Development of Structural Mechanics Structural Mechanics is a branch of structural engineering concerned with applying Newtonian mechanics to the analysis

of deformations, internal forces and stresses within framed and/or continuum structural elements and sub-assemblages, either for design or for performance evaluation of existing structures. Structural mechanics limits the scope of study from solid mechanics which deals with the deformation and motion of solids including microscopic analysis of viscoelastic and hereditary materials. Advanced structural analysis may include the effects of dynamic, stability, and non-linear behavior. There are three approaches to structural analysis: the strength of materials approach, the elasticity theory approach, and the finite element approach. The first two methods make use of analytical formulations leading to closed-form solutions. The third, a numerical method of solving field problems such as displacement field and stress field, etc., is very widely used for structural analysis. The equations needed for the formulation of the finite element method are based on theories of mechanics such as elasticity theory and strength of materials. Analytical formulations apply mostly to simple linear elastic problems, while the finite element method is computer oriented, applicable to structures of great complexity. Regardless of approach, structural analysis is based on the same fundamental relations: equilibrium, constitutive, compatibility, and strain-deformation. The solutions are approximate when any of these relations are only approximately satisfied, or only represent an approximation of reality (Wikipedia, 2006). Strength of materials approach - Being the simplest of the three discussed, the strength of materials approach is applicable to simple structural members subjected to specific loadings. Except for the moment distribution method developed by Cross (1930), the basic strength of

materials methods were available in their current forms in the second half of the nineteenth century. They are still widely used for small structures and for preliminary design of large structures. The solutions are based on linear isotropic infinitesimal elasticity and Euler-Bernoulli elementary beam theory. The simplifying assumptions include that the materials are elastic, that stress is related linearly to strain, that the material (but not the structure) behaves identically regardless of direction of the applied load, that all deformations are small, and that the members are idealized with one-dimensional entities. Solutions for special cases exist for certain structures such as thin-walled pressure vessels. As with any simplifying assumptions in engineering, the more the model deviates from reality, the less useful (and more dangerous) the result becomes. Elasticity methods - Elasticity methods are available for an elastic body of any general shape. Individual members such as beams, columns, rods, plates and shells may be modeled. The solutions are derived from the equations of linear elasticity (see Table 1). Due to the nature of the mathematics involved, analytical solutions may only be produced for relatively simple geometries. For complex geometries, a numerical solution method such as the finite element method is necessary. Many of the developments in the strength of materials and elasticity approaches have been expounded upon or initiated by Stephen P. Timoshenko (1951, 1959, 1961). Vasilii Z. Vlasov (1961) generalized many of Timoshenko's problems, bridging the theoretical gap between the elementary beam theory of Euler-Bernoulli and the modern theory of thin-walled members including non-uniform torsion. Finite element methods - Finite element methods (Clough, 1960) model a structure as an assembly of elements or components with various forms of connection between them. Thus, a continuous system such as a plate or shell is modeled as a discrete system with a finite number of

Table 1. Equations of linear elasticity 3D Strain-displacement equations Stress-strain equations (constitutive equations) Equations of equilibrium (motion) Total 6 6 3 15 2D 3 3 2 8 1D 1 1 1 3

elements interconnected at a finite number of nodes. The behavior of individual elements is characterized by the element's stiffness or flexibility relations, which altogether lead to the system's stiffness or flexibility relations. To establish the element's stiffness or flexibility relations, one can use the strength of materials approach for simple one-dimensional bar elements, and the elasticity approach for more complex two- and three-dimensional elements. he analytical and computational developments are best handled throughout by means of matrix algebra. Early application of matrix methods were formulated for articulated frameworks with four basic elements: planar truss, beam, planar frame, and grid elements; later planar elements were extended to space elements by multiplying appropriate transformation matrices. The stiffness/flexibility relations for these basic elements can be expressed exactly by means of the homogeneous solutions of the respective governing differential equations. Hence, the analysis results from these basic elements are exact regardless of the grid refinement. Later, more advanced matrix methods, referred to as "finite element analysis," model the structure with one-, two-, and three-dimensional elements to analyze more complex systems such as pressure vessels, plates, shells, and three dimensional solids. As these advanced elements used for the finite element analysis are derived based on assumed displacement field functions (there are no exact displacement field functions available having the number of natural coordinates exactly equal to the number of kinematic degrees of freedom for each of these

advanced elements), the accuracy of the finite element solutions depends upon the grid refinement. Commercial computer codes for structural analysis typically use matrix finite-element analysis, which can be further classified into two main approaches: the displacement or stiffness method and the force or flexibility method. The stiffness method is, by far, more popular thanks to its ease of implementation as well as its formulation for advanced applications. Finite-element technology is now sophisticated enough to handle just about any system as long as sufficient computer power is available. Its applicability includes, but is not limited to, linear and nonlinear analysis, solid and fluid interactions, materials that are isotropic, orthotropic, or anisotropic, and external effects that are static, dynamic, and environmental in nature. Advanced finite-element analysis is gradually extended into exotic territories such as non-linear viscoelasticity and rheological material. The advancement in finite-element analysis of structural systems has progressed so much that one can eliminate a vast number of experiments. Well planed and executed finite-element analysis can simulate structural response under external effects, though material properties are primarily determined by experiments. Time-line - It is believed that the early Egyptians had some empirical rules regarding the strength of materials so that rules for determining safe dimensions of structural members could be drawn, for without them it would have been impossible to erect their great monuments, temples, pyramids, and obelisks, some of which still exist. The Greeks further advanced the art of building. Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) established the conditions of equilibrium of a lever and outlined methods of determining centers of gravity of objects. The Greeks used his theory in developing hoisting devices. The Romans were great builders. Vitruvius recorded some of their building methods in his book, "Architecture" (French translation by De Bioul, Brussels, 1816).

Most of the knowledge that the Greeks and Romans accumulated was lost during the Middle Ages and only since the Renaissance has it been rediscovered. According to Heyman (1999), scientists use scientific and mathematical tools to deepen understanding of their own subject, while engineers use the same tools in order to do (build) something. In the early days, this distinction was not possible or needed. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was a truly outstanding man during the Renaissance. He was not only the leading artist of his time but also a great scientist and engineer. He studied strength of materials experimentally. Although Archimedes is occasionally credited to be the father of statics, modern structural engineering is truly indebted to many brilliant minds over the long journey of human civilization. Significant milestones in this regard may be summarized as follows: 1452 - 1519: Leonardo da Vinci made many contributions. 1638: Galileo Galilei published the book "Two New Sciences." 1660: Hooke's law by Robert Hooke. 1687: Issaac Newton published "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica." 1667 - 1748: Daniel Bernoulli introduced the principle of virtual work. 1707 - 1783: Leonhard Euler developed the theory of buckling of column. 1750: Euler - Bernoulli beam equation. 1783: Alberto Castigliano presented his dissertation "Introno ai sistemi elastici." 1826: L.M. Navier published a treatise on the elastic behavior of structures. 1930: Hardy Cross published the moment distribution method.

1941: A. Hremmikoff submitted his D.Sc thesis (MIT) dealing with discretization of plane elasticity problems using a lattice framework.

1956: J. Turner, R.W. Clough, H.C. Martin, and L.J. Topp presented a paper on "Stiffness and Deflection of Complex Structures." This paper is recognized as the first comprehensive treatment of the matrix method/finite element method as it is known today.

1980 - present: Implementation and refinement of the general non-linear analysis capability into commercially available computer software such as NASTRAN, ABAQUS, ADINA, SAP, etc. Exotic new elements are currently being developed and incorporated into existing computer software.

It would be interesting to note that structural engineers seemed to have preferred analysis to experiment up until the middle to late nineteenth century (Heyman, 1999) mainly due to the difficulty associated with creating large enough scale-model test specimens. However, this situation reversed around the middle to late nineteenth century as important experimental results were obtained for problems where theory either did not exist or had been insufficiently developed. This trend continues even today as new, effective experimental tools including universal testing machines and strain-gages (including vibrating wire-gages) are being developed and refined and are readily available. It would be fair to say that this trend may undergo yet another turn-around. As material properties can never be determined by purely analytical means alone, experimental investigations will continue to be needed. Complex structural response under a given loading can presently be analyzed (MacNeal, 1994) for systems including, but not limited to, non-linearity, hyperelasicity, visco-elasticity as affected by environmental parameters (such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, moisture contents), residual stresses, and geometric

imperfections. Hence, the majority of expensive and usually time-consuming experimental investigations can be eliminated and only selected few tests need to be performed to verify and calibrate the analytically extracted values. References Clough, R.W. (1960). "The Finite Element Method in Plane Stress Analysis," Proc. 2nd ASCE Conf. on Electronic Computation, Pittsburgh, pp. 345-378. Cross, H. (1930). "Analysis of Continuous Frames by Distributing Fixed End Moments," Proc. ASCE, May. Heyman, J. (1999). The Science of Structural Engineering, Imperial College Press, London. MacNeal, R. H. (1994). Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY. Timoshenko, S.P. (1983). History of Strength of Materials, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY. Timoshenko, S.P., and Gere, J.M. (1961). Theory of Elastic Stability, Second Edition, McGrawHill, New York, NY. Timoshenko, S.P., and Goodier, J.N. (1951). Theory of Elasticity, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Timoshenko, S.P., and Woinowsky-Krieger (1959). Theory of Plates and Shells, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Turner, M.J., Clough, R.W., Martin, H.C., and Topp, L.J. (1956). "Stiffness and Deflection Analysis of Complex Structures," J. Aeronautical Science, Vol. 23, pp. 803-23. Vlasov, V.Z. (1961). Thin -Walled Elastic Beams, Second Edition, Revised and Augmented, Israel Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem.

Wikipedia (2006). Structural Analysis - GNU Free Documentation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_analysis).