M1: Basic Mechanical Concepts

In this section we will introduce the Iundamental concepts oI translational displacement, velocity
& acceleration.

M1.1 Displacement
Displacement could be deIined as the shortest distance between an initial and Iinal position oI a
point. It is the length oI an imaginary straight path. This may be diIIerent Irom the path actually
travelled by P. Displacement has a magnitude and a direction. ThereIore, displacement is a
vector. A displacement vector represents the length and direction oI the imaginary straight path.
A position vector expresses the position oI a point P in terms oI a displacement Irom an arbitrary
reIerence point O (typically the origin oI a coordinate system). It indicates both the distance and
direction oI an imaginary motion along a straight line Irom the reIerence position to the actual
position oI the point.











Displacement OP






M1.2 Velocity
Velocity is the rate and direction oI change in the position oI an object. Velocity is a vector
quantity. Like displacement it has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude oI velocity is
speed. The conventional deIinition oI velocity is that it is the rate oI change oI displacement with
time. It is measured in metres per second. Based on this velocity could be deIined as,
: =
Ax
At

Where, x is displacement, t is time and v is velocity.

OIten we require a general expression Ior instantaneous velocity which is valid irrespective oI
how rapidly or slowly the body's velocity changes in time. In order to do this we consider a very
small time interval oI . This could be achieved by taking the limit oI approaches zero. This
ensures that no matter how rapidly varies with time, the velocity oI the body is always
approximately constant in the interval to . Thus,

C
ulsLance
ulsplacemenL

: = lim
At-0
Ax
At
=
Jx
Jt


Velocty is the slope oI displacement vs time graph.












M1.3 Acceleration
Acceleration describes how an object or a particle changes both magnitude and direction oI
velocity. In general acceleration reIers to increase in velocity while deceleration reIers to a
decrease in velocity. Acceleration is the rate oI change oI velocity with time. Acceleration is
measured in meters per second squared (m/s
2
). In more general terms acceleration is given by,
o = lim
At-0
A:
At
=
J:
Jt


Where, a is acceleration, v is velocity and t is time.

Acceleration is the slope oI velocity vs time graph.

An object which is under Iree Iall is subjected to gravitational acceleration. This is the resultant
eIIect oI gravity. II air resistance is neglected, all bodies accelerate in the gravitational Iield at a
same rate. This is valid regardless oI the mass, shape or the composition oI the object. For
analysis gravitational acceleration is considered as 9.81 m/s
2
.











M2: Basic Mechanical Quantities
Force
Work / Energy and Power
Types of motion
Torque
Rotational/translational position, velocity and acceleration
M2.1 Force
A force (F) is basically a push or a pull on an object with a certain mass (m) that can result
in its velocity to change. Force is measured in newtons (N). If the mass remains constant,
Newtons Second Law of Motion states:
The force on a mass is proportional to the acceleration that it produces
F v ma
In the SI system of units the conversion factor between mass and the product of mass and
acceleration is unity, therefore
F = ma where, F force in newtons (N)
m mass of the object in kilograms (kg)
a acceleration in m/s
2
M2.2 Weight
The weight is a special kind of force, and is simply the force due to gravity (g). On earth,
g is equal to 9.81 m/s
2
F = mg where, F force in newtons (N)
m mass of the object in kilograms (kg)
g acceleration due to gravity
Example: Two people are pushing on both sides of a 6.0 kg object sitting on a table. If the
magnitudes of the two forces are 13 N and 11 N, and the angle from the horizontal are
60q and 30q respectfully. What is the acceleration of the object? What is the normal
force exerted on it by the table?
M2.3 Work
In the simplest mathematical terms, work (W) is defined as the product of force and the
distance over which the force is applied. Units of Work are N x m or joules (J)
Work = W = F x d where, F force in newtons (N)
d distance in meters (m)
M2.4 Energy
Energy is the ability to do work and is also measured in joules (J). There are different forms
of energy, Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy is energy due to motion (and less obviously thermal energy).
Depending on the type of motion, kinetic energy can be further classified as
translational kinetic energy (TKE) or rotational kinetic energy (RKE).
TKE = mv
2
where, v is the speed in m/s
Potential Energy is energy due to its position and this includes gravitational potential
energy. Considering that the mass is subjected to a constant gravitational field we can
derive potential energy (PE) to be,
PE=mgh where, m is mass in kg, g is in m/s
2
, h is altitude
The change in potential energy of the object could be given by,
PE=mg'h where, 'h is the difference in elevation.
M2.5 Power
Power is the time rate of doing work, measured in watts (W) using the SI standard of
measurement, where one watt is a joule per second.
Example: Your vehicle is stuck at the bottom of a ravine that slopes down from the highway at
an angle of 30
o
. The distance from your vehicle to the road is 30 meters (measured
along the slope, not the horizontal distance). You would like to winch your vehicle
(which has a mass of 900 Kg) out of the ravine:
1. Neglecting friction and rolling resistance, what is the minimum rated capacity of the
winch?
2. How much work must be done by the winch to pull the vehicle up the incline?
3. If it takes 5 minutes to pull out the vehicle, how much power is the winch consuming?
4. If the cable breaks at the top of the ravine, how fast will the vehicle be traveling when it
hits the bottom (neglecting friction)?
5. How long will it take to hit the bottom?
6. If the battery on your winch is rated at 20 amphours, approximately how many times can
you pull the vehicle out of the ravine before recharging? (Assuming a standard 12v car
battery)
M3.1 Types of Motion
There are two main types oI motion. A comparison oI the basic quantities Ior translational and rotational
motion is shown below.

Translational Rotational
Displacement (x) Angular displacement ()
Velocity (v) Angular velocity ()
Acceleration (a) Angular acceleration ()

Force (F) Torque ()
Mass (m) Inertia (I)



M3.1.1Translational Motion

Assuming constant acceleration a
c


Velocity as a function of time:
v v
o
+ a
c
t

Position as a function of time:
s s
o
+ v
o
t + a
c
t
2

Velocity as a function of position:
v
2
v
o
2
+ 2a
c
(s - s
o
)


Example 1: II an object starts Irom rest and Ialls under gravity Ior 3.5s calculate its Iinal velocity and
distance travelled.

Example 2:
In the table problem discussed above plot a graph which shows its distance vs time Ior the box Ior t 0s
to t5s iI the initial velocity oI the object is 0 m/s, 2 m/s & 5 m/s. For each case determine using the plot,
At what distance the object starts to reverse its direction?
What is the velocity oI the object aIter 5s?

Example 3:
In example 2, using the equations Ior translational motion determine the distance which it starts to reverse
the direction and Iinal velocity oI the object aIter 5s. Compare your results with earlier values.


Newton`s Second Law of Motion (translational motion):

F ma

Translational Kinetic Energy (TKE):

TKE mv
2

M3.1.2Rotational Motion

Assuming constant angular acceleration, u
c
, about a Iixed axis through the centre oI gravity oI the body.

Angular velocity as a function of time:
e e
o
+ o
c
t

where, e and e
o
are measured in r / s, and u
c
in r / s
2

e
o
is the initial values oI the body`s angular velocity

Angular position as a function of time:
0 0
o
+ e
o
t + o
c
t
2


where, 0 and 0
o
are measured in r (radians)
0
o
is the initial values oI the body`s angular position

Velocity as a function of position:
e
2
e
0
2
+ 2o
c
(0 - 0
o
)


Newton`s Second Law of Motion (pure rotational motion of a body):

T I
G
o
c


where, Ior a pure rotation, I
G
is the mass moment oI inertia Ior the body about the axis oI rotation
through the mass centre oI the body.
T is the applied torque about the axis oI rotation measured in (N m) / r (SI)


Example:
A tire balancing machine in a service station starts balancing a tire Irom rest and turns through 5
revolutions in 2 s beIore reaching its Iinal angular speed.
1. Calculate the angular acceleration
2. What is the Iinal angular velocity oI the tire?



Rotational Kinetic Energy (RKE):

RKE I
G
e
2



Note that in general the total kinetic energy oI a body consists oI the scalar sum oI the body`s
translational kinetic energy and rotational kinetic energy about its mass centre. For simplicity, we will
only consider pure rotational systems (i.e. bodies with no translation rotating about the centre oI mass).



M3.2 Mass Moment of Inertia:

The moment oI inertia is simply a measurement oI an object`s ability to resist changes in its
rotational rate. This Iigure illustrates the moment oI inertia Ior a cylinder body with respect to each axis






















Example 1: In the tire balancing example an inIlated tire has a diameter oI 380 mm and a width oI 125
mm. It has an inIlated no load weight oI 25 kg. Calculate the torque required by the motor to rotate the
tore at the speed given in above example.





Example 2: A Ilywheel is rotating at 10000 rpm. The Ilywheel is a Ilat cylindrical steel disk 60 cm in
diameter and 7.5 cm thick. Assume that the density oI steel is 7.86 g/cm
3
.

1. II it is rotating about the axis oI symmetry, what is the rotational kinetic energy?









2. Suppose that the Ilywheel is used as an energy storage device Ior a vehicle with a total mass oI
900 kg (including the Ilywheel). II the Ilywheel is rotating at 10000 rpm, how many times can the
vehicle be accelerated Irom 0 to 100 km/hr without employing regenerative breaking?









3. How does the energy storage capacity oI the Ilywheel compare with that oI a 12v car battery with
a capacity oI 50 amphrs?









4. A liter oI gasoline can provide about 3.43x10
4
kJ oI chemical energy. How much energy is stored
in the Ilywheel measured in terms oI volume oI gasoline?







5. How long will it take to accelerate the Ilywheel to 10000 rpm, iI you apply a torque oI 1 N m?

Example 2:
Given, a=-0.5 m/s
2
, V
0
,
S=S
0
+ V
0
t + (1/2) a
c
t
2
S= 0 + V
0
t + (1/2) (-0.5) t
2
S= V
0
t - 0.25 t
2
------(A)
By substituting values for t & V
0
in Equation (A),
Table: Distance for V
0
= 0, 1 & 2 m/s
t/(s) 0 1 2 3 4 5
S/(m) 0 0.00 0.25 1.00 2.25 4.00 6.25
1 0.00 0.75 1.00 0.75 0.00 1.25
2 0.00 1.75 3.00 3.75 4.00 3.75
The graph plotted is shown on the other page.
From the graph, slope corresponds to velocity. Therefore, final velocity V for V
0
=0, 1, 2 m/s
cases could be estimated as -2.5 m/s, -1.5 & -0.5 m/s respectively by calculating the slope at
t=5s.
Example 3:
When it starts to reverse the direction velocity becomes V = 0 m/s.
V
2
= V
0
2
+ 2 a
c
(s-s
0
)
If V
0
=2 m/s,
0 = 22 + 2 x -0.5 x s
S = 4 m
Similarly we can show that if V
0
=0 m/s, s = 0 m & V
0
=1 m/s, s = 1 m.
Velocity at t=5 s,
V = V
0
+ a
c
t
V = 2 + -0.5 * 5
V = -0.5 m/s
Similarly we can show that if V
0
=0 m/s, V = -2.5 m/s & V
0
=1 m/s, V = -1.5 m/s.
M3: Mechanical transmission systems
This section will cover an introduction on,
x Gears Drives
x Belts/pulleys
x Power screws
M 3.1 Gear Drives
A gear wheel is a toothed machine part which meshes with another toothed part to transmit
motion or to change speed or direction. Gears could produce mechanical advantage through a
gear ratio and could be considered as a simple machine. Gear wheels are often used for
conversion of torque and speed of a power source. These can transfer large torques to drive very
large machines. These are often used when speed changes are required. A gear setup which
increases speed is called a step up gear while a setup which decreases speed is called a step down
gear box. Some of these gears are capable of running at very low speeds. Some of the gear boxes
are capable of achieving large reductions even with a small package
M3.1.1 Gear Nomenclature
Pitch circle - is a theoretical circle upon which all calculations are based. Pitch circles of mating
gears are tangent to each other.
Pinion - is the smaller of two mating gears. Gear is the larger.
Circular pitch - is equal to the sum of the tooth thickness and the width of space measured on
the pitch circle.
Diametral pitch - is the ratio of the number of teeth to the pitch diameter.
Module - is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth (SI).
Addendum - is the radial distance from the top land to the pitch circle.
Dedendum - is the radial distance from the bottom land to the pitch circle.
Whole depth - is the sum of the addendum and dedendum.
Clearance circle - is a circle that is tangent to the addendum circle of the mating gear.
Clearance - is the amount by which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds the addendum of its
mating gear.
There are factors to be considered when selecting gears. These are,
x Pitch
x Number of teeth
x Face width
x Material used to manufacture the gear
x Style of hub, bore, etc
Pressure angle of a gear:
If a tangent is drawn to the involute profile of a tooth at any point on the curve and if a radial line
is drawn through this point of tangency, connecting this point with the centre of the gear, then
the acute angle included between this tangent and the radial is defined as the pressure angle.
The pressure angle is a constant for a given gear. Commonly used values for pressure angles are
14.5, 20 and 25 degrees. Gears with smaller pressure angles result in weaker teeth.
M3.1.2 Gear Relationships
Conditions for meshing two gears:
x Should have the same diametral pitch.
x Should have the same pressure angle.
M3.1.4 Problems with gears drives
1. Interference
Interference is the contact between gear teeth other than the intended point of their surfaces. This
could be corrected by removing the interfering tooth tips or the shaded portion or the tooth flanks
of the mating gear could be undercut. Due to interference the efficiency of gear drive will reduce.
Constant rubbing due to interference will also reduce the strength of the gears.
2 Backlash
Backlash is the clearance between the meshed gears. It could be described as the amount of lost
motion due to clearance or slackness when movement is reversed and contact is re-established.
For example, in a pair of gears, backlash is the amount of clearance between mated gear teeth. In
an ideal system the backlash should be zero. It is sometimes needed to leave a space between the
gear tooth and the mating gear, so that it is possible to have a film of lubricant in between for
smooth operation or to prevent it binding from heat expansion or to counteract eccentricity or
manufacturing inaccuracies. In practice backlash could reduce the gear efficiency.
3.1.5 Types of gears
Spur Gears
This is the simplest type of gear. These are used to transmit power when the shafts are parallel
with each other. These gears are very economical for single applications. These have a simple
shape and a design. These also encounter no thrust loads from tooth engagement.
Helical Gears
These are ideal for a system which switches gear rations frequently. These ensure a gradual tooth
engagement which results in lower noise during operation. These could be used when the shafts
are at an angle. Resulting thrust loads from teeth reaction forces generated during engagement
could cause problems.
Bevel Gears
These gears are often used when the two shafts are an angle of 90 degrees. However, these could
also be used when the two shafts are at other angles. The teeth of the two gears are on a conically
shaped surface. These could have either straight or helical teeth.
Worm Gears
In this type of gears a worm, which has a form of a screw meshes with a worm gear wheel. These
have very low transmission ratios. It can obtain higher speed reductions allowing higher torques
to be transmitted. There is greater friction involved between the worm and worm-wheel
introducing higher losses reducing the efficiency.
Rack and Pinion
A rack is the toothed linear drive and pinion is the toothed wheel of the gear train. A rack and
pinion is converts the rotational motion into linear motion. These could have straight or rack
teeth. This could also be considered as a type of a linear actuator. The rack and pinion was used
in the steering mechanism of old automobiles. It provides less backlash and greater feedback, or
steering "feel" for the driver.
3.1.6 Examples
Example 1: A simple speed reducer is composed of 2 spur gears. The pinion gear has a pitch
diameter of 0.75 and 36 teeth while the driven gear has a pitch diameter of 4.0 and 192 teeth.
1. What is the Diametral pitch of each gear?
2. If an electric motor rotating CCW at 3000 rpm is coupled to the pinion, what is the
rotational speed of the driven gear?
3. If the torque delivered to the pinion is 1 N-m, what is the torque on the driven gear?
4. What is the power transmitted by the gear train?
Example 2: Compound Gear Set Problem:
A motor rotating at 3000 rpm drives a 50 tooth gear that is coupled in turn to a 100 tooth gear.
The 100 tooth gear is mounted on a common shaft with an 80 tooth gear that is coupled to a 200
tooth gear. The 200 tooth gear is mounted on a shaft that drives the load.
1. What is the rpm of the load?
2. In which direction (relative to the motor) is the load rotating?
3. If the motor is delivering 2 Hp, what is the torque on the output shaft (assuming the losses
associated with the power transmission system are negligible)?

M3.2 Belt Drives

M3.2.1 Introduction
Figure: A V-Belt drive
Belt drives are suitable when the power source (eg: motor) is at some distance away from the
load. These could be used for torque and speed conversion like with gears. A belt is a strip of
rubber or some other flexible material that is looped over two or more sheaves (i.e. pulleys).
They are used as a simple and efficient way to transmit power between two rotating shafts.
Belts have a very high efficiency of power transmission of around 95%. Belts are inexpensive
and easy to design. The maintenance of these devices is also easy. The elasticity present in the
belts can provide damping and shock absorption which results in less vibration.
Usually the belts have of a composite structure. They have a rubber or a synthetic surface for
providing a sufficient amount of friction. In order to provide increased tensile strength the belts
are reinforced with steel wires.
M3.2.2 Types of belts
Flat belts
Flat looped strip of flexible material
Mechanically links two or more rotating shafts
2

Also used as a source of motion (i.e. conveyor belt), to continually carry a load between two
points
Pros:
Inexpensive and efficiently transmits power
Low Noise
Absorbs the shock force against the motor caused by load fluctuations
Cons:
Susceptible to Slipping and misalignment
V-Belts
Belt is shaped in a Shaped in a V
V belt allows higher torques to be transmitted
The sheave circumference has grooves that would mate with the V-belt. These grooves
wedge the belt at higher loads, allowing more torque to be placed on the belt.
The grooves solve the problem of slipping and misalignment
For higher power requirement, two or more belts can be joined side-by-side to form a
multi-V belt
When a belt cannot be specified, a linked V-belt can be used, which is made up of rubber
links held together by metal fasteners. However, these are weaker and runs at slower speeds
Timing Belts
Also known as notch, tooth, or cog Belts
These encounters no slippage
Capable for running at constant speed
Transfers direct motion for indexing and timing purposes
These are often used in vehicles as a part of the internal combustion engine to control the
timing of engine's valves.
3

M3.2.3 Belt Relations

Basic Terminology
Contact Angle Geometry
4

Example 1: A V-belt drive system consists of two sheaves with a pitch diameter 12.5 cm and 30
cm. The smaller sheave is driven by a 2 Hp electric motor rotating at 3600 rpm.
1. What is the (linear) belt speed?
2. What is the rotational speed of the larger sheave?
3. What is the tension in the belt when the motor is operating at the rated power?
5

Example 2: An electric motor rotating at 1800 rpm (counterclockwise) is couples directly to a

sheave with a pitch diameter of 80 mm. A V-belt is used to drive a load that is directly
coupled to a second sheave with a pitch diameter of 200 mm. The maximum
permissible tension in the v-belt is 200 N. Assume that the initial (i.e. no load)
pretension in the belt in negligible and the efficiency of the power transmission system
is 100%
1. Sketch the V-belt system and indicate the direction of rotation of both sheaves.
2. What is the angular velocity (measured in radians/second) of the driven sheave (i.e. of the
load)?
3. What is maximum permissible torque on the motor shaft based on a maximum permissible
tension in the V-belt of 200 N?
6

4. What is the maximum permissible load (i.e. torque on the output shaft)?
5. How much horsepower can the V-belt system safely transmit? (Note: 1 Hp == 745.7 W)

M2.3 Power screws

M2.3.1 Introduction
The principle uses oI threads are Iastening, adjusting & transmitting power. In this section we
consider power screws. A power screw is used to convert a rotary motion into a linear motion Ior
power transmission. Power screws should be designed Ior smooth and noiseless transmission oI
power with an ability to carry heavy loads with high eIIiciency. Power screws are capable oI
producing uniIorm motion.
Power Screws are used due to the Iollowing reasons.
Can obtain high mechanical advantage in order to move large loads with a minimum
eIIort. e.g screw jack.
To generate large Iorces e.g tensile test machine, compactor press.
To obtain precise axial movements e.g. camera calibration rigs.
Depending on the purpose oI the application the screw could be either stationary or moving. For
example in a screw clamp the screw moves to perIorm the task. On the other hand in case oI jack
screws, lead screws oI a lathe, screws Ior vices, presses etc the screw remains stationary while it
moves to perIorm the task. Square, Acme and buttress are some oI the type oI threads that are
used in power screws.

Screw Jack C Clamp


A tensile test rig with power screws

Advantages oI power screws
They have a compact design and takes less space
These have a large load carrying capability
These are simple to design and easy to manuIacture
Have a large mechanical advantage
Produces precise and accurate linear motion
Maintenance is easy
SelI-locking Ieature
M2.3.2 Types oI thread
Square Thread

Square is a square Ilat top thread. These are capable oI transIerring large loads. They are diIIicult
to manuIacture and are expensive.


Acme Thread

This is the most common Iorm oI thread used in power screws. This is a trapezoidal thread type
that has sloped sides. This thread is commonly used when a rapid movement is required. They
are cheap and easy to manuIacture. The disadvantages oI this thread include its low eIIiciency,
diIIiculty in predicting service liIe.
Buttress Thread

The Buttress thread is a combination oI both square and acme thread. Sometimes this is used Ior
power screws but they can transmit power only in one direction. Typical applications include
screw jack, vices etc.
M2.3.3 Ball Screws


Ball screws are used to perIorm tasks which require high speed and high eIIiciency. The ball
screw is used Ior many applications previously completed by the conventional power screws. By
using a ball screw the eIIiciency oI perIorming a task could be greatly improved.

The ball screw assembly includes a circular shaped groove cut in a helix on the shaIt. The ball
nut also includes an internal circular shaped groove which matches the shaIt groove. The nut is
retained in position on the shaIt by balls moving within the groove. When the nut rotates relative
to the shaIt the balls move in one direction along the groove supporting any axial load. When the
balls reach one end oI the nut they are directed back to the other end via ball guides. The balls
are thereIore being continuously recirculated.
Advantages oI a ball screw.
Have very high eIIiciency (Over 90)
Could be used in applications which require precise and repeatable movement
Could be easily preloaded to eliminate backlash
Smooth movement over Iull travel range
Can use a smaller size Ior same load
Has a longer liIe Ior thread
Disadvantages oI a ball screw.
Requires higher levels oI lubrication
Possibility oI the screw to contaminate
Additional brakes have to be used iI locking is required



M2.3.4 Power screw selection





M2.3.5 Examples
Example 1
A stepper motor rotating at 120 rpm is directly coupled to a power screw with a pitch oI 1 mm.
1. How Iast can the power screw advance the load?
2. II the stepper motor can saIely deliver 1 N-m oI torque without skipping steps, how much
Iorce can be generated by the power screw?

Example 2
A ball screw with a pitch oI 1/8 is raising a mass oI 1000 kg. II the eIIiciency (q) oI the screw is
30.
1. What is the torque required?
2. II the torque is provided with a hand crank, with a radius oI 0.15 m, what is the Iorce
required?

Example 3
A power screw with a pitch oI 1 mm is directly coupled to a stepper motor which rotates at 60
rpm.
1. II the eIIicient oI the power screw is 35, what is the stepper motor torque required to
raise a 4450 N load vertically oII the Iloor.
2. What is the power output oI the stepper motor?
3. How Iast can the power screw advance the load?

M4: L|ectr|ca| Actuators
M4.1 I|em|ng's Left nand ku|e


1he llemlng's LefL Pand 8ule shows whaL happens when elecLrons ln a currenL enLer a magneLlc fleld.
Accordlng Lo Lhls rule lf Lhe lndex flnger ls polnLed ln Lhe dlrecLlon of a magneLlc fleld, and mlddle flnger,
ls aL a 90 degree angle Lo your lndex and polnLs ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe currenL, Lhen your exLended
Lhumb polnLs ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe exerLed force.

M4.2 k|ght-hand gr|p ru|e for magnet|c f|e|d

1he rlghL-hand rule for deLermlnlng Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe magneLlc fleld sLaLes LhaL lf you wrap your rlghL
hand around a wlre wlLh Lhe Lhumb polnLlng ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe elecLrlcal currenL, Lhe flngers would
be ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe magneLlc fleld.
M4.3 Determ|ne the d|rect|on of rotat|on of the g|ven motor


M4.4 DC Motors
A DC motor runs on dlrecL currenL (uC) elecLrlclLy. lL conslsLs of Lwo maln parLs. 1hese are,
1) 5totot
2) kotot.
1he stotot conslsLs of Lhe houslng, permanenL magneLs, and btosbes. 1he totot conslsLs of Lhe ouLpuL
shafL, wloJloqs and commototot. 1he lmage below shows a secLlonal vlew of a dc moLor by Ceoetol
lecttlc co.


CuLaway vlew of Lyplcal dc moLor (Ceoetol lecttlc co.)

n S
A slmpllfled verslon of a uC moLor ls shown below.


1here are Lwo maln Lypes of uC moLors.
8rushed uC moLor
1he brushed uC elecLrlc moLor generaLes Lorque dlrecLly from uC power supplled Lo Lhe moLor by uslng
commuLaLlon, sLaLlonary magneLs (permanenL or elecLromagneLs), and roLaLlng elecLrlcal magneLs.
8rushless uC moLors
ln brushless uC moLors permanenL magneLs are placed on Lhe roLor and Lhe elecLromagneLs are moved
Lo Lhe sLaLor. A conLroller board (wlLh hlgh-power LranslsLors) ls used Lo charge up Lhe elecLromagneLs
as Lhe shafL Lurns. 1he brushless moLor does noL have a commuLaLor.

M4.S DC motor contro|
1o conLrol a uC moLor a currenL and a dlrecLlon has Lo be glven as lnpuLs Lo a moLor. A currenL ls applled
Lo Lhe moLor clrculL by uslng a volLage. 1he amounL of currenL lnpuL Lo Lhe moLor conLrols Lhe ouLpuL
power. lL conLrols Lhe Lorque and speed of Lhe moLor. ln order Lo conLrol Lhe currenL you can apply a
volLage or a speclflc WM slgnal. ln order Lo conLrol Lhe dlrecLlon we can use an P brldge.
Contro|||ng the speed or torque
1here are Lwo maln meLhods used ln conLrolllng Lhe volLage.
1. 8y applylng a dlrecL volLage
under Lhls meLhod a dlrecL volLage beLween 0 v and maxlmum volLage (eg. 24 v eLc.) ls applled
Lo Lhe moLor.
2. 8y applylng a volLage as a pulse wldLh modulaLlon (WM) slgnal
under Lhls meLhod volLage ls applled as a waveform. 1he WM meLhod ls very efflclenL for
conLrolllng dc moLors.
n
S


Contro|||ng the d|rect|on
An P brldge ls used Lo conLrol Lhe dlrecLlon of a uC
elemenLs aL Lhe "corners" of Lhe P and Lhe moLor forms
swlLches. 8y chooslng Lhe approprlaLe swlLches Lo clo
movemenL of Lhe roLor ln Lhe deslred dlrecLlon.
L298 P

used Lo conLrol Lhe dlrecLlon of a uC moLor. P-brldge ls named so as lL has four swlLchlng
elemenLs aL Lhe "corners" of Lhe P and Lhe moLor forms Lhe cross bar. An P brldge ls bullL wlLh four
swlLches. 8y chooslng Lhe approprlaLe swlLches Lo close currenL could be channeled Lo obLaln Lhe
movemenL of Lhe roLor ln Lhe deslred dlrecLlon.

A slmpllfled P brldge clrculL

L298 P-8rldge MoLor urlver clrculL
lL has four swlLchlng
An P brldge ls bullL wlLh four
could be channeled Lo obLaln Lhe
P-8rldge ConLrol of a uC moLor ln clockwlse dlrecLlon







P-8rldge ConLrol of a uC moLor ln counLer clockwlse dlrecLlon







M4.3 SLepper MoLors
M4.3.1 lnLroducLlon
SLepper MoLors can dlvlde a full roLaLlon lnLo a large number of sLeps. lL ls an elecLro mechanlcal
devlce whlch converLs elecLrlcal pulses lnLo dlscreLe mechanlcal movemenLs. lL performs a
consLanL number of sLeps every revoluLlon.
A sLepper moLor conslsLs of Lwo maln parLs le. a sLaLor and a roLor. 1he sLaLor conslsLs of an
elecLrlcal wlndlng LhaL could be energlzed Lo generaLe a magneLlc fleld. 1he roLor comprlses of a
magneLlc core.

A slmpllfled verslon of a sLepper moLor cross secLlon

M4.3.2 SLepper moLor Lorque
SLepper moLors are consLanL power devlces. Pence as Lhe moLor speed lncreases, Lorque
decreases. 1he Lorque produced by a sLepper moLor depends on several facLors.
- 1he sLep raLe
- 1he drlve currenL ln Lhe wlndlngs
- 1he drlve deslgn or Lype

A Lyplcal sLepper moLor Lorque vs speed curve ls shown below.
8oLor
SLaLor

SLepper moLor Lorque vs speed curve
ull-ln Lorque
1hls ls Lhe measure of Lhe Lorque produced by a sLepper moLor when lL ls operaLed wlLhouL an
acceleraLlon sLaLe. 1hls ls Lhe maxlmum speed aL whlch Lhe moLor can sLarL or sLop
lnsLanLaneously, wlLh a load applled, wlLhouL sklpplng sLeps or synchronlsm. 1he pull ln Lorque ls
baslcally Lo overcome frlcLlon and lnerLla.

ull-ouL Lorque
1he sLepper moLor pull-ouL Lorque ls measured by acceleraLlng Lhe moLor Lo Lhe deslred speed
and Lhen lncreaslng Lhe Lorque loadlng unLll Lhe moLor sLalls or when lL sLarLs Lo sklp sLeps. 1hls
pullouL Lorque ls calculaLed across a range of speeds and Lhe sLepper moLor's dynamlc
performance curve ls generaLed. 1hls dynamlc performance curve ls useful when Lhe moLor ls
used for appllcaLlons requlre acceleraLlng and deceleraLlng.

ueLenL Lorque
LlecLrlc moLors uslng permanenL magneLs have a remnanL poslLlon holdlng Lorque when Lhese
are noL drlven elecLrlcally. 1hls deLenL Lorque ls very useful for some of Lhe appllcaLlons as Lhe
moLor conLlnues Lo apply a Lorque even Lhen Lhe currenL ls dlsconnecLed.

Poldlng Lorque
1hls ls Lhe maxlmum Lorque produced when Lhe moLor

Maxlmum sLarL raLe
1hls ls Lhe maxlmum no-load speed Lhe moLor can achleve from a sLandlng sL

Maxlmum slew raLe
1hls ls Lhe maxlmum speed whlch Lhe moLor can achle
Lhe moLor could acceleraLe wlLhouL sklpplng sLeps.

Slew 8eglon
Slew reglon deflnes Lhe usual operaLlng reglon of a
wlLhouL sklpplng sLeps.

M4.3.3 Pow a sLepper moLor works
olarlLy of wlndlngs





1hls ls Lhe maxlmum Lorque produced when Lhe moLor ls aL a sLandsLlll.
load speed Lhe moLor can achleve from a sLandlng sLarL.
1hls ls Lhe maxlmum speed whlch Lhe moLor can achleve. 1hls ls Lhe hlghesL no load speed whlch
Lhe moLor could acceleraLe wlLhouL sklpplng sLeps.
Slew reglon deflnes Lhe usual operaLlng reglon of a sLepper moLor. AL Lhls reglon lL wlll operaLe
Pow a sLepper moLor works


Lhe hlghesL no load speed whlch
AL Lhls reglon lL wlll operaLe


Modes of drlvlng sLepper moLors
- lull-SLep urlve











- Palf-SLep urlve










1he full sLep drlve provldes more Lorque as boLh colls are energlzed aL Lhe same Llme. When a
hlgher resoluLlon for sLep slze ls needed Lhe half sLep drlve ls sulLable. 1hls corresponds Lo Lwlce
as many sLep pulses per revoluLlon. Powever, Lhe Lorque produced durlng Lhe half sLep drlve ls
less compared Lo LhaL of Lhe full sLep drlve.

M4.3.4 Wlndlng ArrangemenLs of sLepper moLors
unlpolar Wlndlng ArrangemenL

A sLepper moLor wlLh Lhe unlpolar wlndlng arrangemenL

unlpolar arrangemenL moLors have an addlLlonal cenLer-Lap on each phase for a LoLal of slx lead
wlres. WlLh Lhe cenLer-Laps connecLed Lo a common volLage source, unlpolar sLepper moLors can
be conLrolled wlLh four ldenLlcal swlLches", Lyplcally nn or n-channel drlve LranslsLors (see
flgure below). ln convenLlonal full-sLepplng mode, one moLor phase ls energlzed aL a Llme
resulLlng ln mlnlmum power consumpLlon and hlgh poslLlonal accuracy regardless of wlndlng
lmbalance. Palf-sLepplng conLrol alLernaLes beLween energlzlng a slngle phase and Lwo phases
slmulLaneously resulLlng ln an elghL-sLep sequence whlch provldes hlgher resoluLlon, lower nolse
levels and less suscepLlblllLy Lo moLor resonance.
1he deslred drlve waveforms are lllusLraLed ln Lhe flgure below. 1he elghL sLep drlve sequence
shown (sLeps 1 Lhrough 8) advances Lhe sLepper moLor four full sLeps or elghL half sLeps.
8everslng Lhe drlve sequence (l.e., from sLep 8 Lowards 1) reverses Lhe dlrecLlon of roLaLlon.


Palf-sLep swlLchlng sequence for a unlpolar sLepper moLor

8lpolar Wlndlng ArrangemenL

A sLepper moLor wlLh Lhe blpolar wlndlng arrangemenL

A blpolar permanenL magneL moLor conslsLs of a roLaLlng permanenL magneL surrounded by
sLaLor poles carrylng Lhe wlndlngs whlch ls shown ln Lhe flgure above. 1hls moLor uses
bldlrecLlonal drlve currenL and Lhe moLor ls sLepped by swlLchlng Lhe wlndlngs ln a sequence.
lor a moLor of Lhls Lype Lhere are Lhree posslble drlve sequences. 1he flrsL ls Lo energlze Lhe
wlndlngs ln Lhe sequence A8/Cu/8A/uC (8A means LhaL Lhe wlndlng A8 ls energlzed buL ln Lhe
opposlLe sense). 1hls sequence ls known as "one phase on" full sLep or wave drlve mode. Cnly
one phase ls energlzed aL any glven momenL (see flgure below).
1he second posslblllLy ls Lo energlze boLh phases LogeLher, so LhaL Lhe roLor always allgns lLself
beLween Lwo pole poslLlons. Called "Lwo-phase-on" full sLep, Lhls mode ls Lhe normal drlve
sequence for a blpolar moLor and glves Lhe hlghesL Lorque (flgure 2 and flgure 4b).
1he Lhlrd opLlon ls Lo energlze one phase, Lhen Lwo, Lhen one, eLc., so LhaL Lhe moLor moves ln
half sLep lncremenLs. 1hls sequence, known as half sLep mode, halves Lhe effecLlve sLep angle of
Lhe moLor buL glves a less regular Lorque (flgure 2 and flgure 4c).
lor roLaLlon ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon (counLer-clockwlse) Lhe same Lhree sequences are used,
excepL of course LhaL Lhe order ls reserved. As shown ln Lhese dlagrams Lhe moLor would have a
sLep angle of 90. 8eal moLors have mulLlple poles Lo reduce Lhe sLep angle Lo a few degrees buL
Lhe number of wlndlngs and Lhe drlve sequences are unchanged.



Figure 2: "Two-phase-on full step and half-step switching sequence for bipolar
stepper motor
MS Introduct|on to nydrau||cs and neumat|cs
M S.1 1ypes of ower Systems
1here are Lhree maln Lypes of power sysLems. 1hese are namely, mechanlcal, elecLrlcal and fluld. A
classlflcaLlon of Lhese power sysLems ls shown ln llgure 1.


C|ass|f|cat|on of ower Systems

MS.2 Mechan|ca| ower Systems
1he mechanlcal power sysLems use mechanlcal elemenLs Lo LransmlL and conLrol Lhe mechanlcal power.
1he drlve Lraln of a small car ls a Lyplcal example of a mechanlcal power sysLem (see llg. 1). 1he gearbox
(3) ls connecLed Lo Lhe englne (1) Lhrough Lhe cluLch (2). 1he lnpuL shafL of Lhe gear box Lurns aL Lhe
same speed as Lhe englne. lLs ouLpuL shafL (4) Lurns aL dlfferenL speeds, dependlng on Lhe selecLed gear
Lransmlsslon raLlo. 1he power ls Lhen LransmlLLed Lo Lhe wheels (8) Lhrough Lhe unlversal [olnLs (3), drlve
shafL (6), and dlfferenLlal (7).

When compared wlLh oLher power sysLems, mechanlcal power sysLems have advanLages such as
relaLlvely slmple consLrucLlon, malnLenance, and operaLlon, as well as low cosL. Powever, Lhelr power-Lo
welghL raLlo ls mlnlmal, Lhe power Lransmlsslon dlsLance ls Loo llmlLed, and Lhe flexlblllLy and
conLrollablllLy are poor.




An auLomoLlve drlve Lraln





4.
MS.3 8as|cs of nydrau||c Systems

Prcssurc =
Forcc
Arco


unlLs of pressure ls n/m
2
ln Sl, or psl (pounds per square lnch) ln lmperlal
ascals law


p=h..g
where, p ls hydro sLaLlc pressure, h dlfference ln elevaLlon, ls denslLy and g ls gravlLaLlonal
acceleraLlon.
p
A
= p
8
F1
A1
=
F2
A2

F1 =
A1
A2
. F2
lf A2 >> A1, Lhen l1 << l1.





h
A
8
MS.4 nydrau||c ower Systems
A hydraullc power sysLem ls used Lo generaLe a hlgh pressure fluld source. ln hydraullc power sysLems,
Lhe power ls LransmlLLed by lncreaslng malnly Lhe pressure energy of llquld. 1hls hlgh pressure fluld
source ls used as a power source for varlous appllcaLlons. A pump whlch ls drlven by a moLor ls used
lncrease Lhe pressure of Lhe fluld Lo very hlgh levels. ln Lhese sysLems Lhe usual worklng pressures vary
beLween 300-3000 psl. lor mosL lndusLrlal appllcaLlons Lhe hydraullc sysLem pressure used ls 3000 psl.
1hese sysLems are wldely used ln lndusLry, moblle equlpmenL, alrcrafLs, shlp conLrol, and oLhers.

ower Lransmlsslon ln a hydraullc power sysLem

1he flgure below shows Lhe clrculL of a slmple hydraullc sysLem, drawn ln boLh funcLlonal-secLlonal
schemes and sLandard hydraullc symbols. 1he funcLlon of Lhls sysLem ls summarlzed ln Lhe followlng:
1. 1he prlme mover supplles Lhe sysLem wlLh Lhe requlred mechanlcal power. 1he pump converLs Lhe
lnpuL mechanlcal power Lo hydraullc power.
2. 1he energy-carrylng llquld ls LransmlLLed Lhrough Lhe hydraullc Lransmlsslon llnes: plpes and hoses.
1he hydraullc power ls conLrolled by means of valves of dlfferenL Lypes. 1hls clrculL lncludes Lhree
dlfferenL Lypes of valves: a pressure conLrol valve, a dlrecLlonal conLrol valve, and a flow conLrol (LhroLLle
check) valve.
3. 1he conLrolled hydraullc power ls communlcaLed Lo Lhe hydraullc cyllnder, whlch converLs lL Lo Lhe
requlred mechanlcal power. Cenerally, Lhe hydraullc power sysLems provlde boLh roLary and llnear
moLlons.

Maln parLs of a Pydraullc ower SysLem
1. Pydraullc pumps
2. Pydraullc Lransmlsslon llnes
3. AccumulaLor
4. lllLers
3. valves
6. AcLuaLors/moLors eLc

1ypes of Pydraullc umps
CenLrlfugal pump
A cenLrlfugal pump ls a uses a roLaLlng lmpeller Lo creaLe flow by addlng energy Lo a fluld. CenLrlfugal
pumps are commonly used Lo move llqulds Lhrough plpes. 1he fluld enLers Lhe pump lmpeller along or
near Lo Lhe roLaLlng axls and ls acceleraLed by Lhe lmpeller, flowlng radlally ouLwards lnLo a dlffuser or
voluLe chamber (caslng), from where lL exlLs lnLo Lhe downsLream plplng.

Plgh pressure
fluld llne
(eg. 3000 psl)
low pressure
fluld llne
(eg. 0 psl)
oslLlve dlsplacemenL pumps
A poslLlve dlsplacemenL pump moves Lhe fluld by Lrapplng a flxed amounL of Lhe fluld Lhen forclng Lhe
Lrapped volume lnLo a dlscharge plpe. ln some poslLlve dlsplacemenL pumps ln Lhe sucLlon slde Lhere ls
an expandlng cavlLy whlle ln Lhe dlscharge slde Lhere ls a decreaslng cavlLy. usually ln Lhese pumps Lhe
llquld flows ln wlLh expanslon of Lhe cavlLy and flows ouL as Lhe cavlLy collapses. oslLlve dlsplacemenL
pumps lnclude gear pumps, axlal plsLon pump and benL axls pump.

Cear pump




1ypes of hydraullc valves
1. Servo valves - Can provlde preclse conLrol of
2. ressure rellef valves - malnLaln pressure ln Lhe llnes prevenLlng overloadlng
3. ressure regulaLors - reduce Lhe supply pressure of hydraullc flulds as need
4. Check valves - a one-way valve
afLer Lhe machlne ls Lurned off









Axlal plsLon pump


8enL axls pump
an provlde preclse conLrol of dlrecLlon, poslLlon, veloclLy, pressure and force
malnLaln pressure ln Lhe llnes prevenLlng overloadlng
reduce Lhe supply pressure of hydraullc flulds as needed
way valve whlch allows an accumulaLor Lo charge and malnLaln lLs pressure
afLer Lhe machlne ls Lurned off.
poslLlon, veloclLy, pressure and force

an accumulaLor Lo charge and malnLaln lLs pressure
1ypes of acLuaLors
8oLary acLuaLor


Llnear acLuaLor


Pydraullc MoLor


MS.S Advantages and D|sadvantages of nydrau||c Systems
1he maln advanLages of Lhe hydraullc power sysLems are Lhe followlng:
1. 1hese have a very hlgh power-Lo-welghL raLlo.
2. uoes noL need lubrlcaLlon as Lhe hydraullc fluld lLself ls Lhe medlum for lubrlcaLlon.
3. Plgh force-Lo-mass and Lorque-Lo-lnerLla raLlos, whlch resulLs ln a hlgh acceleraLlon capablllLy
and a rapld response of Lhe hydraullc moLors.
4. Plgh sLlffness of Lhe hydraullc cyllnders, whlch allows sLopplng loads aL any lnLermedlaLe
poslLlon.
3. AddlLlonal coollng of Lhe devlce ls noL needed as Lhe clrculaLlng hydraullc fluld acLs as Lhe
medlum for coollng.

Pydraullc power sysLems have Lhe followlng dlsadvanLages:
1. A hydraullc sysLem comprlses of several componenLs. 1herefore, unllke elecLrlcal power,
hydraullc power ls noL readlly avallable.
2. Pydraullc sysLems are cosLly as lL lnvolves a large number of componenLs some of whlch needs
Lo be preclsely manufacLured.
3. lL ls noL a very clean source slnce leaks could cause conLamlnaLlon problems.

MS.6 neumat|c ower Systems
neumaLlc sysLems are power sysLems LhaL use compressed alr as a worklng medlum for Lhe power
Lransmlsslon. unllke hydraullc power pneumaLlcs ls a compresslble llquld. 1helr prlnclple of operaLlon ls
slmllar Lo LhaL of elecLrlc power sysLems. 1he alr compressor converLs Lhe mechanlcal energy of Lhe
prlme mover lnLo malnly pressure energy of compressed alr. 1hls LransformaLlon faclllLaLes Lhe
Lransmlsslon and conLrol of power. An alr preparaLlon process ls needed Lo prepare Lhe compressed alr
for use. 1he alr preparaLlon lncludes fllLraLlon, drylng, and Lhe addlng of lubrlcaLlng oll mlsL. 1he
compressed alr ls sLored ln Lhe compressed alr reservolrs and LransmlLLed Lhrough rlgld and/or flexlble
llnes. 1he pneumaLlc power ls conLrolled by means of a seL of pressure, flow, and dlrecLlonal conLrol
valves. 1hen, lL ls converLed Lo Lhe requlred mechanlcal power by means of pneumaLlc cyllnders and
moLors (expanders).1he flgure below lllusLraLes Lhe process of power Lransmlsslon ln pneumaLlc
sysLems. 1he usual operaLlng pressure of pneumaLlc sysLems ls 30-130 psl.



ower Lransmlsslon ln a pneumaLlc power sysLem

MS.7 App||cat|ons of nydrau||c Systems
1. Pydraullc moLors


2. Plgh speed hydraullc roboL


3. Pand operaLed hydraullc [ack





operaLed hydraullc [ack

MS.8 Compar|son of power systems
System roperty Mechan|ca|
Lnergy transfer
e|ement
Mechan|ca| parts,
gears, be|ts, power
screws, shafts
Mot|on type kotary or ||near
ower to we|ght
rat|o
oor
1orque]|nert|a oor
St|ffness Good
kesponse speed Ia|r
Cost 8est
C|ean||ness Good


MS.9 Lxamp|es
Lxample 1

1. CalculaLe Lhe force, l
1
, exerLed by Lhe operaLor Lo ralse a load, l
dlameLer of Lhe hand pump ls 6 mm and Lhe dlameLer of
2. CalculaLe Lhe number of pump cycles requlred Lo ralse Lhe load 230 m
mm.
3. lf Lhe operaLor pumps aL a raLe of 1 cycle per second,
operaLor.
Compar|son of power systems
L|ectr|ca| neumat|c nydrau||c
Mechan|ca| parts,
gears, be|ts, power
screws, shafts
L|ectr|ca| motors n|gh pressure
a|r
n|gh pressure
||qu|d
kotary or ||near Ma|n|y rotary kotary or ||near kotary or ||near
Ia|r 8est 8est
Ia|r Good 8est
oor Ia|r 8est
Good Ia|r 8est
8est Good Ia|r
8est Ia|r oor

, exerLed by Lhe operaLor Lo ralse a load, l
2
, of 10000n lf Lhe plsLon
dlameLer of Lhe hand pump ls 6 mm and Lhe dlameLer of Lhe load cyllnder ls 23 mm.
number of pump cycles requlred Lo ralse Lhe load 230 mm lf Lhe pump sLroke ls 30
lf Lhe operaLor pumps aL a raLe of 1 cycle per second, deLermlne Lhe power expended by Lhe
nydrau||c
n|gh pressure
||qu|d
kotary or ||near
8est
8est
8est
8est
Ia|r
oor
, of 10000n lf Lhe plsLon
Lhe load cyllnder ls 23 mm.
m lf Lhe pump sLroke ls 30
deLermlne Lhe power expended by Lhe
1.
d1= 0.006 m, d2= 0.023 m, l2=10000 n.
F1
A1
=
F2
A2


F1 =
A1
A2
. F2
F1 =
n(J12)
2
n(J22)
2
. F2 =
J1
2
J2
2
. F2 =
u.uu6
2
u.u2S
2
. 1uuuu = 57 N

2.
lf pump cycles = n
ump sLroke = 0.03 m
volumeLrlc dlsplacemenL per pump cycle x pump cycles = volumeLrlc dlsplacemenL of load
n.
u.uu6
2
4
. u.uuS. n =
n
4
. u.u2S
2
. u.2S
n=86.8 =87 t|mes
3.
number of sLrokes per unlL Llme = 1 cycles/s
LengLh of Lhe aL Lhe operaLor's end = 0.03 m
veloclLy aL Lhe operaLors end = 0.03 m/s
ower = lorce x veloclLy
= 376 x 0.03 W
= 28.8 W



Lxample 2:
A hydraullc log spllLLer wlLh a maxlmum operaLlng pressure of 3000 psl ls powered by a 3 hp hydraullc
englne. lf Lhe log spllLLer ls capable of generaLlng a maxlmum nomlnal force of 10 Lons (20000 lb) whaL ls
Lhe effecLlve dlameLer of Lhe hydraullc cyllnder? WhaL ls Lhe maxlmum veloclLy of Lhe cyllnder when Lhe
opposlng force ls 10 Lons? (Ans: 2.91 ln, 0.0419 m/s)

8eferences:
1. 8able, C.M., 2009, lluld ower Lnglneerlng, McCraw Plll lnc. new ?ork. Downloaded from Digital
Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.accessengineeringlibrary.com)
2. Wlklpedla Cnllne Lncyclopedla (www.wikipedia.org)