vari ator which is available up to 75 or 100 hp. Some
model ' are now available in India.
6. TEMPERATURE CONTROL
It is not commonly appreciated that considerable energy can be saved
by the use of Thermostats for controlling temperature whether for
heating or cooling. In a few cases where thermostats are installed, these
are not properly set and maintained.
A typical example is the use of thermostats in cooling towers. The fans
need not run when the desired temperatures can be achieved by natural
draught, e.g. at night or during cooler months.
7. ILLUMINATION
There have been many recent developments in the illumination field to
make the devices more efficient.
For outdoor illuminations, Sodium Vapour Lamps are being increasingly
used in industry. Further savings in energy could be achieved by the use
of Photo-Electric Cell-controlled switches.
For indoor lighting, the compact fluorescent lamps have become ideal
choice to reduce energy consumpti on, inspire of higher initial
investments. Use of electronic chokes with conventional tube lights also
saves about 30%of energy consumption in the lUbe lights, though one
has to choose the supplier with care.
T.JAYARAMAN, Managing Director
SEeD Controls Private limited, Chennai 18
El ectricallnstallalion Engineer - NewsleHer - Marth 2010 38
THE INVALUABLE CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE WORLD OF
INDIANS - Lived Thousands of Years Ago
NAGARJUNA - (laO CE) WIZARD OF CHEMICAL SCIENCE
He was an extraordinary wizard of science
bom in the nondescript village of Baluka in
Madhya Pradesh ... His dedicated research
or twelve years produced maiden
discoveries and inventions in thefaculties of
chemistry and metallurgy. Textual
masterpieces like 'Ras Ratnakar',
'Rashrudaya ' and 'Rasendramangol ' ore his
renowned contributions to the science of
chemistry. Where the medieval alchemists of
England failed. Nagarjwza had discovered
the aLchemy oftra1lSI1lUfing base mera!s into
gold. As the author of medical books like
'Arogyamalljari' and 'Yogasar', he also
made significant contributions to the field of
curative medicine. Because of his profound
seho/artiness and versatile knowledge. he
was appointed as Chancellor of the famous
University of Nolanda. NagaTjuna's
milestone discoveries impress and astonish
the scientist of today.
WHAT GREAT PEOPLE SAY ABOUT INDIA, INDIAN WORK AND GREAT INDIA

TEACH THEM, VERBALLY AND BY EXAMPLE, TO FOLLOW THE PATH
OF DHARMA
TALKING ABOUT RELIGION
(v) Apollonius Tyaneus,
Greek Thinker and Traveller, 1st Century AD
"In India I found a race of mortals living upon
the Earth, but not adhering to it. Inhabiting cities,
but not being fixed to them, po sessing everything
but possessed by nothing. "
(w) Ken Wilber,
American Philosopher and
Author, (b-1949):

"
I:,
"Larry [Warchowski] is just about as
philosophically /spiritua/ly well read as
anyone you're likely to find, and The
Matrixfilms are a stunning tribute to that
fact.
Lany said that when he found Ken's work.
"It was like Schopenhauer discovering the
Upanishads. "
Loving fathers and mothers speak Vedic precepts while driving, eating and playing. This helps dear
'hildren understand experiences in right perspective. Parents know many worldly voices are blaring,
and their dharmic voice must be stronger.
Electrical Installation Engineer - Newsletter - March 2010 39
APPENDICITIS
Appendicitis is the most common of all seri ous
intestinal disorders . I t refers to an inflammation of the
vemtifoml appendix. It presents itself in acute and
chronic forms and affects both the sexes equall y. This
di sease now accounts for abo ut hal f the acute
abdominal emergencies occurri ng between the ages of
LO to 30. It is more frequent in developed countries
than underdeveloped countries.
The appendix is a small tube located at the end of the
caecum, the first part of the large intestine. It is called
vermiform appendix as it resembles a worm. It is
usuall y eight to ten cm. long. It structure is made of
the sanle tough fibrous outer covering as protects the
entire alimentary canal. There is a layer of muscular
tissue under the outer covering and further a layer of
lymphoid ti ssue. The function of the appendix, which
is performed by this lymphoid ti ssue, is to neutralise
the irritating waste material generated in the b dy or
the organic poisons introduced through the ski n or
membranes.
Symptoms
Appendi itis u uall y begin with a udden pain in the
centre of tbe abdomen, which graduall y hifts t the
lower right side. The pain may be preceded by general
di scomfort in the abdomen, indigesti on, di arrhoea or
consti pation. The patient us ually has a mi ld fever
varying from 100 to L02 F. Nausea is common, and
the patient may vomit once or twice. The muscles of
the ri ght side of the abdomen become tense and ri gid.
The pati ent draws some comfort by drawing up the
right leg. The pain increases on the right side on
pressing the left side of the abdomen. Cougbing and
sneezing makes the pain worse.
If the inflammation continues to increase, the appendix
may rupture and dis harge its pus into the abdomi nal
cavity. This may result in a serious state known as
peritoni tis. The temperature ri es and the patient
becomes pale and cold. This condition may call for
urgent operation.
In the chronic SLate of appendicitis, the patient may
suffer from recurrent pain in the right lower abdomen
with constipation, loss of appetite and mild nausea.
Causes
Appendicitis is caused by a toxic bowel condition. An
excessive amount of poi onou waste material is
accumulated in the calcium. As a resull, lhe appendix
is irritated and over-worked and becomes inflammed.
It i an attempt on th part of nature to locali e and
"burn up" the toxin . This condi ti on i brought about
by wrong feeding babits and enervation of the system.
Inflammation of the bowel lining, due to the habitual
use of apparent drugs, is a potent predisposing factor
i n t he develop ment of appendi c iti s. Further
inflammation and infection comes from certain germs
which are usualJy present in the inte tina1 tract.
Treatment
The patient should be put to bed immediatel y at the
first symptoms of severe pain, vomiting and fever. Re t
is of utmost importance in the treatment of this disease.
The patient should resort to fasti ng which is the only
real cure for appendiciti. . Absolutely no food should
be given. Nothing except water shoul d enter the
system. L w enernias, containing aboul one pinl (1/2
li tre) of waml water should be administered everyday
for the fir t three days to cleanse the lower bowel. Hot
compresses may b placed over the painful area several
ti mes daily. Abdominal packs, made of a stri p of wet
shee t covered by a dry tl annel cloth bound tightly
around the abdomen, hould be applied conti nuously
until all acute symptoms subside.
When the acute symptoms subside by about the third
day, the patient should be given a full enema containing
about 1 1/2 litre of warm water and this should be
repeated daily unti l the inflammation and pain have
subsided. The patient can be given fruit juices from
the third day onwards. This simple treatment sensibly
applied wi ll overc me an appendicili attack.
fter pendi ng three day on ruil jui es, the patient
rna adopt an all- fruit diet or It nh r four or fi ve
days. During this period. he h uld have three meals a
day each meal of fresh juicy fm its. Thereafter, he
should adopt a well-balanced diet based on three food
groups namely, (i) seed, nuts and grains, (ii) vegetables
and (i ii) fru its.
In case of chronic appendi citi ,a hart fast should be
followed by a full milk di et for two or three weeks. In
this regimen, a glass of milk should be taken every
two hours from 8 a. m. to 8 p.m. on the fi r t day, a
glass every hour and a half the next day and a gl ass
every hour the third day. Then the quantity of milk
should be graduaUy increased so as to lake a glass every
balf an hour, if such a quantity can be tolerated
comfortably. After th full milk. diet, the patient should
gradually embark upon a well - balanced di t, wi th
emphasis on fresh fruits and green leafy vegetable .
Certain vegetable juices. especially carrot juice, in
combination with the j uices of beets and cucumbers,
have been found val uable in the tr at ment of
appendici tis. Regular use of tea made from fenugreek
seeds has also proved hel pful in preventi ng the
appendix from becoming a dumping ground for excess
mue us and inlestinal waste.
The patient of appendicitis should adopt all mea 'ures
to eradicate constipation. if it is habitual. Much relief
can be obtained by the application of hot fomentation
and abdominal packs very morning and night. An
abdominal massage is also beneficial. Once the waste
matter in the calcium has moved into the colon and
thence eliminated, the irritation and inflammation in
tbe appendix will subside and surgical removal of the
appendix will not be necessary. The surgical op ration
should be resorted to only in rar cases, when the
appendix has becom absces ed.
Electrical Installation Engineer Newsletter March 2010 40
WISDOM OF "KURAL"
PART 3
DOMESTIC VIRTUE
(continued)
Self-control is the mark t hat
identifies a wise man. He has perfect
control of the senses and withdraws
them just as a tortoise withdraws its
limbs into its body. At a rash moment it is possible to
do harm which would take time to heal. The tongue is
a troublemaker.
Valluvar urges its control. One who controls his tongue
perfectly is free from anger. Anger is your worst
enemy.
Do not return evil for evil. Not even the penance of
fasting can compare with the penance of refusing to
respond to the hurt caused by the cruel words of others.
Do not be en ious of the success of others. Do not be
greedy. It i better to confront someone directly;
slandering and backbiting are wrong. He who speaks
ill of others will find others speaking ill of him. Take
stock of y ursel f for a few days and count the number
of times you speak ill of others. You will be amazed
how guilty al l are of sl ander.
Idle useless talk is the mark of the unwise. Hence,
refrain from it at all costs. Gossiping, faultfinding and
slandering should not be indulged in.
Giv , give, give. It is a strange truth that the more one
gives, the more one receives. You mu t have heard of
this ri ddle- "The more one takes out, the bi gg r it
grows". What is it? The an wer i-a hole! Charity is
very much li ke that. Give to others with a loving heart,
and the world will one day be at your feet. Pure, loving
charity is one of the greatest purifiers of the heart.
The renunciate or Sannyasin is one who has renounced
the world and its pleasures of the senses. Such a person
i ' also called an asceti . The saint makes a distinction
between domestic vi rtue (good deeds practised by a
hou eholder), and ascetic virtue. Even virtues come in
degrees! For this to be understood, try to work out the
differenc e in meaning between kindne s and
compassion.
Tiruvalluvar devotes thirteen chapters to the subject
of asc tic virtue. He dwells on such subjects as non
ki lling, mercy, hypocrisy, trut hf ul ness, curbing of
de ires, and the renunciation of object .
Anyone- even the basest of men- can possess money.
But only those who are truly kind are wealthy.
Be sincere at heart, j udge men by thei r actions, not by
their looks; a straight arrow causes pain, yet a bent
lute brings joy into the h arts of the li tener. Even
amongst Sadhus (ascetics), there are some hypocrites
men who pretend to be what they are not.
Vall uvar, as we have already seen, is interested mainly
in the welfare of people and the happiness of mankind.
He does not want needless misery and suffering for
the sake of merely upholding a moral idea. Now he
talks on truthfulness. Understand the second verse well
(292). It is by no means a passport to widespread
untruthfulness.
"If you should ask what truth may be,
It' speech from every evil free". (291)
6l.ITllirnw
lErnw @6\lrr Gl:ffT6\l6\l (291 )
"If it will yield pure, unmi xed good,
Truth may be replaced by falsehood" . (292)
GUmUtDrnwllJ tD runurnw
!fim rnw uUJLf.@jtD 6Toom . (292)
"All virtue's aim is not to kill,
For ki lling leads to every ki nd of ill' . (321)
G\ffirr6\l6\lrrrnw Cl&rr!!)GU
6TGU6\lrn..D (321 )
"You may 10 e y ur life but still,
Another bei ng you hould not kill". (327)
!B'uU'!wtD G"iI:fIiJUJ;D&,
!B'cf.@jtD (3 27)
Saints have repeatedly spoken of the unreal nature of
this worl d. Can you name anything that will remai n
exactly the same after a million years? That is why
we are told not to place our faith in the objects of thi s
world. They can never give us true happiness. Valluvar
says:
"Only the base and ignorant
Hold transient as permanent". (331)
nWffi!!>
4ro5\l;Dl 5Ufmrrnw &rnL (33 1)
, A day seems real but it is a knife
That daily saws a porti on from your life". (334)
!fifTmoron @m Q;)JCJuaro 2-uffilf@jtD
GU;Dlm (334)
'The soul from body any day,
Like bird from egg-sheLL flies away".(338)
@)LtDrnU
2-LLi>Clurrt] e..ulIf'mL !fiL4 (338)
Tiruvall uvar deals with the subject of reincarnation.
Reincarnation is one of the cardinal tenets of the
Succe sful people often forget that they, laO, were once
Hindu religion.
eak and sought the compas ion of those stronger than
"Death is sinking into slumbers deep
them elve . We remember unkind act done to us for
Birth again is waking out of sleep". (339)
years and ears. Those who lack compassion and love
2-!)riI@) I:frrcf.&rrt] , 2-!!)1iu!
have very few friend . .
ClUIJWtD (339)
Eleclricallnstallation Engineer' NewsleHer March 2010
41
include kings, rulers and employers. He lays down high
permanent happiness . For this , renunc iation is
The goa) of life is the attainment of the slale of
standards of conduct for rulers and leaders of men.
necessary. Renunciation means giving up all wealth, Such persons must be learned and courageous, and
pleasures of the ense , and the fruits of all actions. It have an ability to express themselves in public. They
does not mean running away to a cave or to an A hram. must have an ability to choose the right place, time
The senses must be, ubdued and the ego crushed. Birth and people fo r various activities of the State. A king
carries with it the eed. of. uffering. Happiness comes must be humble and Ii ten to the advice of wise men.
only when we realise God and overcome both birth
A ruler must be well read. A wise ruler i a good ruler.
and death.It is desire that is the source of all pain and
He must he versed in bOlh mathematics and the arts,
suffering. If one can gain mastery over desire, one
that is, numbers and letlers. These are the true eyes
experiences true freedom and enjoys lasting peace and
through which man sees the world.
bus. Desires can never be satisfied by fulfilling them.
Trying to satisfy th m by fulfi lling them wi ll be like There mll t be no hesitation in eradicating faults. A
adding fuel to the fire to extinguish the flame. Desires good leader corrects his own errors fir t, before
make the mind restle, s wilh all kinds of thoughts p inting out those of others. The head of a state cannot
whirling about. afford to make any errors. The spirit f perfect
humility service of the people, and complete fr edom
Section 2: On Wealth
from desire are the hallmark of a great king.
The second section is known as Porutpaal and deals
(End of Part 3, Part 4 to follow)
with man 's urge to acquire weal th. Tiruvalluvar gives
wonderful advice to those who are in power. These
HUMOUR HUMOUR MISSING HUSBAND!
Some Quotes on 'Humour'
A lady \ ent t the poli elation ro file a report for
her mi sing Husband:
laughing at you. - Whitney Brown
That is the saving grace of humor, if you fail no one is
Lady: I 10 ' t my Hu band
Humor is the onl test of gravity, and gravity of bumor;
Inspector: What is his height?
for a subject, which will not bear raillery, is suspicious,
and a jest which will not bear seriou exami nation is
Lady: I never noti ed
false wit.
- Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC)
Inspector: Slim or healthy?
Total absence of humor renders life impossible.
Lady: Not slim can be heal thy
- Colette (1873 - 1954)
Inspector: Colour of eyes?
A ense of humor is part of the art of leadersbip, of
getling aJong with people, of getting thing done. Lady:
Never noticed
- Dwight D. Eisenhower (18901969)
Inspector: Colour of hair?
Humor is by far the most significant activity of the
human brai n. - Edward De Bono
Lady: Changes according to ea on
The world is a tragedy to those who feel . but a com dy Inspector:
What was he wearing?
to those who th ink. - Horace Walpole (1717 - 1797)
Lady: Suit/casuals I don't remember exactly
The wit makes fu n of other persons; the satirist makes
fun of the world; the humorist makes fun of himself.
Inspector: War; somebody with him?????????
- James Thurber (1894 - 1961)
Lady: Yes my Labrador dog. Calvi n, tied
Defi ning and anal yzing humor is a pastime of
with a golden chain, height 30 inches
humorless people. - Robert Benchley (1889 1945)
healthy, blue eyes, blackish brown
Life is tough, and if you have the ability to laugh at it
hair, his left foot thumb nail is slightly
you have the ability to enjoy it. - SaLma Hayek
broken, he never barks, wearing a
Humor is also a way of saying somethi ng enous.
golden belt studded with blue balls, he
- T. S. Eliot ( 888 - 1965)
likes non veg food, we eat together.
There's no tri ck to being a humorist wh n you have
we jog together. ... And the lady
the whole government working for you.
started crying ... ..
- Will Rogers (1879 - 1935)
Electrical lnstaliati Dn Engineer - Newsletter - March 2010 42
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