ERTH2404 Lecture 14: Rock Mechanics

Dr. Jason Mah

Mah, 2012

Reading assignment
Please read Kehews book to complement the material presented in this lecture: Chap. 7;

Structural Geology Review

Strike and Dip Fractures are defined based on scale
Faults: Normal, Reverse, Strike-Slip faults Joints: fractures along planes of weakness

Folds formed when rocks are compressed and see plastic deformation

Lecture Objective & Contents

Objective: To review how rock materials respond under applied loads Contents
Mohr-Coulomb and its parameters Lab testing Classification systems: relating rock properties to engineering properties

Stress and strain

Stress (): Force applied per unit area [N/m2]
= force/area

Strain (): Change in the shape and/or size of a body as a result of stress [dimensionless]
= L/L

Stress and strain

Stress and strain

Elastic deformation: returns to original shape
Plastic deformation Yield stress

Slope = Modulus of Elasticity (E) Elastic deformation Strain ( )

Stress and strain for rocks

(yield stress)

Deformation in rocks
Controlling factors:
Rock type Temperature Pressure Time

Strength
Strength [N/m2]: level of stress at failure Above the elastic limit, two scenarios:
Brittle rocks fail abruptly Ductile rocks undergo plastic deformation before failing

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Strength
Compressive strength
Resists crushing

Tensile strength
Resists tearing apart

Shear strength Most material have much higher compressive than tensile strengths
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Measuring rock strength

The most important parameter for a rocks strength is the uni-axial (unconfined) compressive strength (UCS)

Stability Analysis in Mine Design, S. McKinnon

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Measuring rock strength

Direct shear test
Apply a constant normal stress Increase shear stress until failure Record the shear strength S Repeat test with higher value of normal stress

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Measuring rock strength

Mohr-Coulomb
S = C + N tan C = cohesion, = angle of internal friction

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Measuring rock strength

Cohesion C [N/m2]: inherent shear strength of soils and rocks due to interlocking grains, presence of cement or attracting forces between particles
For dry sand C =0

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Measuring rock strength

Angle of internal friction [degree] When granular materials are poured onto a horizontal surface, a conical pile forms
Angle between the surface of the pile and the horizontal Maximum angle of a stable slope

Controlling factors: cohesion and density

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Measuring rock strength

Angle of internal friction [degree]
Angle between the surface of the pile and the horizontal

Angle of internal friction

Source: Wikipedia

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Measuring rock strength: the problem

The fundamental problem with laboratory testing:
Often large discrepancies between laboratory and in-situ results Laboratory measurements do not take into account the effects of:
Structural trends Discontinuities within the rock mass Fluids
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Measuring rock strength: the solution

Develop empirical methods to assess rock mass strength
Deere-Miller system RQD Rock Mass Rating system (RMR) Q-system

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Borehole geophysical measurements are often made to assess in-situ properties
Gamma-ray logging to distinguish between sand and shale, and assess porosity of potential hydrocarbon reservoirs Petrophysics: earth science discipline studying in-situ rock properties

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Deere and Miller (1968) developed a classification scheme based on the stress-strain behavior of intact rocks
Stress-strain behavior chosen because it controls the engineering behavior of rocks Applies only to internally continuous rocks, free of large-scale weakness planes (e.g. shear zones, joints, bedding planes) Based on laboratory measurements
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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Classification scheme based on:
1. Unconfined (3=0) compressive strength a [N/m2] 2. Tangent modulus of elasticity at 50% of unconfined compressive strength Et50 [N/m2]
Measure of stiffness

Modulus ratio MR [ ] = Et50 / a

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Unconfined compressive strength a

Point of failure

50% a

Et50: slope of tangent at 50% a

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Description A B Very high High sigma a [kg/cm2] > 2250 Example Basalt

Medium

D E

Low Very low

1125-2250 Most igneous rocks Strongest metamorphic rocks Limestone, dolostone Well-cemented sandstone and shales 562-1125 Most shales Porous limestone and sandstone Schist 281-562 Friable sandstone Porous tuff < 281 Clay shale Rock salt Heavily weathered rocks

Geometric increase 24

Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Mineralogy affects strength:
Coarse-grained rocks are weaker
Micro-fractures propagate faster Fractures take a shorter, less circuitous path through large crystals

Some minerals are weaker

Minerals with well-developed cleavage are weaker

Rocks with interlocking crystals are stronger

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Description Very stiff Stiff Medium stifness Low stifness Yielding Highly Yielding

E t50 [kg/cm2 x 10^5] 8 - 16 4-8 2-4 1-2 0.5 - 1 0.25 - 0.5

Geometric increase

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Mineralogy affects strength:
Coarse-grained rocks are weaker
Micro-fractures propagate faster Fractures take a shorter, less circuitous path through large crystals

Some minerals are weaker

Minerals with well-developed cleavage are weaker

Rocks with interlocking crystals are stronger

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Modulus ratio classification MR [ ] = Et50 / a Three classes:
High Med Low > 500:1 200:1 500:1 < 200:1
Modulus of Elasticity (Et50)

Logarithmic scale

Unconfined compressive strength

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Igneous rocks
Modulus of Elasticity (Et50) Intrusives Extrusives

Unconfined compressive strength 29

Deere-Miller classification: Igneous Rocks

Intrusive rocks:
Very strong, very stiff due to interlocking crystalline texture and little anisotropy

Extrusive rocks:
Show more variability than intrusive rocks Strength and stiffness related to formation mechanism
Lava flow vs pyroclastic material Texture: massive vs vesicular

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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Sedimentary rocks
Modulus of Elasticity (Et50) Limestone / dolomite Sandstone Shale

Unconfined compressive strength 31

Deere-Miller classification: Sed Rocks

Show largest variability in strength and stiffness of all three rock groups Clastic rocks

Non-clastic rocks

MR depends on: Grain size, sorting, mineral composition Lithification (compaction, cementation, crystallization) MR mostly depends on rock composition

Sedimentary rocks that tend to undergo plastic deformation (e.g. shale, evaporites) have a low MR
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Deere-Miller classification of intact rock

Metamorphic rocks
Modulus of Elasticity (Et50) Marble Quartzite Gneiss Schist

Unconfined compressive strength 33

Deere-Miller classification: Meta Rocks

Variable in strength and stiffness due to great range of mineralogy, texture and anisotropy Generally, metamorphism increases strength
Quartzites: similar to intrusive igneous rocks because of dense, equigranular texture and interlocking crystals Gneiss: similar to granite, except slightly lower strength due to foliation

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Deere-Miller classification: Meta Rocks

Schist: MR strongly influenced by the direction of foliation Steeply dipping foliation with respect to compressive stress strength significantly reduced Marble: less strength compared to original limestone/dolostone due to increased grain size from metamorphism

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Rock mass properties

Rock mass
Exposed outcrops (road cuts) Underground rock (tunelling, mining) Containing joint sets

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Rock mass properties

Test results from intact rock samples cannot be directly applied to an in situ rock mass
Laboratory results are useful for comparison between rock types

in situ: in its original position in the field

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Rock mass properties

Behavior of in situ rock mass under load is controlled by:
Mostly by Discontinuities: the weakest link in the rock mass fabric Pre-existing fractures in the rock mass To a lesser extent Strength of intact portions of the rocks
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Rock mass properties: Discontinuities

Large scale
Structural discontinuities: large-scale features dividing the rock mass into different zones Faults, shear zones, unconformities, etc.

Identify location and orientation of structural discontinuities to delineate potentially problematic areas

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Rock mass properties: Discontinuities

Small scale
Discontinuities in rock fabric: small-scale features pervasive throughout the rock mass In igneous rocks: cooling joints, pyroclastic material, etc. In sedimentary rocks: bedding planes, mud cracks, ripple marks, etc. In metamorphic rocks: foliation Geo-statistical analysis required
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Rock mass properties: Discontinuities

Ref.: Kehew Tab. 6.4. Shown with permission.

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Rock mass properties: RQD

Rock Quality Designation [%]: index based on the cumulative length of core pieces longer than 10 cm in a run divided by the total length of the core run
Total length of core must include all lost core sections Any mechanical breaks caused by the drilling process or in extracting the core from the barrel should be ignored

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Rock mass properties: RQD

Photo: C. Samson

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Rock mass properties: RQD

Hutchinson and Diederichs, 1996

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Rock mass properties: RQD

Stability Analysis in Mine Design, S. McKinnon

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Rock mass classification

Several classification schemes have been developed for specific applications
Objective:
Estimate the quality of the rock Strength of the rock Achieve a realistic assessment of factors influencing engineering behavior

Challenge
Large number of variables involved Most parameters are measured in-situ
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Rock mass classification

Dip direction = strike + 90 Stability Analysis in Mine Design, S. McKinnon

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Rock mass classification

Bartons surface roughness profiles Used to measure Joint Roughness coefficient (JRC)
Stability Analysis in Mine Design, S. McKinnon

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Rock mass classification

Two most common classification schemes:
Geomechanics classification scheme (synonym: Rock Mass Rating (RMR)) Rock tunnelling quality index (Q)

Empirical systems Common practice to use both Both schemes use RQD (Rock Quality Designation)
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Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

Proposed by Bieniawski (1973; revised in 1989) Combination of:
Laboratory results Visual inspection of in situ rock mass

Common in North America

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Rock Mass Rating (RMR)

Six criteria
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Strength of intact rock material (UCS) RQD Joint spacing Joint condition (surface roughness, separation) Groundwater conditions Others (infilling, weathering, orientation)

Each parameter is ranked and sum estimates quality (strength) of rock mass
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Q-System
Developed by Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Common in Europe Developed by Barton, Lien and Lunde in 1974

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Q-System
Q = ( RQD / Jn ) * ( Jr / Ja ) * ( Jw / SRF )
= block size * inter-block shear strength * active stress RQD = Rock Quality Designation Jn = joint set number Jr = joint roughness number Ja = joint alteration number Jw = joint water reduction number SRF = stress reduction factor
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Rock mass classification: 3D Laser Imaging

Research project to measure surface roughness using 3D laser imaging Surface roughness is related to shear strength
Rock blocks slide against each other High surface roughness resists motion Low surface roughness (smooth surfaces) do not

Significant is road cuts, slope stability, mining

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Rock mass classification: 3D Laser Imaging

Vale, T1 nickel mine (Thompson, Manitoba)

Mah, 2012

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Rock mass classification: 3D Laser Imaging

Surface roughness measured manually Joint Roughness Coefficient (JRC) relates asperity amplitude and length
JRC = 20, maximum roughness JRC = 1, smooth surface

Stability Analysis in Mine Design, S. McKinnon

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Rock mass classification: 3D Laser Imaging

3D laser imaging
Significant amount of data acquired 3D data acquisition at safe distance Regions typically inaccessible can be scanned Efficient data processing Digital archive

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Rock mass classification: 3D Laser Imaging

Stability Analysis in Mine Design, S. McKinnon

Mah, 2012

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Rock mass classification: 3D Laser Imaging

JRC measured at 10 increments to produce anisotropy map

Mah, 2012

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Rock mass classification: 3D Laser Imaging

Joint orientation and surface roughness map Imposed on 3D image

Mah, 2012

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Example 1: Impact of orientation

A tunnel is to be driven through a slightly weathered granite with a dominant joint set dipping at 60 against the direction of drive. Strike is perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel.

Drive with dip

Drive against dip

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Example 1: Impact of orientation

A tunnel is to be driven through a slightly weathered granite with a dominant joint set dipping at 60 against the direction of drive. Strike is perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel.
Orientation of discontinuities in tunnelling Rating Strike perpendicular to tunnel axis Drive with dip Drive against dip 45 - 90 20-45 45 - 90 20-45 0 -2 -5 -10 Strike parallel to tunnel axis 20-45 45 - 90 -5 -12

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Example 2: Application of RMR

Core testing gives a uniaxial compressive strength of 150 MPa. Logging of diamond drilled core gives average RDQ values of 70%. The slightly rough and slightly weathered joints with a separation of <1 mm, are spaced at 300 mm. Tunnelling conditions are anticipated to be wet.
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Example 2: Application of RMR

Orientation of discontinuities in tunnelling Rating Uniaxial compressive strength Rating Rock Quality Designation Rating Spacing of discontinuities Rating [MPa] Strike perpendicular to tunnel axis Drive with dip Drive against dip 45 - 90 20-45 45 - 90 20-45 0 -2 -5 -10 >250 15 90 - 100 20 > 2000 20 100 - 250 12 75 - 90 17 50 - 100 7 50 - 75 13 25 - 50 4 25 - 50 8 60 - 200 8 Strike parallel to tunnel axis 20-45 45 - 90 -5 -12 5 - 25 2 < 25% 3 < 60 5 1-5 1 <1 0

[%]

[mm]

600 - 2000 200 - 600 15 10

Condition of discontinuities Rating General ground water conditions Rating

Very rough surfaces Unweathered walls No separation 30 Dry 15 Damp 10

Slightly rough surfaces Slightly rough surfaces Slickenslided surfaces Soft gouge > 5 mm thick Slightly weathered wallsHighly weathered walls or gouge < 5 mm thick Separation < 1 mm Separation < 1 mm Separation 1-5 mm Separation > 5 mm 25 20 10 0 Wet 7 Dripping 4 Flowing 0

Final rating = -5 + 12 + 13 + 10 + 25 + 7 = 59
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Example 2: Application of RMR

I Very good 81 - 100 > 400 > 45 20 yr for 15 m span Rock mass classes II III IV Good rock Fair rock Poor rock 61 - 80 41 - 60 21 - 40 300 - 400 200 - 300 100 - 200 35 - 45 25 - 35 15 - 25 1 yr for 10 m span 1 week for 5 m span 10 hr for 2.5 m span V Very poor rock < 21 < 100 < 15 30 min for 1 m span

Description Rating Cohesion Angle of internal friction Tunnelling stand-up time

[kPa] [degree]

Rating of 59 corresponds to a fair rock

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