Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
either 0 or 1. Analogue electronics: Deals with continuously varying quantities with respect to time. Features of Analogue Electronics:
Varies continuously with time i.e. amplitude Mostly typical of nature e.g. speech, light energy Has been used for over 100 years It is wavy in nature
time
i. ii. iii.
They are discrete i.e. they occur in 0s and 1s Typical of technology Has been used for around 50 years; when transistors came into existence
Advantages of Digital over Analogue: i. Easier to process information/signal i.e. ease of manipulation ii. Use of very large scale integration integrated circuits iii. Take up small space as they are very small in size iv. They are programmable i.e. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) like PROM v. Not costly compared to analogue vi. Durable vii. More accurate viii. Portable ix. More secure x. Not mechanical xi. Not affected by noise Combiled by Omae Oteri Page 1
Applications of Digital Electronics: i. Communication and entertainment ii. Medicine iii. Industrial applications iv. Instrumentation v. Defense vi. Robotics vii. Astronomy viii. Biometrics Disadvantages of Digital Electronics: i. Require skills to operate ii. Initial cost of design is high iii. Can pose as a health hazard in some cases
Analogue Filter
ADC
Analogue
Page 2
NUMBER SYSTEMS:
This is the process of counting using unique symbols. TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 1. Decimal Number System It has 10 unique symbols which range from 0 9 It is to base 10 (Radix 10) Position value of a given digit is important e.g. 555 5 Hundredths 5 x 102 5 Tens 5 x 101 5 Ones 5 x 100
Decimal weights are in such a way that; From the decimal to the left we start with 100 and decimal point to the right is started with 10-1 Counting is started from 1st No, 2nd No, .. 10th No 0 1 9 Maximum 10th 10th 9 9 2nd 1 1st 0 2nd 1 1st 0 1st 0 2nd 1 10th 9 3rd 1 10th 9
2. Binary Number System It has 2 unique symbols i.e. 0 and 1 Its usually to base 2 (Radix 2) Position value of a given digit is important e.g. 111 1 1 x 22 1 1 x 21 1 1 x 20
Decimal weights are in such a way that; From the binary points to the left 20 and binary points to the right 2-1 e.g. 101.1101 1 20 Counting 1st No . 0 Maximum 2nd 2nd 1 1 2nd No 1 2nd 1 2nd 1 2nd 1 1st2nd 0 1 1st 0 1st 0 0 1. 1 1 2-1 2nd 1 1st 0 2nd 1 2nd 1 1st 1 2nd 1 1st 1 2nd 1 2nd 1 Page 3 0 1
3. Octal Number System Has 8 unique symbols Its usually to base 8 Position value of digit is important Decimal weights are in such a way that; o From octal point to the left 80 o Octal point to the right 8-1 e.g. 66.45 6 80 Counting 1st No . 0 Maximum 8th 8th 7 7 6. 4 5 8-1
8th No 7
2nd 1 2nd 1
8th 7
3rd 2
1st. 3rd 0 2
8th 7
4. Hexadecimal Number System Has 16 unique symbols i.e. 0 9 , A F Base 16 (Radix 16) position value of digit is important e.g. 777 7 7 x 162 7 7 x 161 7 7 x 160
Decimal weights are in such a way that; From hexadecimal to the left 160 Hexadecimal to the right 16-1 e.g. 689.A73 6 8 160 Counting 1st No . 0 Maximum 16th 16th F F Combiled by Omae Oteri 9. A 7 16-1 3
16th No 15
2nd 1 2nd 1
16th F
Page 4
INTERCONVERSIONS
1. Decimal to Binary / Integer Values a) i. ii. iii. Weights Method Procedure Take the binary weights up to slightly more than the number given. Divide the decimal weight by the number given then indicate how many times either 0 or 1 and take the remainder to the next weight. Continue till the remainder is 0
13910 = 100010112 Example 2 Convert 156 to binary 156 256 0 156 128 1 28 64 0 28 32 0 28 16 1 12 8 1 4 4 1 0 2 0 0 1 0
15610 = 100111002 b) i. ii. Divide by 2 Method Procedure Take the number, divide by 2 and indicate the remainders The remainders are read from down-up
Decimal Pointed Values / Fractional Values Procedure i. Multiply the number by 2 ii. Take the integer value as the binary equivalent (carry) iii. For the pointed value continue multiplying by 2 till the fractional value is 0 iv. The integer values are written up-down to give the result Example 1 Convert 0.625 to binary 2 2 2 2 0.625 0.25 0.5 0.0 Carry 1 0 1
0.62510 = 0.1012 NB: 0.625 x 2 = 1.25 Where 1 = Integer Value (Carry) And 0.25 = Pointed Value
Example 2 Convert 0.728 to binary 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0.728 0.456 0.912 0.824 0.648 0.296 0.592 Carry 1 0 1 1 1 0
0.72810 ~ 0.101112 Binary to Decimal Integer Values Procedure i. Indicate the weights to the corresponding binary digits ii. Cross out the weights that have zero above them iii. Sum up the weights that have 1s above them Example 10010112 1 64 64 0 32 + 0 16 1 8 8 0 4 + 1 2 2 1 1 + 1 = 75
Decimal Pointed Values / Fractional Values Procedure i. Indicate the weights to the corresponding binary digits ii. Cross out the weights that have zero above them iii. Sum up the weights that have 1s above them Example: Convert 0.11012 to Decimal NB: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
A B C D E F
Decimal to Octal / Integer Values Weights Method Procedure i. Take the binary weights up to slightly more than the number given. ii. Divide the decimal weight by the number given then indicate how many times either 0 or 1 and take the remainder to the next weight. iii. Continue till the remainder is 0 Example 3010 to Octal
Page 7
Divide by 8 Method Procedure i. Take the number, divide by 8 and indicate the remainders ii. The remainders are read from down-up Example: Convert 3010 to Octal 8 8 8 30 3 0 3010 = 368 Remainder 6 3
Decimal Pointed Values / Fractional Values Procedure i. Multiply the number by 8 ii. Take the integer value as the binary equivalent (carry) iii. For the pointed value continue multiplying by 8 till the fractional value is 0 iv. The integer values are written up-down to give the result Example Convert 0.3610 to Octal 8 8 8 8 2 2 0.36 Carry 0.88 2 0.04 7 0.32 0 0.56 2 0.48 4 0.3610 ~ 0.270248
7748 = 50810
Page 8
0.
0 8-1
2 8-3 2 x 8-3
Binary to Octal Procedure i. Group the binary digits into groups of 3 ii. Then convert to decimal iii. Conversion is done integer from point to left whereas for fraction from point to right Example: Convert 1110110.1011 to Octal 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0. 1 0 1 1 0 0
6.
1110110.1011 = 166.548
Octal to Binary Procedure Convert the number to groups of 3 bits Example: Convert 2107.318 to Binary 2 010 1 001 0 000 7. 111. 3 011 1 001
2107.318 = 010001000111.0110012
Page 9
Hexadecimal to Decimal Procedure i. Put the weights under their respective position value ii. Cancel the ones under 0 and multiply the rest with their respective numbers iii. Sum them up after getting the product Example: Convert 38.9F to Decimal 3 161 3 x 161 48 8. 160 + 8 x 160 + + 8. + 9 16-1 9 x 16-1 + 0.5625 + F 16-2 15 x 16-2 0.05859
0.25 = 0.416 Hexadecimal to Binary Procedure i. Convert each hexadecimal digit to a group of 4 bits ii. Then combine them to give a string of bits (binary) Example: Convert 48.26B16 to Binary Hexadecimal 4 8 2 6 B Binary 0100 1000 0010 0110 1011
Binary to Hexadecimal Procedure i. Group the bits to groups of 4 bits ii. Convert them to decimal equivalent and combine the digits left iii. Grouping of integers starts from the binary point to the left whereas fractional starts from the binary point to the right iv. Add insignificant bits either to the leftmost Example: Convert 110110.0101012 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
6.
110110.0101012 = 36.5416 Hexadecimal to Octal Procedure i. First convert the hexadecimal number to binary ii. Group the bits in groups of 3 to convert them into Octal Example: Convert 65D.AC316 to Octal 0 1 1 3 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 3 1 0 1. 5. 1 0 1 5 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3
65D.AC316 = 3135.53038
Octal to Hexadecimal Procedure i. Convert the Octal number to binary ii. Thereafter convert it to hexadecimal Example: Convert 763.548 to Hexadecimal 1 1 1 1 F 1 1 0 0 3. 763.548= 1F3.B16 1 1. 1 0 B 1 1 0 0
Page 11
1. Addition Binary Addition It involves adding two binary numbers Example: adding a single bit A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Addition 0 1 1 0 Carry 1 = 1 0
2. Binary Subtraction Methods of Subtraction i) Direct Subtraction ii) Subtraction using 1s compliments iii) Subtraction using 2s compliments iv) Example: subtracting a single bit A 0 0 1 1 Direct Subtraction Example 1: subtracting a string of bits A= B= 11001.10110111.111 00001.110 B 0 1 0 1 Addition 0 1 Borrow 1 1 0
Page 12
Subtraction using compliments 1s Compliment Procedure i. Invert the binary number i.e. invert all the bits individually ii. Where there is 1 change it to 0 and vice versa 1s Compliment 01001
Example:
1 0 1 1 02
2s Compliment Procedure i. First obtain 1s compliment ii. Add a 1 to the Least Significant Bit 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1s Compliment + 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2s Compliment
Example:
10110010
Procedure i. Take the binary and check for the first 1 from the LSB ii. Arrange the binary bits the way they appear including the first bit iii. Compliment the rest Example 1: 10110010 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 2s Compliment
Example 2:
10010000 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2s Compliment
Page 13
Subtraction using 1s Compliment Procedure i. Compliment the subtraend and add it to the minuend ii. If there is a carry take it round and add it to the LSB iii. The result will be correct and positive iv. If there is no carry the result is not correct and will be negative v. Re-compliment and attach a negative Example 1: A= B= 101101100011 001010
Subtraction using 2s Compliment Procedure i. Obtain the 2s compliment of the subtraend ii. Add it to the minuend iii. If there is a carry discard it; the result is correct and positive iv. If there is no carry; the result is negative and incorrect v. Re-compliment it (using 2s compliment) and attach a negative Example 1: A= B= 101101 100011 111101+ 101101 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 Discard the carry 1
B + 1 = A =
Page 14
Example 2: B= A=
A + 1 = B =
100 10110100 101 000 Done by subtracting the divisor from the dividend and shifting it to the left until the remainder is 0
Page 15
Procedure i. First remove the point from both the dividend and divisor by multiplying them to make them whole numbers (integers). Dividend Divisor 1 1 1 . 1 0 1 x 1000 = 111101 0 .1 1 x 1000 110 1010.00101 110111101 110 110 110 01000 110 1000 11 1.101 1010.00101 0.11 Example 3: Dividend Divisor
Page 16
BINARY CODES This is a way of representing symbols using binary numbers Binary code is given by: i. Straight Binary Code ii. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) iii. Excess-3 iv. Gray Code v. ASCII Code 1. Straight Binary Code It uses the normal binary representation A decimal number is converted to its binary equivalent Example 1410 11102
Advantages of Straight Binary Code Easier to deal with Disadvantages of Straight Binary Code Prone to more errors 2. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Obtained by converting each individual decimal digit to its binary equivalent in groups of 4-bits. Combine the bits to obtain a string of bits Only 0-9 can be converted to binary 10-15 are invalid cases for BCD Also referred to as 8421 representation NB: Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 BCD 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001
Page 17
Converting from Decimal to BCD Procedure i. Convert each individual decimal to binary in groups of 4 and combine them Example: 45810 4 = 0100 5 = 0101 8 = 1000 45810 = 010001011000BCD Converting from BCD to Decimal Procedure i. Group the given bits in groups of 4-bits ii. Convert each group to its decimal equivalent iii. Grouping should be done from Least Significant Bit (LSB) to Most Significant Bit (MSB) Example 1: 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 12 2 6 510
10011001012 = 26510
Example 2:
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 9 7 210
02
1001011100102 = 97210
3. Excess-3 Obtained by adding 3 to each decimal digit and converting to binary in groups of 4-bits Combine them to form a string of bits Converting from Decimal to Excess-3 Procedure i. Add 3 to each digit ii. Convert to binary iii. If after adding 3 to the digit you obtain a carry ( beyond 10) still convert the whole number to binary e.g. 7 + 3, 8 + 3 etc
Page 18
2710 = 01011010Excess-3
Converting from Excess-3 to Decimal Procedure i. Group the bits in groups of 4 from the Least Significant Bit ii. Convert each group to decimal equivalent iii. Subtract 3 from each digit iv. 0,1,2,13,14, and 15 are invalid values for Excess-3 Example: 0101 5 - 3 2 1100 12 3 9 1010 10 3 710
010111001010Excess-3 = 29710 4. Gray Code This represents the numbers in a way that each consecutive number will differ by 1 in binary form Example: 1 bit A 0 1
Example: 2 bits
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 1 0
Page 19
Converting from Binary to Gray Code Procedure i. Most Significant Bit (MSB) remains the same ii. 2nd bit is obtained by adding the MSB bit and the 2nd bit of binary then discard the carry iii. 3rd bit is obtained by adding 2nd bit to 3rd bit of binary also discard the carry iv. Continue until all the bits are considered Example: Convert 10112 to Gray Code 10112 = 1110gray code
Page 20
Converting from Gray Code to Binary Procedure i. Most Significant Bit (MSB) remains the same ii. 2nd bit is obtained by adding the MSB bit of the binary to the 2nd bit of gray code then discard the carry iii. Continue until all the bits are considered Example: Convert 1110gray code to Binary 1110gray code = 10112 Applications of Gray Code i. Reduction of errors ii. Karnaugh Map (K-Map) 5. NB: MSB 011 100 0 1 A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 E 6 F 7 G 8 H 9 I J K L M N O ASCII CODE This is an alpha-numeric code Represents decimal digits and alphabets in binary and other symbols Its the standard used in the keyboard Contains a 7-bit representation
LSB 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
000
001
010
101 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
110 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o
111 p q r s t u v w x y z
Values are read from MSB to LSB Example: Letter A = 100 0001 Letter J = 100 1010
Page 21
LOGIC GATES Definition Logic: A way of reasoning to make a decision In electronics logic stands for a way of representing convention using binary Types of Logic Conventions: i. Positive Logic Convention ii. Negative Logic Convention 1. Positive Logic Convention 0 1 Off On No Yes Negative Positive False True Low High Absence Presence 2. Negative Logic Convention 1 0
Gate: A device which makes logic decisions It gives output depending on the different inputs Its constructed by using diodes, switches and transistors Its the basic building blocks for all digital systems Truth table Has inputs and outputs The output usually depends on different combinations of input They are used to analyze different gates Example 1: 1 input and 1 output Input Output A F 0 1 1 0 F = A Example 2: 2 inputs and 1 output Inputs Output AB F 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 F=A+B Combiled by Omae Oteri Page 22
Example 3: 3 inputs and 1 output Inputs Output AB C F 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 F=A+B+C BOOLEAN EXPRESSION This is an equation which represents an output for different inputs It contains output variables and input variables using the alphabet It is used to analyze logic gates It can be obtained from the truth tables Examples F = A F=A+B F = AB + CD TYPES OF GATES i. Inverter NOT ii. OR iii. AND iv. XOR v. XNOR vi. NOR vii. NAND
Basic Gates
Universal Gates
i) Inverter NOT gate It is a device that compliments an input Symbol: Input (A) Output (F)
Features: It has a bubble as an output Has 1-input and 1-output It inverts an input
Page 23
O/P
I/P 5V
0.6V R
O/P
5v RC
C
5v high 2v low
O/P
I/P
5V high Ov low
RO
0V
SWITCHES
A off B
ii) OR Gate A gate which gives an output of 0 only when all inputs are 0 Combiled by Omae Oteri Page 24
Symbol:
0v I/ P A
A
5v 0v
5 v - h ig h
F
I /P B
0v
D2
5v
5 v lo w
5v
VS
SB
Bulb
Page 25
Boolean expression: F=A+B iii) AND Gate A gate which gives a high only when both inputs are high Symbol:
A F B
Features: It has 2 or more inputs Has 1-output Gives an output of 1 when both inputs are 1 Behaves like a multiplexer
sv
low
o/p
VB
low
D2
Page 26
SA
SB bulb VS
INPUTS SA SB Open Open Open Closed Closed Open Closed Closed Truth table Inputs AB 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 Output F 0 0 0 1
iv) XOR Gate A gate which gives a high only when either of the inputs is high Symbol:
A F B
Features: It has 2 or more inputs Gives out only 1-output Gives an output of 1 when either inputs are 1 Combiled by Omae Oteri Page 27
I/P
Out put
5v
D2
SB
Bulb
VS
Page 28
Boolean expression: F= A B
F = AB + AB
v) XNOR Gate A gate which gives an output of 1 only when both inputs are the same Symbol:
A F B
Features: It has 2 or more inputs Gives out only 1-output Gives an output of 1 when either inputs are 0 or 1
VS
SA Selenoid SB
Bulb
Page 29
vi) NOR Gate A gate which gives an output of 1 only when all inputs are 0 Symbol:
A B
Features: It has 2 or more inputs Gives out only 1-output Gives an output of 1 when all inputs are 0 Construction using switches
VS
SA Selenoid SB
Bulb
Off On On
On Off On
Demorgans Theorem Procedure: i. Remove the overbar ii. Change the OR gate to an AND gate or vice versa iii. Compliment individual variables/literals Hence Will be same as F=A+B F = A.B
vii) NAND Gate A gate which gives low output only when all inputs are high Symbol:
Page 31
A B
Features: It has 2 or more inputs It has a bubble Gives out only 1-output Gives an low output only when all inputs are high Construction using switches
VS
Bulb SA Selenoid SB
A B
Page 32
NB: NOR & NAND GATES These are universal gates Hence they can be used to implement all the other gates Exercise 1. a) Implement all the other gates using the NOR Gate b) Implement all the other gates using the NAND Gate c) Implement the following using NOR gates and NAND gates F = AB + BC + CD F = ABC + ABC 2. Design a logic diagram for the following Boolean expression
F = ACD + BC + AC F = ABC + AB + BD
Page 33
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA Invented by Boole George Expression which are used to analyze digital circuits Used to minimize the number of logic gates used to implement a circuit
DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS (A+B) (A+C) = A + BC A + AB = A+B A +AB = A +B ABSORPTIVE LAWS A(A+B) = A A + AB = A A(A +B) = AB
Page 34
2.
A + AB = A + B = A.1 + AB = A (1 + B) + AB = A + AB + AB = A+ B (A + A) =A+B
3.
Using Boolean algebra, simplify the following expressions and implement them using the minimum number of gates i) ii) iii) F = AB + AC + ABC F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC +ABC F= (x+ y) x (y+z) + xy + xz
Page 35
STANDARD FORM OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSION They are of two types namely: i. Sum of Products (SOP) ii. Product of Sum (POS) 1. Sum of Products (SOP) A combination of literals in multiplication form e.g. ABC, AB, ABCD Literals in every product appear in compliment or non compliment form No single bar can cover more than one literal e.g. ABC Every product will give 1-output for only 1-input combination, the rest will result to 0 Thus this product is called a Min-term A product domain represents all the literals/variables at the input
Example F(A,B,C) = ABC + ABC is a domain of 3 variables A, B & C SOP is a combination of several products ORed together Example F(A,B,C) =AB + AC + C
2.
Product of Sum (POS) A combination of literals in summation/addition form e.g. (A+B) (A+C) Literals in every sum appear in complimented or non complimented form No single bar can cover more than 1 literal Every sum will give a 0-output for only 1-input combination; the rest will give or result to 1 Thus the sum is called a Max-term A sum domain represents all the literals/variables at the output
Example F(A,B,C) = (A+B+C)(A+B+C) POS is a combination of several sums ANDed together Standard/Canonical for SOP Referred to as the Standard Sum of Products (SSOP) All the literals in the domain must appear in every product Example: F(A,B) = AB + AB F(A,B,C) = ABC + ABC This form is important in developing the truth table or K-Map for simplification purposes.
Page 36
Conversion from SOP to SSOP Procedure i. Identify the SOP domain ii. Identify the missing literal in each product iii. AND or multiply the literal summed with its compliment and expand E.g. iv. v. vi. AB(C+C) Continue till all the literals appear in each product Eliminate the repeated products Represented using m
Example: F(A,B,C) = A + BC + BC = A(B+B) + (A+A)BC + (A+A)BC = AB + AB + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC = AB(C+C) + AB(C+C) + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC Standard/Canonical for POS Referred to as the Standard Product of Sums (SPOS) All the literals in the domain must appear in every sum E.g. F(A,B) = (A+B)(A+B) Represented by m Conversion from POS to SPOS Procedure i. Identify the POS domain ii. Identify the missing literal in each term iii. OR or add the literal multiplied with its compliment and expand E.g. iv. v. F(A+B) = (A+B+CC) Continue till all the literals appear in each term or sum Eliminate the repeated sums
Page 37
Example: F(A,B,C) = A(B+C) = (A+BB) (AA+B+C) = (A+B) (A+B) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) = (A+B+CC) (A+B+CC) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) = (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) = (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C)
TRANSFERRING STANDARD FORM OF EXPRESSION TO A TRUTH TABLE 1. Standard Sum of Product Procedure i. Identify the SSOP domain ii. 2 to the power of the number of literals in the expression will give the number of combination in the truth table E.g. 2 literals 3 literals 4 literals 22 =4 23 = 8 24 = 16
iii.
Change the literals to their binary equivalent by using the following A barred literal A non-barred literal =0 =1
iv.
Example: Transfer the following to a truth table F(A,B,C) = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC Convert to binary 111 101 011 100 000
Page 38
Truth table A B 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 1 3 0 1 4 1 0 5 1 0 6 1 1 7 1 1
C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
F 1
1 1 1 1
F(A,B,C) = m (0,3,4,5,7) 2 i. ii. Standard Product of Sum Procedure Identify the SPOS domain 2 to the power of the number of literals in the expression will give the number of combination in the truth table 2 literals 3 literals 4 literals 22 =4 23 = 8 24 = 16
E.g.
iii.
Change the literals to their binary equivalent by using the following A barred literal A non-barred literal =1 =0
iv.
Example: Transfer the following to a truth table F(A,B,C) = (A+B+C) (A+B+C) (A+B+C) Convert to binary 000 010 101 Truth table A B C F 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 3 0 1 1 4 1 0 0 5 1 0 1 0 6 1 1 0 7 1 1 1 F(A,B,C) = m (0,2,5)
Page 39
Changing from a truth table to SSOP and SPOS Wherever there is an output of 1 the combination will give a product and 0 will give a sum Combine the combinations of 1s using addition to from SSOP Combine the combinations of 0s using addition to from SPOS Example Convert the following to SSOP and SPOS using the table below Truth table A B 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 1 5 0 1 6 0 1 7 0 1 8 1 0 9 1 0 10 1 0 11 1 0 12 1 1 13 1 1 14 1 1 15 1 1
C 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
D 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
F 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
SSOP F = (A,B,C,D) = m(1,2,7,8,9,10,12,14,15) = (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) + (ABCD) 0001 0010 0111 1000 1001 1010 1100 (ABCD) + (ABCD) 1110 1111 SPOS F = (A,B,C,D) = m(0,3,4,5,6,11,13) = (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) 0000 0011 0100 0101 0110 (A+B+C+D) (A+B+C+D) 1011 1101
Page 40
INTERCONVERSIONS From SSOP to SPOS i. Obtain truth table equivalent for SSOP combinations ii. The remaining are automatically 0s which can be obtained as SPOS
From SPOS to SSOP i. Obtain truth table equivalent for SPOS combinations ii. The remaining are automatically 1s which can be obtained as SSOP
Exercise 1. Using the following equations: i) Obtain SSOP ii) Convert to SPOS using a truth table F(A,B,C,D) = AB + CD +BC F(A,B,C,D) = BCD + A + CD
2. Using the following expressions: i) Obtain SPOS ii) Convert to SSOP using a truth table F(A,B,C,D) = (B+C) (A+D) F(A,B,C,D) = AB(C+D)
K-MAP SIMPLIFICATION Karnaugh Map Its a representation which uses squares to represent SSOP or SPOS The number of squares depends on the number of input variables Example 2-input variables 22 squares 3-input variables 23 squares 4-input variables 24 squares Generally the number of squares = 2 to power the number of input variables The binary equivalent of the input variables is represented using the gray code format to get the adjacent squares The 1s for SSOP are called Min-terms or Prime Implicants
Page 41
SSOP Representation Procedure i. Identify the min-term ii. Change the input variables to their binary equivalent iii. In the table indicate a 1 to correspond with the binary equivalent of the minterm General Representation 1. 2-Variable K-Map A B A 0
0
A 1
2
B 0
00
AB
10 1
AB
3
B 1
AB
01 11
AB
2.
3-Varible K-Map AB AB C 00
0
AB 01
2
AB 11
4
AB 10
6
C 0
ABC
000 1
ABC
010 3
ABC
100 5
ABC
110 7
C 1
ABC
001
ABC
011
ABC
101
ABC
111
3.
4-Variable K-Map AB AB AB CD 00 01
0 4
AB 11
12
AB 10
8
CD 00
ABCD
0000 1
ABCD
0100 5
ABCD
1100 13
ABCD
1000 9
CD 01
ABCD
0001 3
ABCD
0101 7
ABCD
1101 15
ABCD
1001 11
CD 11
ABCD
0011 2
ABCD
0111 6
ABCD
1111 14
ABCD
1011 10
ABCD CD 10
0010
ABCD
0110
ABCD
1110
ABCD
1010
Page 42
AB 01
2
AB 11
7
AB 10
4
1 1
1
5
SPOS Representation Procedure i. Identify the max-term ii. Change input variables to their binary equivalent iii. In the table indicate a 0 to correspond with the square with the binary equivalent of the max-term
1.
2-Variable K-Map A A B 0
0
A 1
2
0
00
A+B
10 1
A+B
3
A+B
01 11
A+B
2.
3-Varible K-Map AB C C 0
000 1
AB 00
0
AB 01
2
AB 11
4
AB 10
6
A+B+C A+B+C
001
A+B+C
010 3
A+B+C
100 5
A+B+C
110 7
C 1
A+B+C
011
A+B+C
101
A+B+C
111
Page 43
3.
4-Variable K-Map AB CD CD 00 AB 00
0 0000 1 0100 5 0101 3 7 0111 2 6 0110 1110 1111 14 1010 1101 15 1011 10
AB 01
4
AB 11
12 1100 13
AB 10
8 1000 9 1001 11
CD 01
CD 11
AB 00
AB 01
AB 11
12
AB 10
8
0 0
3
CD 01 CD 11 CD 10
0
7
0
2
0
14
Simplification using K-map SSOP Procedure i. Indicate 1s in the corresponding min-term squares ii. Group the 1s in groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 taking the maximum combination iii. The 1s to be grouped are those which are adjacent to each other iv. Obtain the minimum expression from the different groups (prime implicant) Procedure for obtaining a minimized prime implicant i. Take those variables which do not change in binary as you move from one square to the other in the group ii. The changing variables are omitted iii. The final expression is obtained by summing the minimized products
Page 44
F(A,B,C) = m(1,3,4,6,7)
AB 00
AB 01
AB 11
6
AB 10
4
1
7
C 1
F(A,B,C) = AC + AB + AC
ii)
F(A,B,C,D) = m(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13)
CD CD 00 CD 01 CD 11 CD 10
AB 00
AB 01 1
AB 11 1 1
AB 10 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
F(A,B,C,D) = AC + BD + BC + AC Simplification using K-map SPOS Procedure i. Indicate a 0 in the corresponding max-term squares ii. Group the 0s in groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 taking the maximum possible combination iii. The 0s to be grouped are the ones which are adjacent to each other iv. Obtain the minimum expression from the different groups (prime implicant) Procedure for obtaining a minimized prime implicant i. Take those variables which do not change in binary as you move from one square to the other in the group ii. The changing variables are omitted iii. The final expression is obtained by summing the minimized products
Page 45
Example: Obtain a minimized expression from the following Boolean expressions i) F(A,B,C) = m(2,3,5,6,7) AB C C C 0 1 AB 00 AB 01 0 0 AB 11 0 0 0 AB 10
F(A,B,C) = B(A + C)
ii)
F(A,B,C,D) = m(4,6,8,9,11,12,14,15)
AB CD CD 00 CD 01 CD 11 CD 10
AB 00
AB 01 0
AB 11 0
AB 10 0 0
0 0 0
F(A,B,C,D) = (B+D) (A+B+C) (A+C+D) Dont care steps i. They are represented using x ii. They can be either 0s or 1s iii. They are used to minimize expressions iv. They cant be grouped on their own v. For min-terms they are given by x vi. And for max-terms they are given by x
Page 46
F(A,B,C) = (C + A)
ii)
F(A,B,C,D) = m(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11,12,13) + x
AB CD CD 00 CD 01 CD 11 CD 10
AB 00
X
AB 01 1 1 1 1
AB 11 1 1
AB 10 1 1 1 X
1 1 1
F(A,B,C,D) = A+C+B Exercise: From the following expressions: i) Obtain the minimized expressions ii) Draw the logic diagrams for the obtained equation F(A,B,C,D) = m(0,1,2,3,5,10,11,13) + x(4,14,15) F(A,B,C,D) = m(1,2,5,7,8,10,11) . x(0,3,6,14,15)
Page 47
COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS These are logic diagrams where the output depends on only present inputs Made from a combination of gates Types include: i. Adders ii. Subtractors iii. Multiplexers iv. Demultiplexers v. Encoders vi. Decoders
1. Adders They add inputs to obtain a sum and a carry out Types of adders i. Half Adder Has 2 inputs and 2 outputs
Block Diagram
A Half - adder B Cout
S B 0 1 1
1 0
CO B
A 0 1
Page 48
Logic Diagram
A B
CO
Block Diagram
Cout
A 0 1
00
01 1
11
10 1 1
CO B
A 0 1
00
01
11 1 1
10
Page 49
S0
2. Subtractors They subtract inputs to obtain a difference and a borrow out Types of subtractors i. Half Subtractor Has 2 inputs and 2 outputs Block Diagram
A Half subtractor B bo D
Truth table A B D BO 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
Page 50
D(AB)
A B 0 1 0 1
A B
b0(AB)
A B 0 1 0
Logic Diagram
A B D
bo
ii.
Block Diagram
A B bi Full subtractor
b0
Page 51
BO 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
01
11
10
bi(A, B, bi)
AB C 00 01 11 10
1 1 1 1
Logic Diagram
A B
D bi
bi
Full-subtractor
Page 52
Multiplexers A device which has several inputs, 1-output and some select lines It channels only one of the several inputs to the output Block Diagram
I0 I1
MUX n to 1
In-1
S0 S1
SM-1
Number of inputs = n Number of outputs =1 Number of select lines = m The relationship between the select lines and inputs is given by: Inputs n = 2m Design a 2 to 1 MUX block diagram
I0 MUX 2 to 1 I1 F
S0 I1 I0
F = S0 I0 + S0 I1 When S0 = 0; Io is selected When S0 = 1; I1 is selected I1 and I0 can either be 0 or 1 Design a 4 to 1 MUX block diagram
I0 I1 I2 I4 4 to 1 MUX F
S0
S1
Output F 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
F = S1 S0 I0 + S1 S0 I1 + S1 S0 I2 + S2 S0 I3
S
1
S0
I3
I2 I1 I0
Exercise i) Design a 8 to 1 MUX ii) Design a 8 to 1 MUX using 2 to 1 MUX iii) Design a 8 to 1 MUX using 4 to 1 MUX
Page 54
Output
EN
DEMUX
F1
FM-1
S0 S 1 S 2 Select lines
Sm-1
Number of inputs = 1 Number of outputs =n Number of select lines = m The relationship between the select lines and inputs is given by: 2m = n Design a 1 to 2 Demux Block Diagram
1 to 2 Demux F0 F1
SO
Input
Page 55
EN
S0
F0
F1
F2 F3 i0 I1
SO
Truth table Inputs Output S1 I0 I F3 F2 F1 F0 0 0 I 0 0 0 1 0 1 I 0 0 1 0 1 0 I 0 1 0 0 1 1 I 1 0 0 0 F0 = S1 S0 I F1 = S1 S0 I F2 = S1 S0 I F3 = S1 S0 I Exercise i. Design a 1 to 8 Demux ii. Design a 1 to 8 Demux using 1 to 2 Demux iii. Design a 1 to 8 Demux using 1 to 4 Demux
Encoders Direct several inputs to a few outputs using the following relation n = 2m Where n = inputs and m = ouputs Combiled by Omae Oteri Page 56
Block Diagram
I0 I! In-1
Design a 2 to 1 encoder Block Diagram
I0 2 to 1 encorder F0
F0 ENCODER F1 FM-1
I1
F0
F1
Page 57
Truth table Inputs Output I3 I2 I1 I0 F1 F0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 F0 = I1 + I3 F1 = I2 + I3 Decoders Direct a few inputs to several outputs using the following relation 2m = n Where m = inputs and n = outputs Block Diagram
EN I0 In-1 DECODER
F0 F1 FM-1
EN DECODER I0
F0
F1
Page 59
A logic circuit whose output depends on the present inputs and past outputs Made of combinational logic circuits and memory elements Have feedback Can store a 1 or a 0 Mostly they have two outputs complimenting each other and Q
They can be timed using a clock There are of 2 types: i. Synchronous ii. Asynchronous 1. Synchronous All the sequential circuits are controlled by a common clock The propagation delay of the whole system is equivalent to the propagation delay of the constituent parts of the system They are stable
Q clk Q
2.
Asynchronous Not controlled by a common clock Have a large propagation delay (time shift between input and output) They are unstable They are prone to many errors
Page 60
Flip Flop These are circuits which can change state according to the inputs Block Diagram
J
SET
inputs
K
CLR
outputs
Q
It has 2 inputs and 2 outputs Outputs Q and Q If Q = 0; then Q = 1 If Q = 1; then Q = 0 They have feedback Can also be clocked Types of Flip Flops i. RS Flip Flop ii. JK Flip Flop iii. D Flip Flop iv. T Flip Flop 1. RS (Reset Set) Flip Flop Block Diagram
SET
CLR
Truth table S R Qn+1 0 0 No change 0 1 0 Reset 1 0 1 Set 1 1 Invalid/unstable/racing Combiled by Omae Oteri Page 61
NB: Q Present state Qn+1 Next state Racing Changing state continuously Logic Diagram using NAND gates
S
Operation S R Qn+1 0 0 Invalid 0 1 0 Reset 1 0 1 Set 1 1 No change
Clock signal/Timing signal It is a signal waveform (digital) used to synchronize the operation of sequential circuits
Level one
Rising edge
It triggers circuits to start operating Types of triggering i. Edge triggering ii. Level triggering A. Edge triggering Where a circuit is triggered by a rising (leading) or a falling (trailing) edge
CLK
CLK
Page 62
CLK
S
clock
SET
R
Logic diagram
R
CLR
Q clk
J
clock
SET
CLR
Q
Page 63
Logic Diagram
clk
J Q
CLR
Logic diagram
clk
Logic diagram
clk
Truth table Q T Qn+1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 TRANSITION TABLE AND DIAGRAMS Used in designing of counters JK Flip Flop Used in designing of counters Transition table Inputs Q Qn+1 J K 0 0 0 X 0 1 1 X 1 0 X 1 1 1 X 0
Page 65
Transition Diagram
1/X
O/X 0 1 X/O
X/1
O 0 1 1
O 0 1 0
Page 66
REGISTERS Device used to store data Mostly constructed using flip flops particularly D Flip Flops Can be used to shift data serially or in parallel Use a common clock Types of Registers i. Serial Input Serial Output (SISO) They are used to obtain a single bit input and single bit output ii. Serial Input Parallel Output (SIPO) They obtain a single input bit and transfer it as several outputs Parallel Input Serial Output (PISO) Obtains several input bits and channels them as a single output Works as a multiplexer Parallel Input Parallel Output (PIPO) Obtains several input bits and transfers them to several outputs Works as a decoder or encoder
iii.
iv.
Serial Input Parallel Output (SIPO) They are of 2 types: i. Shift right register Moves data/bits from left to right Mostly they are converted using D Flip Flops Diagram
QA Input
D
QB QC
SET
SET
SET
CLR
CLR
CLR
Operation Information/data is transferred with every clock pulse from left to right. If for instance there is an input of 1011 after each clock pulse the bits will be transferred from one flip flop to another.
Page 67
E.g. Input 1011 1st Clock Pulse 2nd Clock Pulse 3rd Clock Pulse 4th Clock Pulse 5th Clock Pulse ii. QA 1 1 0 1 X QB X 1 1 0 1 QC QD X X X X 1 X 1 1 0 X
Shift left register Moves data/bits from right to left Constructed using D Flip Flops Clocked
Diagram
QD
QC
QB
QA Input
D
SET
SET
SET
SET
D3
Q
CLR
D2
Q
CLR
D1
Q
CLR
D0
Q
CLR
Operation Information/data is transferred with every clock pulse from right to left. If for instance there is an input of 1100 after each clock pulse the bits will be transferred from one flip flop to another. E.g. Input 1100 1 Clock Pulse 2nd Clock Pulse 3rd Clock Pulse 4th Clock Pulse 5th Clock Pulse
st
QD QC X X X X X 1 1 1 1 0
QB X 1 1 0 0
QA 1 1 0 0 X
Page 68
COUNTERS A logic circuit which goes through a sequence and repeats the sequence E.g. counting from 0 1 2 3 0 1
0 3 2
Constructed using flip flops Has a clock Types of Counters i. Synchronous Features Have a common clock Have less propagation time (PT) i.e. time it takes for data to move in circuit from input to output Stable Has very few errors ii. Asynchronous Features Dont have a common clock Have more propagation time (PT) Not stable i.e. in terms of reliability More prone to errors compared to the synchronous Synchronous Design Procedure i. Determine the number of steps the counter goes through. ii. Determine the number of flip flops to be used using a number of states Formula 2n = N; Number of states Where n = Number of flip flops Log2n = Log N n = Log N Log 2 iii. iv. v. Round off to the higher number all the time even if you obtain pointers > 5. Use transition diagram to obtain inputs to the flip flops to be used Document in a truth table Page 69
vi.
Example: Design a BCD counter Synchronous and asynchronous using T flip flops Synchronous BCD
0 9 8 1 2
9 goes through
3 7 6 5 4
Number of states = 10 states Number of flip flops n = Log N = log 10 3.32 4 flip flops Log 2 log 2 Truth table Present State A B C D 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
Next State A B C D 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Page 70
AB CD 00 01 11 10 1 1 1 1 00 01 11 X 10
X X X X
TD AB CD 00 01 11 10 00 1 01 1 11 X 10 1 1 X X
1 1 1
1 1 1
X X
TB CD
AB 00 01 11 10
00
01
11 X
10
X 1 1 X X X
TB CD
AB 00 01 11 10
00
01
11 X
10
X 1 X
1 X X
Page 71
SET
A
CLR
SET
B
CLR
SET
C
CLR
SET
D
CLR
Next State A B C D 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Page 72
AB CD 00 01 11 10 1 00 01 11 X 10
X X
1 X
AB CD 00 01 11 10 1 1 00 01 11 X 10
X X X
AB CD 00 01 11 10 1 1 1 1 00 01 11 X 10
X X X X
Page 73
SET
A
CLR
SET
B
CLR
SET
C
CLR
SET
D
CLR
Page 74