World War II

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Contents
Articles
Table of contents Introduction 1 2 3 3 37 37 52 52 54 54 60 60 96 108 136 146 158 179 190 192

Main article
World War II

Background
Causes of World War II

Course of the war

Timeline of World War II

Aftermath
Aftermath of World War II

Impact of the war

World War II casualties Consequences of German Nazism Japanese war crimes Military production during World War II Home front during World War II Collaboration during World War II Resistance during World War II Germanoccupied Europe Technology during World War II

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 202 208

Article Licenses
License 212

Table of contents

Table of contents
Introduction Main article World War II Background Causes of World War II Course of the war Timeline of World War II Aftermath Aftermath of World War II Impact of the war World War II casualties War crimes during World War II Consequences of German Nazism Japanese war crimes Military production during World War II Home front during World War II Collaboration during World War II Resistance during World War II Germanoccupied Europe Technology during World War II

Introduction

Introduction
Note. This book is based on the Wikipedia article, "World War II." The supporting articles are those referenced as major expansions of selected sections.

Main article
World War II
World War II

Clockwise from top left: Commonwealth troops in the desert; Chinese civilians being buried alive by Japanese soldiers; Soviet forces during a winter offensive; Carrier-borne Japanese planes readying for take off; Soviet troops in Berlin; A German submarine under attack. Date Location Result September 1, 1939 September 2, 1945 Europe, Pacific, Atlantic, South-East Asia, China, Middle East, Mediterranean and Africa Allied victory. Creation of the United Nations. Emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers. Creation of NATO and Warsaw Pact. Spheres of influence in Europe leading to the Cold War. (more...) Belligerents Allies Axis powers Commanders Allied leaders Axis leaders Casualties and losses Military dead: Over 16,000,000 Civilian dead: Over 45,000,000 Total dead: Over 61,000,000 ...further details Military dead: Over 8,000,000 Civilian dead: Over 4,000,000 Total dead: Over 12,000,000 ...further details

World War II series Precursors

Asian events European events Timeline

World War II

4
1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Eastern front Pacific War Battles Military operations Commanders Technology Atlas of the World Battle Fronts Manhattan project Aerial warfare Home front Collaboration Resistance
Aftermath

Casualties Further effects War crimes Japanese War Crimes Consequences of Nazism Soviet

occupation Depictions World War II articles Alphabetical index: 0-9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Campaigns | Countries | Equipment Lists | Outline | Timeline | Portal | Category

World War II, or the Second World War[1] (often abbreviated WWII or WW2), was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history. In a state of "total war", the major participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Over seventy million people, the majority of whom were civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history. The start of the war is generally held to be September 1, 1939, with the German invasion of Poland and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by most of the countries in the British Empire and Commonwealth, and by France. Many countries were already at war before this date, such as Nationalist China and Japan in the Second Sino-Japanese War, and many who were not initially involved joined the war later, as a result of events such as the German invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), and the attacks on Pearl Harbor and British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia. In 1945 the war ended in a victory for the Allies. The Soviet Union and the United States subsequently emerged as the world's superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 45 years. The United Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict. The acceptance of the principle of self-determination accelerated decolonization movements in Asia and Africa, while Western Europe itself began moving toward integration.

Background
A variety of events led to the escalation of hostilities between the Axis and Allied powers prior to the start of the war. In the aftermath of World War I, a defeated Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles.[2] This caused Germany to lose around 13% of its territory, stripped Germany of its colonies, prohibited German annexation of other states, imposed massive reparations and limited the size and makeup of Germany's armed forces.[3] The Russian Civil War led to the creation of the Soviet Union which soon was under the control of Joseph Stalin.[4] In Italy, Benito Mussolini seized power as a fascist dictator promising to create a "New Roman Empire."[5] The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communist allies.[6] In 1931, an

World War II increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China[7] as the first step of its right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as justification to invade Manchuria; the two nations then fought several small conflicts, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei until the Tanggu Truce in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearming campaign.[8] This worried France and the United Kingdom, who had lost much in the previous war, as well as Italy, which saw its territorial ambitions threatened by those of Germany.[9] To secure its alliance, the French allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Saarland was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, speeding up his rearmament program and German troops at the 1935 Nuremberg Rally. introducing conscription. Hoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front. The Soviet Union, concerned due to Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of eastern Europe, concluded a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, rendering it essentially toothless.[10] [11] In June 1935, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany easing prior restrictions. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August.[12] In October, Italy invaded Ethiopia, with Germany the only major European nation supporting her invasion. Italy then revoked objections to Germany's goal of making Austria a satellite state.[13] In direct violation of the Versailles and Locarno treaties, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936. He received little response from other European powers.[14] When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July, Hitler and Mussolini supported fascist Generalsimo Francisco Franco's nationalist forces in his civil war against the Soviet-supported Spanish Republic. Both sides used the conflict to test new weapons and methods of warfare[15] and the nationalists would prove victorious in early 1939. With tensions mounting, efforts to strengthen or consolidate power were made. In October, Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis and a month later Germany and Japan, each believing communism and the Soviet Union in particular to be a threat, signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year. In China, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.[16]

World War II

Chronology
The start of the war is generally held to be September 1, 1939 with the German invasion of Poland. Other dates for the beginning of war include the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on September 13, 1931,[17] [18] the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on July 7, 1937,[19] [20] or one of several other events. Other sources follow A. J. P. Taylor, who holds that there was a simultaneous Sino-Japanese War in East Asia, and a Second European War in Europe and her colonies, but they did not become a World War until they merged in 1941; at which point the war continued until 1945. This article uses the conventional dating.[21] The end of the War also has several dates. Some sources state that it ended at the armistice of August 14, 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan (September 2, 1945); in some European histories, it ended on V-E Day (May 8, 1945). The Treaty of Peace with Japan was not signed until 1951.[22]

Pre-war events
War in China
In mid-1937, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Japan began the Second Sino-Japanese War, culminating in a campaign to invade China.[23] The Soviets quickly lent support to China, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany. Starting at Shanghai, the Japanese pushed Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanjing in December. In June 1938 Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; though this bought time to Japanese forces during the Battle of prepare their defenses at Wuhan, the city was still Wuhan. taken by October.[24] During this time, Japanese and Soviet forces engaged in a minor skirmish at Lake Khasan; in May 1939, they became involved in a more serious border war[25] that ended with signing a cease-fire agreement on September 15 and restoring the status quo.[26]

European occupations and agreements

In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming bolder. In March 1938 Germany annexed Austria with a supporting invasion, again provoking little response from other European powers.[27] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population; France and Britain conceded this territory to him, against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.[28] However, soon after that, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland.[29] In March 1939 Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the pro-German independent client state, the Slovak Republic.[30] Alarmed, and with Hitler making further demands on Danzig, France and Britain guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece.[31] Shortly after the

World War II Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalized their own alliance with the Pact of Steel.[32] In August 1939 Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression pact.[33] This treaty included a secret protocol placing western Poland and Lithuania in the German sphere of influence while placing eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and the Romanian province of Bessarabia in the Soviet sphere of influence.[34]

Course of the war

War breaks out in Europe
On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland and World War II broke out. France, Britain, and the countries of the Commonwealth declared war on Germany but provided little military support to Poland other than a small French attack into the Saarland.[35] On September 17, 1939, after signing an armistice with Japan, the Soviets launched their own invasion of eastern Poland.[36]

A German Heinkel He 111 bombing Warsaw in 1939

By early October, Poland was divided among Germany, the Soviet Union, Lithuania and Slovakia,[37] although Poland never officially surrendered and continued the fight outside its borders.[38] At the same time as the battle in Poland, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September.[39] Following the invasion of Poland and a German-Soviet treaty governing Lithuania, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries.[40] [41] [42] Finland rejected Soviet territorial demands, and was invaded by the Soviet Union in November 1939.[43] The resulting conflict ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions.[44] France and the United Kingdom, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting its expulsion from the League of

Common parade of German Wehrmacht and Soviet Red Army on September 23rd 1939 in Brest, Eastern Poland at the end of the Invasion of Poland. At the center Major General Heinz Guderian and Brigadier Semyon Krivoshein.

World War II Nations.[42] By June 1940, the Soviet Armed Forces completed the occupation of the Baltic States.[41] In Western Europe, British troops deployed to the Continent, but neither Germany nor the Allies launched direct attacks on the other until April 1940.[45] The Soviet Union and Germany entered a trade pact in February of 1940, pursuant to which the Soviets received German military and industrial equipment in exchange for supplying raw materials to Germany to help circumvent a British blockade.[46] In April, German troops in Paris after the fall of Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secure France. shipments of iron-ore from Sweden which the allies would try to disrupt.[47] Denmark immediately capitulated, and despite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.[48] British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain by Winston Churchill on May 10, 1940.[49]

Axis advances
On that same day, Germany invaded France and the Low Countries.[50] The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few weeks.[51] The French fortified Maginot Line was circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region,[50] mistakenly perceived by French planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armored vehicles.[52] British troops were forced to The RAF Supermarine Spitfire, used evacuate the continent at Dunkirk, abandoning their extensively during the Battle of heavy equipment by the end of the month. On June 10, Britain. Italy invaded, declaring war on both France and the [53] United Kingdom; twelve days later France surrendered and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones,[54] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime. On July 14, the British attacked the French fleet in Algeria to prevent its possible seizure by Germany.[55] With France neutralized, Germany began an air superiority campaign over Britain (the Battle of Britain) to prepare for an invasion.[56] The campaign failed and by September the invasion plans were cancelled. Using newly captured French ports the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic.[57] Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in early September. Japan increased its blockade of China in September by seizing several bases in the northern part of the now-isolated French Indochina.[58] Throughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow 'Cash and carry' purchases by the Allies.[59] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased and, after the Japanese

World War II incursion into Indochina, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan.[60] In September, the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases.[61] Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941.[62] At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact between Japan, Italy and Germany formalized the Axis Powers.[63] The pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.[64] The Soviet Union expressed interest in joining the Tripartite Pact, sending a modified draft to Germany in November, offering a very German-favourable economic deal;[65] while Germany remained silent on the former, they accepted the latter.[66] Regardless of the pact, the United States continued to support the United Kingdom and China by introducing the Lend-Lease policy authorizing the provision of war materiel and other items[67] and creating a security zone spanning roughly half of the Atlantic Ocean where the United States Navy protected British convoys.[68] As a result, Germany and the United States found themselves engaged in sustained, if undeclared, naval warfare in the North and Central Atlantic by October 1941, even though the United States remained officially neutral.[69] [70] The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact.[71] These countries participated in the subsequent invasion of the USSR, with Romania making the largest contribution in order to recapture territory ceded to the USSR and pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to combat communism.[72] In October, Italy invaded Greece but within days was repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalemate soon occurred.[73] Shortly after this, in Africa, British Commonwealth forces launched offensives against Egypt and Italian East Africa.[74] By early 1941, with Italian forces having been pushed back into Libya by the Commonwealth, Churchill ordered a dispatch of troops from Africa to bolster the Greeks.[75] The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by carrier attack at Taranto, and several more warships neutralized at Cape Matapan.[76] The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February and by the end of March they had launched an offensive against the diminished Commonwealth forces.[77] In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk.[78] The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces German paratroopers invading Crete. in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions.[79] In early April the Germans similarly intervened in the Balkans, invading Greece and Yugoslavia; here too they made rapid progress, eventually forcing the Allies to evacuate after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May.[80] The Allies did have some successes during this time though. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed a coup in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria,[81] then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.[82]

World War II In the Atlantic, the British scored a much-needed public morale boost by sinking the German flagship Bismarck.[83] Perhaps most importantly, during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, and on May 11, 1941, Hitler called off the bombing campaign.[84] In Asia, in spite of several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. In August of that year, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures (the Three Alls Policy) in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.[85] Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.[86] With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the SovietJapanese Neutrality Pact in April, 1941.[87] By contrast the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, amassing forces on the Soviet border.[88]

10

The war becomes global

On June 22, 1941, Germany, along with other European Axis members and Finland, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. The primary targets of this surprise offensive[89] were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with an ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the A-A line, the line connecting the Caspian and White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, German soldiers in the Invasion of the exterminate Communism, generate so-called 'living Soviet Union, 1941. [90] [91] space' by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.[92] Although before the war the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives,[93] Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in personnel and matriel. However, by the middle of August, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Center, and to divert the Second Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing toward central Ukraine and Leningrad.[94] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov) possible.

World War II

11 The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front[95] [96] prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy.[97] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany[98] and shortly after jointly invaded Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oilfields.[99] In August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter.[100]

Khreshchatyk, the main street of Kiev, after German bombardment.

By October, when Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad[101] and Sevastopol continuing,[102] a major offensive against Moscow had been renewed. After two months of fierce battles, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops[103] were forced to suspend their offensive.[104] Despite impressive territorial gains, the Axis campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of WWII in Europe had ended.[105] By early December, freshly mobilized reserves[106] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.[107] This, as well as intelligence data that established a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East sufficient to prevent any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army,[108] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on December 5 along a 1000km front and pushed German troops 100250km west.[109] Japan had seized military control of southern Indochina the previous year, partly to increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, but also to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the western powers.[110] Japan, hoping to capitalize on Germany's success in Europe, made several demands, including a steady supply of oil, of the Dutch East Indies; these attempts, however, broke down in June 1941.[111] The United States, United Kingdom and other western Japanese troops advancing through Kuala Lumpur. governments reacted to the seizure of Indochina with a freeze on Japanese assets, while the United States (which supplied 80% of Japan's oil[112] ) responded by placing a complete oil embargo.[113] Thus Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in Asia and the prosecution of the war against China, or seizing the natural resources it needed by force; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.[114] Japanese Imperial General Headquarters thus planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralize the United States Pacific Fleet from the outset.[115]

World War II On December 7 (December 8 in Asian time zones), 1941, Japan attacked British, Dutch and American holdings with near simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.[116] These included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor and landings in Thailand and Malaya.[116] These attacks prompted the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, other western Allies and China (already fighting the Second Sino-Japanese War), to formally declare war on Japan. Germany and the other members of the Tripartite Pact responded by declaring war on the United States. In January, the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, China and twenty-two smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations which affirmed the Atlantic Charter.[117] The Soviet Union did not adhere to the declaration, maintained a neutrality agreement with Japan [118] [119] and exempted itself from the principle of self-determination.[100] Meanwhile, by the end of April 1942, Japan had almost fully conquered Burma, the Philippines, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore,[120] and the key base of Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean[121] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. The only real Allied success against Japan was a victory at Changsha in early January, 1942.[122] These easy victories over unprepared opponents left Japan severely overconfident, as well as overextended. Germany retained the initiative as well. Exploiting dubious American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.[123] Despite considerable losses, European Axis members stopped a major Soviet offensive in Central and Southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they achieved during the previous year.[124] In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February,[125] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.[126]

12

The tide turns

In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The Allies, however, intercepted and turned back Japanese naval forces, preventing the invasion.[127] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier bombing on Tokyo, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands.[128] In early June, Japan put its American dive bombers at the Battle of Midway. operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and force dispositions and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory over the Imperial Japanese Navy.[129] With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua.[130] The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step

World War II towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.[131] Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in [132] the Battle of Buna-Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops.[133] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943.[134] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved dubious results.[135] On Germany's eastern front, the Axis defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov[136] and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June, 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad which was in the path of the advancing German armies. By mid-November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter Soviet soldiers in the Battle of counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of Stalingrad. German forces at Stalingrad[137] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.[138] By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender[139] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front-line around the Russian city of Kursk.[140] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.[141] In the west, concerns the Japanese might utilize bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May, 1942.[142] This success was offset soon after by an Axis offensive in Libya which pushed the Allies back into British Crusader tanks moving to Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.[143] forward positions during the North On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on Africa Campaign. strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid,[144] demonstrated the Western allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.[145] In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to get desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.[146] A few months later the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis

13

World War II forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.[147] This was followed up shortly after by an Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.[148] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France;[148] though Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they [149] managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies by May 1943.[150]

14

Allies gain momentum

Following the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May, 1943, American forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians,[151] and soon after began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.[152] By the end of March, 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and additionally neutralized another major Japanese base in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies then launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.[153] In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 making preparations for large offensives in Central Russia. On July 4, 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces in the region of the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defenses[154] [155] and, for the first time in the war, Hitler canceled A Soviet tank during the Battle of the operation before it had achieved tactical or Kursk. operational success.[156] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on July 9 which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.[157] On July 12, 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any hopes of the German Army for victory or even stalemate in the east. The Germans attempted to stabilize their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan line, however, the Soviets broke it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives.[158] In early September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following an Italian armistice with the Allies.[159] Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas,[160] and creating a series of defensive lines.[161] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy.[162] The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.[163] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign .[164] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo[165] and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran.[166] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory[165] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.[166]

World War II In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and attempted to outflank it with landings at Anzio.[167] By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region[168] , ending the longest and most lethal siege in history. The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay retarded subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region.[169] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.[170] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on June 4 Rome was captured.[171] The Allies experienced mixed fortunes in mainland Asia. British troops firing a mortar during In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two the Battle of Imphal. invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India[172] , and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima.[173] In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma,[173] and Chinese forces that had invaded Northern Burma in late 1943 beseiged Japanese troops in Myitkyina.[174] The second Japansese invasion attempted to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.[175] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a renewed attack against Changsha in the Hunan province.[176]

15

Allies close in
On June 6, 1944 (known as D-Day), the Western Allies invaded northern France and, after reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, southern France.[177] These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted with the Free French forces on 25 August[178] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to Allied Invasion of Normandy. advance into northern Germany spear-headed by a major airborne operation in Holland was not successful, however.[179] The Allies also continued their advance in Italy until they ran into the last major German defensive line there.

World War II

16

On June 22, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (known as "Operation Bagration") that resulted in the almost complete destruction of the German Army Group Centre.[180] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The successful advance of Soviet troops prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings, A Soviet T-34 tank during the Belgrade though the largest of these, in Warsaw, as well as a Offensive Slovak Uprising in the south, were not assisted by the Soviets and were put down by German forces.[181] The Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'tat in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet Red Army troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of the German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.[182] By this point, Communist-led partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and were engaged in delaying efforts against the German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on October 20. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945.[183] In contrast with impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, the bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to the signing of Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions[184] [185] and Finland's shift to the Allied side. By the start of July, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River[186] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese were having greater successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.[187] Soon after, they further invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November[188] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by the middle of December.[189] In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944 they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, scoring a decisive victory against Japanese forces in the Philippine Sea within a few days. These defeats led to the resignation of Japanese Prime Minister Tj and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the largest naval battle in history.[190]

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Axis collapse, Allied victory

On December 16, 1944, Germany attempted its last desperate measure for success by marshaling German reserves to launch a massive counteroffensive in the Ardennes to attempt to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp in order to prompt a political settlement.[191] The offensive was spearheaded by Germany's top army group and over one million total soldiers fought in the battles.[191] The offensive had been repulsed by January with no strategic objectives fulfilled.[191] The Soviets attacked through Hungary, while the Germans abandoned Greece and Albania, and were driven out of southern Yugoslavia by partisans.[192] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.[193] On February 4, U.S., British, and Soviet leaders met in Yalta. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany,[194] and when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.[195] In February, the Soviets invaded Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allied forces entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. In March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling a large number of German troops[196] , while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany, while in late April Soviet forces stormed Berlin; the two forces linked up on Elbe river on April 25.
American and Soviet troops meet east of the Elbe River.

Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On April 12, U.S. President Roosevelt died; he was succeeded by Harry Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on April 28.[197] Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dnitz.[198] German forces surrendered in Italy on April 29 and in Western Europe on May 7.[199] On the Eastern Front, Germany surrendered specifically to the Soviets on May 8. A German Army Group resisted in Prague until May 11.

Soviet soldiers raising the Soviet flag over the Reichstag after its capture

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In the Pacific theater, American forces advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of 1944. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and Mindanao in March.[200] British and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma from October to March, then the British pushed on to Rangoon by May 3.[201] American forces also moved toward Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by June.[202] American bombers destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines cut off Japanese imports.[203] On July 11, the Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany,[204] and reiterated the demand for Nuclear explosion at Hiroshima. unconditional surrender by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".[205] During this conference the United Kingdom held its general election and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.[206] When Japan continued to reject the Potsdam terms, the United States then dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. Between the two bombs, the Soviets invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, as agreed at Yalta. On August 15, 1945 Japan surrendered, ending the war.[199]

Aftermath
In an effort to maintain international peace,[207] the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on October 24, 1945.[208] The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over,[209] and the two powers each quickly established their own spheres of influence.[210] In Europe, the continent was essentially divided between Western and Soviet spheres by the so-called Iron Curtain which ran through and partitioned Allied occupied Germany and occupied Austria. The Soviet Prime Minister Winston Churchill Union created the Eastern Bloc by directly annexing waves to crowds in London on Victory in Europe Day. several countries it occupied as Soviet Socialist Republics that were originally effectively ceded to it by Germany in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, such as Eastern Poland[211] , the three Baltic countries[212] [213] , part of eastern Finland[214] and northeastern Romania.[215] [216] Other states that the Soviets occupied at the end of the war were converted into Soviet Satellite states, such as the People's Republic of

World War II Poland, the People's Republic of Hungary[217] , the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic[218] , the People's Republic of Romania, the People's Republic of Albania,[219] and later East Germany from the Soviet zone of German occupation.[220] In Asia, the United States occupied Japan and administrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands; the former Japanese governed Korea was divided and occupied between the two powers. Mounting tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union soon evolved into the formation of the American-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact military alliances and the start of the Cold War between them.[221] Soon after the end of World War II, conflict flared again in many parts of the world. In China, nationalist and communist forces quickly resumed their civil war. Communist forces were eventually victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland while nationalist forces ended up retreating to the reclaimed island of Taiwan. In Greece, civil war broke out between Anglo-American supported royalist Soviet tanks at the Moscow Victory forces and communist forces, with the royalist forces Parade of 1945 victorious. Soon after these conflicts ended, North Korea invaded South Korea[222] , which was backed by the United Nations,[223] while North Korea was backed by the Soviet Union and China. The war resulted in essentially a stalemate and ceasefire, after which North Korean leader Kim Il Sung created a highly centralized and brutal dictatorship, according himself unlimited power and generating a formidable cult of personality.[224] [225] Following the end of the war, a rapid period of decolonization also took place within the holdings of the various European colonial powers.[226] These primarily occurred due to shifts in ideology, the economic exhaustion from the war and increased demand by indigenous people for self-determination. For the most part, these transitions happened relatively peacefully, though notable exceptions occurred in countries such as Indochina, Madagascar, Indonesia and Algeria.[227] In many regions, divisions, usually for ethnic or religious reasons, occurred following European withdrawal; this was seen prominently in the Mandate of Palestine, leading to the creation of Israel, and in India, resulting in the creation of the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. Economic recovery following the war was varied in differing parts of the world, though in general it was quite positive. In Europe, West Germany recovered quickly and doubled production from its pre-war levels by the 1950s.[228] Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition,[229] but by 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth.[230] The United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin after the war,[231] and continued to experience relative economic decline for decades to follow.[232] France rebounded quite quickly, and enjoyed rapid economic growth and modernization.[233] The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war

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The Supreme Commanders on June 5, 1945 in Berlin: Bernard Montgomery, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Jean de Lattre de Tassigny.

World War II era.[234] In Asia, Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, and led to Japan becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.[235] China, following the conclusion of its civil war, was essentially a bankrupt nation.[236] By 1953 economic restoration seemed fairly successful as production had resumed pre-war levels.[236] This growth rate mostly persisted, though it was briefly interrupted by the disastrous Great Leap Forward economic experiment. At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the world's industrial output; by the early 1970s though, this dominance had lessened significantly.[237]

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Impact of the war

Casualties and war crimes
Estimates for the total casualties of the war vary, but most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million soldiers and 40 million [238] [239] [240] civilians. Many civilians died because of disease, starvation, massacres, bombing and deliberate genocide. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, about half of all World War II [241] casualties. Of the total deaths in World War II, approximately 85 percent were on the Allied side (mostly Soviet and Chinese) and 15 percent on the Axis side. One estimate is that 12 million civilians died in Nazi concentration camps,[242] 1.5 million by bombs, 7 million in Europe from other causes, and 7.5 million in China from other causes.[243] Figures on the amount of total casualties vary to a wide extent because the majority of deaths were not documented. Many of these deaths were a result of genocidal actions committed in Axis-occupied territories and other war crimes committed by German as well as Japanese forces. The most notorious of German atrocities was The Holocaust, the systematic genocide of Jews in territories controlled by Germany and its allies. The Nazis also targeted other groups, including the Roma (targeted in the Porajmos), Slavs, and gay men, exterminating an estimated five million additional people.[244] The targets of the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustae regime were mostly Serbs.[245] The best-known Japanese atrocity is the Nanking Massacre, in which several hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.[246] The Japanese military murdered from nearly 3 million to over 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese.[247] According to Mitsuyoshi Himeta, at least 2.7 million died during the Sank Sakusen implemented in Heipei and Shantung by General Yasuji Okamura. Limited Axis usage of biological and chemical weapons is also known. The Italians used mustard gas during their conquest of Abyssinia,[248] while the Japanese Imperial Army used a variety of such weapons during their invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731)[249]

World War II
[250]

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and in early conflicts against the Soviets.[251] Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians[252] and, in some cases, on prisoners of war.[253] While many of the Axis's acts were brought to trial in the world's first international tribunals,[254] incidents caused by the Allies were not. Examples of such Allied actions include population transfer in the Soviet Union,[255] the Soviet forced labour camps (Gulag),[256] Japanese American internment in the United States, the Operation Keelhaul,[257] expulsion of Germans after World War II, the Soviet massacre of Polish citizens and the mass-bombing of civilian areas in enemy territory, including Tokyo and most notably at Dresden.[258] Large numbers of deaths can also be attributed, if even partially, indirectly to the war, such as the Bengal famine of 1943.

Concentration camps and slave work

The Nazis were responsible for the Holocaust, the killing of approximately six million Jews (overwhelmingly Ashkenazim), as well as two million ethnic Poles and four million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet POWs, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Roma) as part of a program of deliberate extermination. About 12 million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy as forced labor in Germany during World War II.[259] In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags, or labor camps, led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.[260] Sixty percent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war.[261] Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57% died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million.[262] Some of the survivors on their return to the USSR were treated as traitors. (See Order No. 270)[263]

Victims of the Holocaust.

Body disposal at Unit 731, the Japanese biological warfare research unit

Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),[264] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians[265] The death rate among Chinese POWs was much larger; a directive ratified on August 5, 1937 by Hirohito declared that the Chinese were no longer protected under international law.[266] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the, Netherlands and 14,473 from United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56.[267]

World War II According to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, Mark Peattie, Toru Kubo, and Mitsuyoshi Himeta, more than 10 million Chinese were mobilized by the Japanese army and enslaved by the East Asia Development Board for slave labor in Manchukuo and north China.[268] The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.[269] On February 19, 1942 Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning thousands of Japanese, Italians, German Americans, and some emigrants from Hawaii who fled after the bombing of Pearl Harbor for the duration of the war. 150,000 Japanese-Americans were interned by the U.S. and Canadian governments, as well as nearly 11,000 German and Italian residents of the U.S. Allied use of involuntary labor occurred mainly in the east, such as in Poland,[270] but more than a million was also put to work in the west.
Mistreated and starved prisoners in the Mauthausen camp, Austria, 1945.

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Home fronts and production

In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30% larger population and a 30% higher gross domestic product than the European Axis (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a 5:1 advantage in population and nearly 2:1 Allied to Axis GDP ratio. advantage in GDP.[271] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only an 89% higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38% higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.[271] Though the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition.[272]

World War II While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to utilize women in the labour force,[273] [274] Allied strategic bombing,[275] [276] and Germany's late shift to a war economy[277] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned on fighting a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so.[278] [279] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers;[280] Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,[281] while Japan pressed more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.[282]

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War time occupation

In Europe, occupation came under two very different forms. In western, northern and central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.[283] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40% of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40% of total German income as the war went on.[284] In the east, the much hoped for bounties of lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders.[285] Unlike in the west, the Nazi racial policy encouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions.[286] Although resistance groups did form in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the east[287] or the west[288] until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonized peoples.[289] Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in many territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinions against them within weeks.[290] During Japan's initial conquest it captured 4 million barrels of oil left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels, 76% of its 1940 output rate.[290]

Advances in technology and warfare

During the war, aircraft continued their roles of reconnaissance, fighters, bombers and ground-support from World War I, though each area was advanced considerably. Two important additional roles for aircraft were those of the airlift, the capability to quickly move high-priority supplies, equipment and personnel, albeit in limited quantities;[291] and of strategic bombing, the targeted use of bombs against civilian areas in the hopes of hampering enemy industry and morale.[292] Anti-aircraft weaponry also continued to advance, including key defences such as radar and greatly improved anti-aircraft artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. Jet aircraft saw their first limited operational use during World War II, and though their late introduction and limited numbers meant that they had no real impact during the war itself, the few which saw active service pioneered a mass-shift to their usage following the war.[293]

World War II At sea, while advances were made in almost all aspects of naval warfare, the two primary areas of development were focused around aircraft carriers and submarines. Although at the start of the war aeronautical warfare had relatively little success,[294] actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, the South China Sea and the Coral Sea soon established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.[295] [296] In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius dramatically and helping to seal the Mid-Atlantic gap.[297] Beyond their increased effectiveness, carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft[298] and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.[299] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the first World War[300] were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and Wolf pack tactics.[301] Gradually, continually improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious. Land warfare changed drastically from the static front lines predominating in World War I to become much more fluid and mobile. An important change was the concept of combined arms warfare, wherein tight coordination was sought between the various elements of military forces; the tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon of these forces during the second.[302] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced in all areas then it had been during World War I,[303] and advances continued throughout the war in increasing speed, armour and firepower. At the start of the war, most armies considered the tank to be the best weapon against itself, and developed special-purpose tanks to that effect.[304] This line of thinking was all but negated by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank armaments against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat; the latter factor, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.[302] Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were utilized.[304] Even with large-scale mechanization of the various armies, the infantry remained the backbone of all forces,[305] and throughout the war, most infantry equipment was similar to that utilized in World War I.[306] However the United States became the first country to arm its soldiers with a semi-automatic rifle, in this case the M-1 Garand. Some of the primary advances though, were the widespread incorporation of portable machine guns, a notable example being the German MG42, and various submachine guns which were well suited to close-quarters combat in urban and jungle settings.[306] The assault rifle, a late war development which incorporated many of the best features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for nearly all armed forces. In terms of communications, most of the major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security presented by utilizing large codebooks for cryptography with the creation of various ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine.[307] SIGINT (signals intelligence) was the countering process of decryption, with the notable examples being the British ULTRA and the Allied breaking of Japanese naval codes. Another important aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception operations, which the Allies successfully used on several occasions to great effect, such as

24

World War II operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard, which diverted German attention and forces away from the Allied invasions of Sicily and Normandy respectively. Other important technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the worlds first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.

25

See also
Precursors World War II Timeline Home front Battles (list) Military operations (list) Commanders Atlas of the World Battle Fronts Collaboration Resistance Technology Aerial warfare Aftermath

Casualties Further effects Consequences of Nazism Western betrayal Depictions

References
Davies, Norman (2008), No Simple Victory: World War II in Europe, 1939-1945, Penguin Group, ISBN 0143114093 Glantz, David M. (2001), The SovietGerman War 194145 Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay [308], <http:/ / www. strom. clemson. edu/ publications/ sg-war41-45. pdf& gt; Hsiung, James Chieh (1992), China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 19371945, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 156324246X Jowett, Philip S. & Stephen Andrew (2002), The Japanese Army, 193145, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1841763535 Kershaw, Ian (2001), Hitler, 19361945: Nemesis, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0393322521 Murray, Williamson & Allan Reed Millett (2001), A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674006801 Weinberg, Gerhard L. (1995), A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521558794

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External links
Directories Yahoo "World War II" [309] Directory of Online World War II Indices and Records WWW-VL: History: WWII [311] General World War II Database [312] The Second World War [313] Spartacus Educational Deutsche Welle special section on World War II [314] created by one of Germany's public broadcasters on World War II and the world 60 years after. Canada and WWII [315] End of World War II in Germany [316] World War II Encyclopedia by the History Channel [317] World War II Awards and their recipients [318] World War II German Prisoner of War Collection at Gettysburg College [319] U.S. National Archives Motion Pictures [320] U.S. National Archives Photos [321] World War II Poster Collection [322] hosted by the University of North Texas Libraries' World War II Poster Digital Collection at Gettysburg College [323] Digital Collections [324] World War II Propaganda Leaflet Archive [325] World War 2 Pictures In Colour [326] Thousands of World War II Photographs & Movies [327] World War II Zone Photo and Multi-media gallery [328] (Blanked, requires registration)
[310]

Multimedia map [329] Presentation that covers the war from the invasion of the Soviet Union to the fall of Berlin Radio news from 1938 to 1945 [330] The Art of War Online Exhibition at the UK National Archive [331] Brookwood Military Cemeteries [332] Images of all sections of the military cemetery and allied forces burial plots and memorials. Includes allied nationals, Chelsea Pensioners, QA Nurses as well as German and Italian plots. On-line documents World War II Military Situation Maps. Library of Congress
[333]

WWII Letters [334] Online database of letters mailed by soldiers during the 2nd world war. After Action Reports (AAR's) and other official documents about the American Divisions during the Second World War [335] Maps from the Pacific and Italian theaters [336] Officially Declassified U.S. Government Documents about World War II [337] The Soviet History of World War II Office of Current Intelligence. Daily German action reports [339]
[338]

, October 28, 1959 Central Intelligence Agency,

World War II Operational Documents Leavenworth, KS Stories

[340]

Combined Arms Research Library, Fort

World War II WW2 People's War [341] A project by the BBC to gather the stories of ordinary people from World War II Grand Valley State University Veteran's History Project digital collection [342] Documentaries The World at War (1974) is a 26-part Thames Television series that covers most aspects of World War II from many points of view. It includes interviews with many key figures (Karl Dnitz, Albert Speer, Anthony Eden etc.) (Imdb link [343]) The Second World War in Colour (1999) is a three episode documentary showing unique footage in color (Imdb link [344]) Battlefield (documentary series) is a television documentary series initially issued in 19941995 that explores many of the most important battles fought during the Second World War. The War (2007) is 7-part PBS documentary recounting the experiences of a number of individuals from American communities. mwl:Segunda Guerra Mundial pnb:

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References
[1] Official military histories in Commonwealth and Western nations refer to the conflict as the Second World War (e.g. C.P. Stacey's Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War), while the United States' official histories refer to the conflict as World War II, spoken "World War Two". English translations of the official histories of other nations also tend to resolve into English as Second World War, for example Zweiter Weltkrieg in German. Non-English-language use typically translates to Second World War, for instance the Spanish Segunda Guerra mundial and the French Seconde Guerre mondiale. "Official" usage of these terms is giving way to popular usage and the two terms are becoming interchangeable even in formal military history. The term "Second World War" was originally coined in the 1920s. In 1928, US Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg advocated his treaty "for the renunciation of war" (known as the Kellogg-Briand Pact) as being a "practical guarantee against a second world war". The term came into widespread use as soon as the war began in 1939. Time magazine introduced the term "World War II" in the same article of June 12, 1939, in which it introduced "World War I," three months before the start of the second war. "In World War II it is possible that even nations who do not take sides may play a vital military part, for they may be invaded." " War Machines (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,762392,00. html)", Time, June 12, 1939. [2] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6. [3] [4] [5] [6] Kantowicz, Edward R., The rage of nations, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999, ISBN 0802844553, page 149 Davies 2008, p.134-140 Shaw, Anthony. World War II Day by Day, MBI Publishing Company, 2000, ISBN 0760309396, p. 35. Preston, Peter, Pacific Asia in the global system: an introduction, Wiley-Blackwell, 1998, ISBN 0631202382, pages 104-5 [7] Myers, Ramon; Peattie, Mark. The Japanese Colonial Empire, 18951945, Princeton University Press, 1987, ISBN 0691102228, p. 458. [8] Wouk, Herman. The Winds of War, Back Bay, 2002, p. 72. [9] Brody, J. Kenneth. The Avoidable War: Pierre Laval and the Politics of Reality, 19351936, Transaction Publishers, 1999, p. 4. [10] Record, Jeffery. Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s, DIANE Publishing, 2005, p. 50. [11] Mandelbaum, Michael. The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 96. [12] Schmitz, David F. Henry L. Stimson: The First Wise Man, Rowman & Littlefield, 2001, ISBN 0842026320, p. 124. [13] Kitson, Alison. Germany 18581990: Hope, Terror, and Revival, p. 231. [14] Adamthwaite, Anthony P. The Making of the Second World War, p. 52. [15] Graham, Helen. The Spanish Civil War: A Very Short Introduction, p. 110. [16] Busky, Donald F. Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas, p. 10.

World War II
[17] Bradley James, Powers, Ron. Flags of Our Fathers, p. 58. [18] Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary. Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History, p. 771; note, however, that Tucker's own view is that 191 is most convenient; p. 9. [19] Chickering, Roger; Frster, Stig; Greiner, Bernd. A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 19371945, p. 64. [20] Fiscus, James W. Critical Perspectives on World War II, p. 44. [21] Among other starting dates sometimes used for World War II are the 1935 Italian invasion of Abyssinia; (Ben-Horin, Eliahu (1943). The Middle East: Crossroads of History, p. 169; Taylor, Alan (1979). How Wars Begin, p. 124; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191). For 1941 see (Taylor, AJP (1961). The Origins of the Second World War, p. vii; Kellogg, William O. (2003). American History the Easy Way, p. 236). There also exists the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same "European Civil War" or "Second Thirty Years War". (Canfora, Luciano; Jones, Simon (2006). Democracy in Europe: A History of an Ideology, p. 155; Prin, Gwyn (2002). The Heart of War: On Power, Conflict and Obligation in the Twenty-First Century, p. 11). [22] Shiraishi, Masaya, Japanese relations with Vietnam, 1951-1987, SEAP Publications, 1990, ISBN 0877271224, page 4 [23] Fairbank, John King , Albert Feuerwerker, Denis Crispin Twitchett, The Cambridge history of China, Cambridge University Press, 1986, ISBN 0521243386, page 547-551 [24] Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K. The Cambridge history of China, p. 566. [25] Coox, Alvin D. Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939, Stanford University Press, 1990, p. 189. [26] Amnon Sella Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 18, No. 4, Military History (Oct., 1983), pp. 65187. [27] Collier, Martin; Pedley, Philip. Germany 191945, Heinemann, 2000, ISBN 0435327216, p. 144. [28] Kershaw 2001, p.121-2 [29] Kershaw 2001, p.157 [30] Davies 2008, p.143-4 [31] Lowe, C. J.; Marzari, F. Italian Foreign Policy 18701940, Taylor & Francis, 2002, ISBN 0415273722, p. 330. [32] "Pact of Steel", in Dear and Foot, ed., Oxford Companion to World War II, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0198604467, p. 674. [33] Zachary Shore. What Hitler Knew: The Battle for Information in Nazi Foreign Policy. Published by Oxford University Press US, 2005 ISBN 0-19-518261-8, 978-0-19-518261-3, p. 108. [34] "Nazi-Soviet Pact", in Dear and Foot, ed., Oxford Companion to World War II, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0198604467, pp. 6089. [35] May, Ernest R. Strange Victory: Hitler's Conquest of France, I.B.Tauris, 2000, ISBN 1850433291, p. 93. [36] Zaloga, Steven J, Howard Gearad Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg, Osprey Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1841764086, p. 83. [37] Igor Baka: Slovensko vo vojne proti Posku v roku 1939 (Slovakia during the war against Poland in 1939), Vojensk histria (http:/ / www. dejiny. sk/ Casop/ V_h/ v_h. htm), 2005, No 3. [38] Hempel, Andrew, Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History, Hippocrene Books, 2003, ISBN 078181004, pages 24-25 [39] Jowett & Andrew 2002, p.14 [40] The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania by David J. Smith, Page 24, ISBN 0415285801 [41] Bilinsky, Yaroslav. Endgame in NATO's Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN 0275963632, p. 9. [42] Murray & Millett 2001, p.55-56 [43] D. W. Spring. 'The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939'. Soviet Studies, Vol. 38, No. 2 (Apr., 1986), pp. 207-226) [44] Hanhimki, Jussi M. Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution", Kent State University Press, 1997, ISBN 0873385586, 9780873385589, p. 12. [45] Weinberg 1995, p.95 & 121 [46] Shirer, William L., The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1990 ISBN 0671728687, pp. 6689. [47] Murray & Millett 2001, p.57-63 [48] Commager, Henry Steele. The Story of the Second World War, Brassey's, 2004, ISBN 1574887416, p. 30. [49] Reynolds, David. From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s, pp. 76, 77. [50] Crawford, Keith, Stuart J. Foster, War, nation, memory: international perspectives on World War II in school history textbooks, IAP, 2007, ISBN 159311852X, page 68

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[51] Nolan, Cathal J., The Greenwood Encyclopedia of International Relations: A-E, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, ISBN 0313307415, page 170 [52] Regan, Geoffrey, The Brassey's book of military blunders, Brassey's, 2000, ISBN 157488252X, page 152 [53] Kennedy, David M. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 19291945, Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0195038347, p. 439. [54] Deist, William, et al., Germany and the Second World War Volume 2: Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe, Oxford University Press, 2001, 0198228880, p. 311. [55] Brown, David. The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 July 1940, p. xxx. [56] Kelly, Nigel; Rees, Rosemary; Shuter, Jane. Twentieth Century World, Heinemann, 1998, ISBN 0435309838, p. 38. [57] Goldstein, Margaret J. World War II, Twenty-First Century Books, 2004, ISBN 0822501392, p. 35. [58] Mercado, Stephen C. The Shadow Warriors of Nakano: A History of the Imperial Japanese Army's Elite Intelligence School, Brassey's, 2003, ISBN 1574885383, p. 109. [59] Brown, Robert J., Manipulating the Ether: The Power of Broadcast Radio in Thirties America, McFarland, 2004, ISBN 0786420669, p. 91. [60] Morison, Samuel Eliot. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, University of Illinois Press, 2002, ISBN 0252070658, p. 60. [61] Maingot, Anthony P. The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship, Westview Press, 1994, ISBN 0813322413, p. 52. [62] Hadley Cantril, "America Faces the War: A Study in Public Opinion," The Public Opinion Quarterly 4:3 (Sept. 1940), 390. [63] Weinberg 1995, p.182 [64] Bilhartz, Terry D.; Elliott, Alan C. Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States, p. 179. [65] Weinberg 1995, p.200 [66] Weinberg 1995, p.201 [67] Murray & Millett 2001, p.165 [68] Knell, Hermann. To Destroy a City: Strategic Bombing and Its Human Consequences in World War II, p. 205. [69] Murray & Millett 2001, p.233-245 [70] Undeclared Naval War in the Atlantic 1941 (http:/ / history. sandiego. edu/ gen/ ww2Timeline/ Prelude18. html). [71] "Tripartite Pact", in Dear and Foot, ed., Oxford Companion to World War II, p. 877. [72] Dennis Deletant, "Romania", in Dear and Foot, ed., Oxford Companion to World War II, pp. 74546. [73] Clogg, Richard. A Concise History of Greece, p. 118. [74] Jowett, Philip S., Stephen Andrew, The Italian Army 1940-45 (2): Africa 1940-43, Osprey Publishing, 2001, ISBN 1855328658, pages 9-10 [75] Brown, David, The Royal Navy and the Mediterranean, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0714652059, pages 64-65 [76] Jackson, Ashley. The British Empire and the Second World War, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 1852854170, p. 106. [77] Laurier, Jim , "Tobruk 1941: Rommel's opening move", Osprey Publishing, 2001, ISBN 1841760927, pages 7-8 [78] Murray & Millett 2001, p.263-67 [79] Macksey, Kenneth, "Rommel: battles and campaigns", Da Capo Press, 1997, ISBN 0306807866, pages 61-63 [80] Weinberg 1995, p.229 [81] Watson, William E. Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0275974707, p. 80. [82] Jackson, Ashley. The British Empire and the Second World War, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 1852854170, p. 154. [83] Stewart, Vance. Three Against One: Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin Vs Adolph Hitler, p. 159. [84] " The London Blitz, 1940 (http:/ / www. eyewitnesstohistory. com/ blitz. htm)". Eyewitness to History. 2001. . Retrieved 2008-03-11. [85] Joes, Anthony James. Resisting Rebellion: The History And Politics of Counterinsurgency, p. 224. [86] Fairbank, John King. China: A New History, p. 320. [87] Garver, John W. Chinese-Soviet Relations, 19371945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism, p. 114. [88] Weinberg 1995, p.195 [89] Amnon Sella. "Barbarossa": Surprise Attack and Communication. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 13, No. 3, (Jul., 1978), pp. 55583. [90] Kershaw, Ian. Fateful Choices, pp. 6669. [91] Jonathan Steinberg. The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 19414 The English Historical Review, Vol. 110, No. 437 (Jun., 1995), pp. 62051.

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[92] Milan Hauner. Did Hitler Want a World Dominion? Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Jan., 1978), pp. 1532. [93] Cynthia A. Roberts. Planning for War: The Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 47, No. 8 (Dec., 1995), pp. 129326. [94] Alan F. Wilt. Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941. Military Affairs, Vol. 45, No. 4 (Dec., 1981), pp. 18791. [95] Glantz 2001, p.9 [96] Hitler Can Be Beaten. The New York Times: Aug 5, 1941 [97] Brian P. Farrell. Yes, Prime Minister: Barbarossa, Whipcord, and the Basis of British Grand Strategy, Autumn 1941. The Journal of Military History, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Oct., 1993), pp. 599625 [98] Pravda, Alex; Duncan, Peter J. S. Soviet-British Relations Since the 1970s, p. 29. [99] Heptulla, Najma. The Logic of Political Survival, p. 131. [100] Louis, William Roger. More Adventures with Britannia: Personalities, Politics and Culture in Britain, p. 223. [101] Kleinfeld., Gerald R, Hitler's Strike for Tikhvin. Military Affairs, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Oct., 1983), pp. 12228. [102] Shukman, Harold. Stalin's Generals, p. 113. [103] According to David Glantz, "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its -million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions."Glantz 2001, p.26 [104] Klaus Reinhardt; Karl B. Keenan. Moscow-The Turning Point: The Failure of Hitler's Strategy in the Winter of 194142. Berg, 1992. ISBN 0854966951, p. 227. [105] A. S. Milward. The End of the Blitzkrieg. The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 16, No. 3 (1964), pp. 499518. [106] Louis Rotundo. The Creation of Soviet Reserves and the 1941 Campaign. Military Affairs, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Jan., 1986), pp. 218. [107] Glantz 2001, p.26 [108] Raymond L. Garthoff. The Soviet Manchurian Campaign, August 1945. Military Affairs, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Oct., 1969), p. 312. [109] Welch, David. Modern European History, 18712000: A Documentary Reader, p. 102. [110] AFLMA Year in Review, p. 33. [111] AFLMA Year in Review, p. 32. [112] Irvine H. Anderson, Jr. De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 44, No. 2 (May, 1975), p. 201. [113] Northrup, Cynthia Clark. The American economy: a historical encyclopedia, p. 214. [114] Lightbody, Bradley. The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis, p. 125. [115] Morgan, Patrick M. Strategic Military Surprise: Incentives and Opportunities, Transaction Publishers, 1983, ISBN 0878559124, p. 51. [116] Wohlstetter, Roberta, Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision, Stanford University Press, 1962, ISBN 0804705984, pages 341-43 [117] Mingst, Karen A.; Karns, Margaret P. United Nations in the Twenty-First Century, Westview Press, 2007, ISBN 0813343461, p. 22. [118] Dunn, Dennis J. Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow, p. 157. [119] According to Ernest May (The United States, the Soviet Union and the Far Eastern War. The Pacific Historical Review. V. 24. No. 2. (1955) p. 156) Churchill pointed out: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front". [120] Klam, Julie. The Rise of Japan and Pearl Harbor, Black Rabbit Books, 2002, p. 27. [121] Hill, J. R.; Ranft, Bryan. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy, p. 362. [122] Hsiung 1992, p.158 [123] Gooch, John. Decisive Campaigns of the Second World War, p. 52. [124] Glantz 2001, p.31 [125] Molinari, Andrea. Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 194043, p. 91. [126] Mitcham, Samuel W.; Mitcham, Samuel W. Jr. Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps, p. 31. [127] Maddox, Robert James. The United States and World War II, pp. 11112. [128] Salecker, Gene Eric. Fortress Against the Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific, Da Capo Press, 2001, ISBN 1580970494, p. 186. [129] Ropp, Theodore. War in the Modern World, p. 368. [130] Weinberg 1995, p.339 [131] Gilbert, Adrian. The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day, Globe Pequot, 2003, ISBN 1592280277,p. 259.

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[132] Swain, Bruce. A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 193945, Allen & Unwin, 2001, ISBN 1865083526, p. 197. [133] Hane, Mikiso. Modern Japan: A Historical Survey, p.340. [134] Marston, Daniel. The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima, p. 111. [135] Brayley, Martin. The British Army, 193945, p. 9. [136] Read, Anthony. The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle, W. W. Norton & Company, 2004, ISBN 0393048004, p. 764. [137] Badsey, Stephen. The Hutchinson Atlas of World War II Battle Plans: Before and After, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 1579582656, pp. 23536. [138] Black, Jeremy. World War Two: A Military History, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0415305349, p. 119. [139] Gilbert, Sir Martin, The Second World War: A Complete History, Macmillan, 2004 ISBN 0805076239, pages 397-400 [140] Shukman, Harold. Stalin's Generals, Phoenix, 2002, ISBN 1842125133, p. 142. [141] Gannon, James. Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Twentieth Century, Brassey's, 2002, ISBN 1574884735, p. 76. [142] Paxton, Robert O. Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 19401944, Columbia University Press, 2001, p. 313. [143] Rich, Norman. Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion, p. 178. [144] Penrose, Jane. The D-Day Companion, Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 129. [145] Robin Neillands. The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition. (Indiana University Press, 2006). [146] Thomas, David Arthur. A Companion to the Royal Navy, p. 265. [147] Thomas, Nigel. German Army 19391945 (2): North Africa & Balkans, p. 8. [148] Ross, Steven T. American War Plans, 19411945: The Test of Battle, p. 38. [149] Bonner, Kit; Bonner, Carolyn. Warship Boneyards, p. 24. [150] Collier, Paul. The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 19401945, p. 11. [151] Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J. Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies, p. 164. [152] Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 19291945, p. 610. [153] Rottman, Gordon L. World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study, p. 228. [154] David M. Glantz. CSI Report No. 11. Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943. (http:/ / www-cgsc. army. mil/ carl/ resources/ csi/ glantz2/ glantz2. asp) [155] Soviet military deception in the Second World War by David M. Glantz; Routledge, 1989ISBN071463347X, 9780714633473, 644 pages, pp. 14959 [156] Kershaw, Ian. Hitler, 19361945: Nemesis, W. W. Norton & Company, 2001, ISBN 0393322521,p. 592. [157] O'Reilly, Charles T. Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 19431945, p. 32. [158] Glantz 2001 [159] McGowen, Tom. Assault From The Sea: Amphibious Invasions in the Twentieth Century, Twenty-First Century Books, 2002, ISBN 0761318119, pp. 4344. [160] Lamb, Richard. War in Italy, 19431945: A Brutal Story, pp. 15455. [161] Hart, Stephen; Hart, Russell. The German Soldier in World War II, p. 151. [162] Blinkhorn, Martin. Mussolini and Fascist Italy, p. 52. [163] Read, Anthony; Fisher, David. The Fall of Berlin, p. 129. [164] Read, Anthony. The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle, p. 804. [165] Iriye,, Akira, Power and culture: the Japanese-American war, 1941-1945,Harvard University Press, 1981, ISBN 0674695828, page 154 [166] Polley, Martin, A-Z of modern Europe since 1789, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 041518598X, page 148 [167] Weinberg 1995, p.660-661 [168] Glantz, David M., The siege of Leningrad, 1941-1944: 900 days of terror, Zenith Imprint, 2001, ISBN 0760309418, pages 166-69 [169] David M. Glantz (2002). The Battle for Leningrad: 19411944. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. [170] Chubarov, Alexander. Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras, p. 122. [171] Havighurst, Alfred F. Britain in Transition: The Twentieth Century, p. 344. [172] Lightbody, Bradley. The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis, p. 224. [173] Zeiler, Thomas W. Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II, p. 60. [174] Craven, Wesley Frank; Cate, James Lea. The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume Five The Pacific, Matterhorn to Nagasaki (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=6ZsTiBcmzNUC), p. 207. [175] Hsiung, James Chieh; Levine, Steven I. China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 19371945, p. 163. [176] Coble, Parks M. Chinese Capitalists in Japan's New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 19371945, p. 85. [177] Weinberg 1995, p.695

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[178] Badsey, Stephen. Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout, p. 91. [179] "Market-Garden", in Dear and Foot, ed., Oxford Companion to World War II, Osprey Publishing, 1990, ISBN 0850459214,p. 877. [180] The operation "was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II". Zaloga, Bagration 1944: The destruction of Army Group Centre, 7. [181] Berend, Tibor Ivn. Central and Eastern Europe, 19441993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery, p. 8. [182] Hastings, Max, Paul Henry CollierThe Second World War: a world in flames, Osprey Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1841768308, pages 223-4 [183] Wiest, Andrew A.; Barbier, M. K. Strategy and Tactics Infantry Warfare, Zenith Imprint, 2002, ISBN 0760314012, pp. 65, 66. [184] Wiktor, Christian L. Multilateral Treaty Calendar 16481995, p. 426. [185] Steven H. Newton (1995). Retreat from Leningrad : Army Group North, 1944/1945. Atglen, Philadelphia: Schiffer Books. [186] Marston, Daniel. The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima, p. 120. [187] Jowett & Andrew 2002, p.8 [188] Howard, Joshua H. Workers at War: Labor in China's Arsenals, 19371953, Stanford University Press, 2004, ISBN 0804748969, p. 140. [189] Drea, Edward J. In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army, U of Nebraska Press, 2003, ISBN 0803266383, p. 54. [190] Cook, Chris; Bewes, Diccon. What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century History, p. 305. [191] Parker, Danny S., "Battle of the Bulge: Hitler's Ardennes Offensive, 1944-1945", Da Capo Press, 2004, ISBN 0306813912, pages xiii-xiv, 6-8, 68-70 & 329-330 [192] Weinberg 1995, p.758, 820 [193] Glantz 2001, p.85 [194] Solsten, Eric. Germany: A Country Study, DIANE Publishing, 1999, ISBN 0788181793, pp. 767. [195] United States Dept. of State. The China White Paper, August 1949, p. 113. [196] Buchanan, Tom,Europe's troubled peace, 1945-2000, Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, ISBN 0631221638, page 21 [197] O'Reilly, Charles T. Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 19431945, Lexington Books, 2001, ISBN 0739101951, p. 244. [198] Kershaw 2001, p.823 [199] Donnelly, Mark. Britain in the Second World War, Routledge, 1999, ISBN 0415174252, p. xiv. [200] Chant, Christopher. The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II, p. 118. [201] Drea, Edward J. In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army, U of Nebraska Press, 2003, ISBN 0803266383, p. 57. [202] Jowett & Andrew 2002, p.6 [203] Poirier, Michel Thomas (1999-10-20). " Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II (http:/ / www. navy. mil/ navydata/ cno/ n87/ history/ wwii-campaigns. html)". U.S. Navy. . Retrieved 2008-04-13. [204] Williams, Andrew J. Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished, Routledge, 2006, ISBN 0415359805, p. 90. [205] Miscamble, Wilson D. From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 0521862442, p. 201. [206] Miscamble, Wilson D., From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 0521862442, pages 203-4 [207] Yoder, Amos. The Evolution of the United Nations System, p. 39. [208] History of the UN (http:/ / www. un. org/ aboutun/ history. htm). [209] Kantowicz, Edward R. Coming Apart, Coming Together, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000, ISBN 0802844561, p. 6. [210] A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 19451963, Princeton University Press, 1999, ISBN 0691002738, p. 33. [211] Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 19391953. Yale University Press. pp.43. ISBN 0300112041. [212] Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. pp.20-21. ISBN 0742555429. [213] Senn, Alfred Erich, Lithuania 1940 : revolution from above, Amsterdam, New York, Rodopi, 2007 ISBN 9789042022256

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[287] Hill, Alexander. The War Behind The Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement In North-West Russia 19411944, p. 5. [288] Christofferson, Thomas Rodney; Christofferson, Michael Scott. France During World War II: From Defeat to Liberation, p. 156. [289] Ikeo, Aiko. Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context, p. 107. [290] Militrgeschichtliches Forschungsamt. Germany and the Second World War Volume VI: The Global War, p. 266. [291] Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary. Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History, p. 76. [292] Levine, Alan J. The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 19401945, p. 217. [293] Sauvain, Philip. Key Themes of the Twentieth Century: Teacher's Guide, p. 128. [294] Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary. Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History, p. 163. [295] Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris. Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft, p. 7. [296] Chenoweth, H. Avery; Nihart, Brooke. Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines, p. 180. [297] Sumner, Ian; Baker, Alix. The Royal Navy 193945, p. 25. [298] Hearn, Chester G. Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea, p. 14. [299] Gardiner, Robert; Brown, David K. The Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 19061945, p. 52. [300] Burcher, Roy; Rydill, Louis. Concepts in Submarine Design, p. 15. [301] Burcher, Roy; Rydill, Louis. Concepts in Submarine Design, p. 16. [302] Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary. Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History, p. 125. [303] Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt. The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, p. 231. [304] Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary. Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History, p. 108. [305] Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary. Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History, p. 734. [306] Cowley, Robert; Parker, Geoffrey. The Reader's Companion to Military History, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001, ISBN 0618127429, p. 221. [307] Ratcliff, Rebecca Ann. Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra and the End of Secure Ciphers, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0521855225, p. 11. [308] http:/ / www. strom. clemson. edu/ publications/ sg-war41-45. pdf [309] http:/ / dir. yahoo. com/ Arts/ Humanities/ History/ By_Time_Period/ 20th_Century/ Military_History/ World_War_II/ [310] [311] [312] [313] [314] [315] [316] [317] [318] [319] [320] [321] [322] [323] [324] [325] [326] [327] [328] [329] [330] http:/ / www. militaryindexes. com/ worldwartwo/ http:/ / vlib. iue. it/ history/ mil/ ww2. html http:/ / www. ww2db. com/ http:/ / www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/ 2WW. htm http:/ / www6. dw-world. de/ en/ worldwarII. php http:/ / www. wwii. ca/ http:/ / www. historisches-centrum. de/ index. php?id=427 http:/ / www. history. com/ encyclopedia. do?articleId=226140 http:/ / www. ww2awards. com/ http:/ / www. gettysburg. edu/ special_collections/ collections/ manuscripts/ collections/ ms056. dot http:/ / www. wwiireels. com/ http:/ / www. archives. gov/ research/ ww2/ http:/ / digital. library. unt. edu/ search. tkl?type=collection& q=WWII http:/ / gettysburg. cdmhost. com/ cdm4/ browse. php?CISOROOT=%2Fp126301coll3 http:/ / digital. library. unt. edu/ http:/ / www. psywar. org/ leaflets. php http:/ / www. ww2incolor. com/ gallery/ http:/ / www. warphotos. co. nr/ http:/ / worldwartwozone. com/ photopost/ http:/ / english. pobediteli. ru/ http:/ / www. otr. net/ ?p=news

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[334] http:/ / ww2. war-letters. com/ [335] http:/ / www. american-divisions. com/ [336] http:/ / www. lib. utexas. edu/ maps/ historical/ history_ww2. html [337] http:/ / www. theblackvault. com/ modules. php?name=core& showPage=true& pageID=35 [338] http:/ / www. foia. cia. gov/ CPE/ CAESAR/ caesar-25. pdf [339] http:/ / chrito. users1. 50megs. com/ [340] http:/ / cgsc. cdmhost. com/ cdm4/ browse. php?CISOROOT=%2Fp4013coll8 [341] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ ww2peopleswar/ [342] http:/ / gvsu. cdmhost. com/ cdm4/ results. php?CISOOP1=all& CISOBOX1=& CISOFIELD1=CISOSEARCHALL& CISOOP2=exact& CISOBOX2=World%20War%2C%201939-1945& CISOFIELD2=CISOSEARCHALL& CISOOP3=any& CISOBOX3=& CISOFIELD3=CISOSEARCHALL& CISOOP4=none& CISOBOX4=& CISOFIELD4=CISOSEARCHALL& CISOROOT=/ p4103coll2& t=a [343] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0071075/ [344] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0212694/

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The basic causes of World War II were the nationalistic tensions, unresolved issues, and resentments resulting from the First World War and the interwar period in Europe, plus the negative reaction of the Roosevelt administration to the aggressive expansion of the Empire of Japan in the Far East in the 1930s. The culmination of events that led to the outbreak of war are generally understood to be the 1939 invasion of Poland by Nazi German battleship Schleswig-Holstein, Westerplatte, September Germany and the 1937 invasion of 1, 1939. the Republic of China by the Empire of Japan. These military aggressions were the decisions made by authoritarian ruling Nazi elite in Germany and by the leadership of the Kwantung Army

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in the case of Japan. World War II started after these aggressive actions were met with an official declaration of war and/or armed resistance.

Ideologies, doctrines, and philosophies

Anti-communism
The October Revolution led many Germans (and people in other countries) to fear that a Communist revolution would occur in their own country. Shortly after World War I, the Communists attempted to hold power in the country, leading to the establishment of the short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic. The Freikorps helped to put down the rebellion and their forces were an early component of the SA which would form the shocking-ops of the Nazi party. Political street warfare between the Communist armed militia and the SA, both groups enlarged by mass unemployment, would heighten the sense of instability in the country and the weakness of the Weimar Government. Street Violence that would help shift moderate conservative opinion towards the need for Germany to find an anti-Communist strong man to restore order in the way of life.

Destroyer USS Shaw exploding after her forward magazine was detonated during the Attack on Pearl Harbor.

Expansionism (Imperialism/Colonialism)
Expansionism is the doctrine of expanding the territorial base (or economic influence) of a country, usually by means of military aggression. At the time of World War II, various European powers (such as France, the United Kingdom, and Russia/the Soviet Union) had long held large amounts of territory under imperial or colonial rule. However, Germany and Italy had not been as successful as the other Great Powers in gaining and holding territory. In Europe, Italys Benito Mussolini sought to create a New Roman Empire based around the Mediterranean and invaded Albania in early 1939, at the start of the war, and later invaded Greece. Italy had also invaded Ethiopia as early as 1935. This provoked little response from the League of Nations and the former Allied powers, a reaction to empire-building that was common throughout the war-weary and depressed economy of the 1930s. Germany came to Mussolini's aid on several occasions. Italys expansionist desires can be tied to bitterness over minimal gains after helping the Allies achieve victory in World War I. At Versailles, Italy had been promised large chunks of Austrian territory but received only Trentino-Alto Adige/Sdtirol, and promises believed to have been made about Albania and Asia Minor were ignored by the more powerful nations' leaders. After World War I, the German state had lost land to Lithuania, France, Poland, and Denmark. Notable losses included the Polish Corridor, Danzig, the Memel Territory (to Lithuania), the Province of Posen, the French province of Alsace-Lorraine , and the most economically valuable eastern portion of Upper Silesia. The economically valuable regions

Causes of World War II of the Saarland and the Rhineland were placed under the authority (but not jurisdiction) of France. The result of this loss of land was population relocation, bitterness among Germans, and also difficult relations with those in these neighboring countries, contributing to feelings of revanchism which inspired irredentism. Under the Nazi regime, Germany began its own program of expansion, seeking to restore the "rightful" boundaries of pre-World War I Germany, resulting in the reoccupation of the Rhineland and action in the Polish Corridor, leading to a perhaps inevitable war with Poland. However, because of Allied appeasement and prior inaction, Hitler estimated that he could invade Poland without provoking a general war or, at the worst, only spark weak Allied intervention after the result was already decided. Also of importance was the idea of a Greater Germany, supporters hoped to unite the German people under one nation, which included all territories where Germans lived, disregarding the fact of them being minority in this territory. Germany's pre-World War II ambitions in both Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia mirror this goal. After the Treaty of Versailles, an Anschluss, or union, between Germany and a newly reformed Austria was prohibited by the Allies. Such a plan of unification, predating the creation of the German State of 1871, had been discarded because of the Austro-Hungarian Empire's multiethnic composition as well as competition between Prussia and Austria for hegemony. At the end of World War I, the majority of Austria's population supported such a union. The Soviet Union had lost large parts of former Russian Empire territories to Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania in World War I and the Russian Civil War and was interested in regaining lost territories. Also during the Russo-Japanese war some territories had been lost to Japan. Hungary, an ally of Germany during World War I, had also been stripped of enormous territories after the partition of the Austria-Hungary empire and hoped to regain those lands by allying with Germany. Greater Hungary was a popular topic of discussion. Romania, while on the winning side in World War I, found itself on the losing side in early stages of World War II. As result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina were ceded to the Soviet Union; the Second Vienna Award resulted in the loss of Northern Transylvania to Hungary, and the Treaty of Craiova resulted in the return of Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria. Greater Romania was a concept that caused Romania to side more and more with Nazi Germany. Bulgaria, also an ally of Germany during World War I, had lost territories to Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia in World War I and the Second Balkan War. Finland lost territory to the Soviet Union during the early stages of World War II in the lop-sided Winter War. When Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, Finland was drawn into what was called the Continuation War to regain what it had lost. In Asia, Japan harbored expansionist desires, fuelled at least partially by the minimal gains the Japanese saw after World War I. Despite having taken a German colony in China and a few other Pacific islands, as well as swaths of Siberia and the Russian port of Vladivostok, Japan was forced to give up all but the few islands it had gained during World War I. Thailand had lost territories to France and the United Kingdom in the end of 19th century and at the beginning of 20th century, and wanted to regain those areas.

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Causes of World War II In many of these cases, the roots of the expansionism leading to World War II can be found in perceived national slights resulting from previous involvement in World War I, nationalistic goals of re-unification of former territories or dreams of an expanded empire.

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Fascism
Fascism is a philosophy of government that is marked by stringent social and economic control, a strong, centralized government usually headed by a dictator, and often has a policy of belligerent nationalism that gained power in many countries across Europe in the years leading up to World War II. In general, it believes that the government should control industry and people for the good of the country. In many ways, fascism viewed the army as a model that a whole society should emulate. Fascist countries were highly militaristic, and the need for individual heroism was an important part of fascist ideology. In his book The Doctrine of Fascism, Benito Mussolini declared that "fascism does not, generally speaking, believe in the possibility or utility of perpetual peace". [1] Fascists believed that war was generally a positive force for improvement and were therefore eager at the prospect of a new European war. Fascism ultimately proved to be one of beliefs that was universal with many invading Axis countries.

Isolationism
Isolationism was the dominant foreign policy of the United States following World War I. Although the U.S. remained active in the Western Hemisphere and the Pacific, it withdrew from European political affairs but retained strong business connections. Popular sentiment in Britain and France was also isolationist and very war weary after the slaughter of World War I. In reference to Czechoslovakia, Neville Chamberlain said, "How horrible, fantastic it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas-masks here because of a quarrel in a far away country between people of whom we know nothing. I am myself a man of peace from the depths of my soul." Within a few years of this statement, the world was engulfed in total war.

Militarism
A highly militaristic and aggressive attitude prevailed among the leaders of Germany, Japan and Italy. Compounding this fact was the traditional militant attitude of the three had a similar track record that is often underestimated. For example, Germany introduced permanent conscription in 1935, with a clear aim of rebuilding its army (and defying the Treaty of Versailles).

Nationalism
Nationalism is the belief that groups of people are bound together by territorial, cultural and ethnic links. Nationalism was used by their leaders to generate public support in Germany, already a nation where fervent nationalism was prevalent. In Italy, the idea of restoring the Roman Empire was attractive to many Italians. In Japan, nationalism, in the sense of duty and honor, especially to the emperor, had been widespread for centuries.

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Racism
Twentieth-century events marked the culmination of a millennium-long process of intermingling between Germans and Slavs. Over the years, many Germans had settled to the east (the Volga Germans). Such migratory patterns created enclaves and blurred ethnic frontiers. By the 19th and 20th centuries, these migrations had acquired considerable political implications. The rise of the nation-state had given way to the politics of identity, including Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism. Furthermore, Social-Darwinist theories framed the coexistence as a "Teuton vs. Slav" struggle for domination, land and limited resources. Integrating these ideas into their own world-view, the Nazis believed that the Germans, the "Aryan race", were the master race and that the Slavs were inferior. During World War II, Hitler used racism against "Non-Aryan" peoples.

Interrelations and economics

Problems with the Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was neither lenient enough to appease Germany, nor harsh enough to prevent it from becoming the dominant continental power again. The treaty placed the blame, or "war guilt" on Germany and Austria-Hungary, and punished them from their "responsibility" rather than working out an agreement that would assure peace in the long-term future. The treaty resulted in harsh monetary reparations, territorial dismemberment, mass ethnic resettlements and indirectly hampered the German economy by causing rapid hyperinflation - see inflation in the Weimar Republic. The Weimar Republic printed trillions to help pay off its debts and borrowed heavily from the United States (only to default later) to pay war reparations to Britain and France, who still carried war debt from World War I. The treaty created bitter resentment towards the victors of World War I, who had promised the people of Germany that U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points would be a guideline for peace; many Germans felt that the German government had agreed to an armistice based on this understanding, while others felt that the German Revolution had been orchestrated by the "November criminals" who later assumed office in the new Weimar Republic. Wilson was not able to get the Allies to agree to adopt them, nor could he persuade the U.S. Congress to join the League of Nations. Contributing to this, following the Armistice of 1918, Allied forces, including those of the American Army, occupied the Rhineland as far east as the river with some small bridgeheads on the east bank at places like Cologne. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 the occupation was continued. The treaty specified three occupation Zones, which were due to be evacuated by Allied troops five, ten and finally 15 years after the formal ratification of the treaty, which took place in 1920, thus the occupation was intended to last until 1935. In fact, the last Allied troops left Germany five years prior to that date in 1930 in a good-will reaction to the Weimar Republic's policy of reconciliation in the era of Gustav Stresemann and the Locarno Pact. The German colonies were taken during the war, and Italy took the southern half of Tyrol after an armistice had been agreed upon. The war in the east ended with the collapse of Russian Empire, and German troops occupied (with varying degree of control) large parts of Eastern and Central Europe. After the destructive and indecisive battle of Jutland (1915)and the mutiny of its sailors in 1917, The Kaiserliche Marine spent most of the war in port, only to be turned over to the allies

Causes of World War II and scuttled at surrender by its own officers. The lack of an obvious military defeat was one of the pillars that held together the Dolchstosslegende and gave the Nazis another tool at their disposal. An opposite view of the treaty held by some is that it did not go far enough in permanently neutering the capability of Germany to be a great power by dividing Germany into smaller, less powerful states. In effect, this would have undone Bismarck's work and would have accomplished what the French delegation at the Paris Peace Conference wanted. However, this could have had any number of unforeseeable consequences, especially amidst the rise of communism. Regardless, the Treaty of Versailles is generally agreed to be a very poor treaty which helped the rise of the Nazi Party.

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Issues after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary

One major issue after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary was that the self-determination principle proposed by President Wilson failed to achieve its goal. While some problems had been solved, a whole new set of issues emerged at the same time as a consequence of the treaties of Trianon and Saint Germain. Former lands of Austria-Hungary
Territorial changes of Austria after 1919.

were divided up arbitrarily after the war in order to suit the ambitions of the victorious powers, and large groups of national minorities remained trapped in other countries. For example, a significant portion of Hungarians and Germans ended up under foreign rule. Hungary was held responsible for the war and stripped of two thirds of its territory and inhabitants; while Austria, which had been an equal partner in the Austro-Hungarian government, received Burgenland (formally part of Hungary), while losing the Sudetenland and the part of Tyrol that makes up Trentino-Alto Adige/Sdtirol. In addition, Yugoslavia (originally the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes) was home of five major ethnic groups (Serbs, Croats, Macedons, Montenegrins, and the Slovenes), and was created after the war. Protectionist nationalistic policies of the successor states created high regional political tension and economic cooperation of the formerly united regions of Austria-Hungary was a thing of the past, which in the end, led to struggling development. As a result, irredentist and extremist movements gained strength and support from the population in this area.

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Competition for resources

Other than a few coal and iron deposits, Japan lacks true natural resources. Japan, the only Asian country with a burgeoning industrial economy at that time, feared that a lack of raw materials might hinder its ability to fight a total war against a reinvigorated Soviet Union. In the hopes of World map of colonialism at the end of the Second World War in expanding its resources, Japan 1945. invaded Manchuria in 1931 and set about to consolidate its resources and develop its economy. Insurgency by nationalists south of Manchuria compelled the Japanese leaders to argue for a brief, three month war to knock out Chinese power from the north. When it became clear that this time estimate was absurd, plans for obtaining more resources began. The Imperial Navy eventually began to feel that it did not have enough fuel reserves. To remedy this deficiency and ensure a safe supply of oil and other critical resources, Japan would have to challenge the European colonial powers over the control of oil rich areas such as the Dutch East Indies. Such a move against the colonial powers was however expected to lead to open conflict also with the United States. On August 1941, the crisis came to a head as the United States, which at the time supplied 80% of Japanese oil imports, initiated a complete oil embargo. This threatened to cripple both the Japanese economy and military strength once the strategic reserves would run dry. Faced with the choice of either trying to appease the U.S., negotiate a compromise, find other sources of supply or go to war over resources, Japan chose the last option. Hoping to knock out the U.S. for long enough to be able to achieve and consolidate their war-aims, the Japanese Navy attacked the U.S. Navy at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. They mistakenly believed they would have about a two year window to consolidate their conquests before the United States could effectively respond and that the United States would compromise long before they could get anywhere near Japan.

Problems with the League of Nations

The League of Nations was an international organization founded after World War I to prevent future wars. The League's methods included disarmament; preventing war through collective security; settling disputes between countries through negotiation diplomacy; and improving global welfare. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years. The old philosophy, growing out of the Congress of Vienna (1815), saw Europe as a shifting map of alliances among nation-states, creating a balance of power maintained by strong armies and secret agreements. Under the new philosophy, the League was a government of governments, with the role of settling disputes between individual nations in an open and legalist forum. The impetus for the founding of the League came from U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, though the United States never joined. This also lessened the power of the Leaguethe addition of a burgeoning industrial and military world power would have added more force

Causes of World War II behind the League's demands and requests. The League lacked an armed force of its own and so depended on the members to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions which the League ordered, or provide an army, when needed, for the League to use. However, they were often very reluctant to do so. After numerous notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis Powers in the 1930s. The absence of the U.S., the reliance upon unanimous decisions, the lack of an armed force, and the continued self-interest of its leading members meant that this failure was arguably inevitable.

44

European Civil War

Some academics examine World War II as the final portion of a wider European Civil War that began with the Franco-Prussian War in July 19, 1870. The proposed period would include many (but not all) of the major European regime changes to occur during the period, including those during the Spanish Civil War and Russian Civil War.

Specific events
Franco-Prussian War
The Franco-Prussian War was initiated by Napoleon III of France, who was alarmed at the rapid growth in population and unity among the German people and was eventually forced to declare war. This period marked a relative decline in the strength of France, which continued into the 20th century. The war ended with a Prussian victory, and Germany unified soon after. Alsace-Lorraine, a border territory, was transferred from France to Germany. The resulting disruption in the balance of power led France to seek alliances with Russia and the United Kingdom.

Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic governed Germany from 1919 to 1933. The republic was named after the city of Weimar, where a national assembly convened to produce a new constitution after the German Empire was abolished following the nation's defeat in World War I. It was a liberal democracy in the style of France and the United States. The Beer Hall Putsch was a failed Nazi coup d'tat which occurred in the evening of Thursday, November 8 to the early afternoon of Friday, November 9 1923. Adolf Hitler, using the popular World War I General Erich Ludendorff, unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Weimar Republic.

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The Great Depression

Fallout from the collapse of the United States economy following the 1929 Stock Market Crash reverberated throughout the world. European countries, especially Germany, were hit hard by the Great Depression, which led to high rates of unemployment, poverty, civil unrest, and an overall feeling of despair. The Great Depression resulted in a 25% unemployment rate in the United States and a 33% unemployment rate in Germany. The lure of a steady job and adequate food led many people to support dictatorships like those established by Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin, and other totalitarians. The Great Depression hit Germany second only to the United States. Severe unemployment prompted the Nazi Party, which had been losing favor, to experience a surge in membership. This more than anything contributed to the rise of Hitler in Germany, and therefore World War II in Europe. After the end of World War I many American industries and banks invested their money in rebuilding Europe. This happened in many European countries, but especially in Germany. After the 1929 crash, many American investors fearing that they would lose their money, or having lost all their capital, stopped investing as heavily in Europe.

Rise of Fascism in Italy

From October 27 to October 29, 1922, Mussolini and his National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista, or PNF) staged a coup d'tat and seized political power in the Kingdom of Italy. Mussolini and the PNF foreshadowed similar Fascist movements in Romania, Hungary, and other states throughout the world.

Nazi dictatorship
Hitler was appointed chancellor on January 30, 1933. The arson of the parliament building on February 27 (which some have claimed the Nazis had instigated) was used as an excuse for the cancellation of civil and political liberties, enacted by the aged President Paul von Hindenburg and the rightist coalition cabinet led by Hitler. After new elections, a Nazi-led majority abolished parliamentarism, the Weimar constitution, and practically the parliament itself through the Enabling Act on March 23, whereby the Nazis' planned Gleichschaltung ("bringing into line") of Germany was made formally legal, giving the Nazis totalitarian control over German society. In the "Night of the Long Knives", Hitler's men murdered his main political rivals. After Hindenburg died on August 2, 1934, the authority of the presidency fell into the hands of Adolf Hitler. Without much resistance from the army leadership, the Soldiers' Oath was modified into an oath of obedience to Adolf Hitler personally. In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the spirit of the Locarno Pact, Germany remilitarized the Rhineland on Saturday, March 7, 1936. The occupation was done with very little military force; the troops entered on bicycles and could easily have been stopped had it not been for the appeasement mentality. France could not act because of political instability at the time. In addition, since the remilitarization occurred on a weekend, the British Government could not find out or discuss actions to be taken until the following Monday. As a result of this, the governments were inclined to see the remilitarization as a

Causes of World War II fait accompli.

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Italian invasion of Ethiopia

Italian dictator Benito Mussolini attempted to expand the Italian Empire in Africa by invading the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia). To that time, Ethiopia had successfully resisted European colonization. With the pretext of the Walwal incident in late 1934, the Kingdom of Italy invaded on October 3, 1935. The Italians invaded without a formal declaration of war. The League of Nations declared Italy the aggressor but failed to impose effective sanctions. Initially, the war progressed slowly for Italy despite its advantage in weaponry. By the end of 1935, Mussolini approved the use of mustard gas. On March 31, 1936, the Italians won the last major battle of the war, the Battle of Maychew. Emperor Haile Selassie fled into exile on May 2. Italian forces took the capital, Addis Ababa, on May 5. Italy annexed the Ethiopia on May 7 and merged Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somaliland into a single colony known as Italian East Africa. On June 30, 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie gave a stirring speech before the League of Nations denouncing Italy's actions and criticizing the world community for standing by. He warned that "It is us today. It will be you tomorrow". As a result of the League's condemnation of Italy, Mussolini declared the country's withdrawal from the organization.

Spanish Civil War

Germany and Italy lent support to the Nationalist insurrection led by general Francisco Franco in Spain. The Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic which showed leftist tendencies. Both sides used this war as an opportunity to test improved weapons and tactics. The Bombing of Guernica was a horrific attack on civilians which foreshadowed events that would occur throughout Europe.

Second Sino-Japanese War

The Second Sino-Japanese War began in 1937 when Japan attacked deep into China from its foothold in Manchukuo. The invasion was launched by the bombing of many cities such as Shanghai, Nanjing and Guangzhou. The latest, which began on 22 and 23 September 1937, called forth widespread protests culminating in a resolution by the Far Eastern Advisory Committee of the League of Nations. The Imperial Japanese Army captured the Chinese capital city of Nanjing, and committed brutal atrocities in the Nanjing massacre.

Anschluss
The Anschluss was the 1938 annexation of Austria into Germany. Historically, the idea of creating a Greater Germany through such a union had been popular in Austria as well as Germany, peaking just after World War I when both new constitutions declared German Austria a part of Germany. Such an action was expressly forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles, though. Nevertheless, Hitlerian Germany pressed for the Austrian Nazi Party's legality, played a critical role in the assassination of Austrian chancellor, Engelbert Dollfuss, and applied pressure for several Austrian Nazi Party members to be incorporated

Causes of World War II into offices within the Austrian administration. Following a Hitler speech at the Reichstag, Dollfuss' successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, made it clear that he could be pushed "no further". Amidst mounting pressures from Germany, he elected to hold a plebiscite, hoping to retain autonomy. However, just days prior to the balloting, a successful Austrian Nazi Party coup transferred power within the country. The takeover allowed German troops to enter Austria as "enforcers of the Anschluss", since the Party quickly transferred power to Hitler. Consequently, no fighting occurred as most Austrian were enthusiastic, and Austria ceased to exist as an independent state. Britain, France and Fascist Italy, who all had vehemently opposed such a union, did nothing. Just as importantly, the quarrelling amongst these powers doomed any continuation of a Stresa Front and, with no choice but to accept the unfavorable Anschluss, Italy had little reason for continued opposition to Germany, and was if anything drawn in closer to the Nazis.

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Munich Agreement
Sudetenland was a predominantly German-speaking region along the Western borders of Czechoslovakia with Germany. It contained most of the defensive system which ran across mountainous terrain and was larger than the Maginot line. The Sudetenland region also comprised about one third of Bohemia (western Czechoslovakia) in terms of territory, population, and economy. Czechoslovakia had a modern army of 38 divisions, backed by a well-noted armament industry (koda) as well as military alliances with France and Soviet Union. Hitler pressed for the Sudetenland's incorporation into the Reich, supporting German separatist groups within the Sudeten region. Alleged Czech brutality and persecution under Prague helped to stir up nationalist tendencies, as did the Nazi press. After the Anschluss, all German parties (except German Social-Democratic party) merged with the Sudeten German Party (SdP). Paramilitary activity and extremist violence peaked during this period and the Czechoslovakian government declared martial law in parts of the Sudetenland to maintain order. This only complicated the situation, especially now that Slovakian nationalism was rising, out of suspicion towards Prague and Nazi encouragement. Citing the need to protect the Germans in Czechoslovakia, Germany requested the immediate annexation of the Sudetenland. In the Munich Agreement of September 30, 1938, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French leaders appeased Hitler. The conferring powers allowed Germany to move troops into the region and incorporate it into the Reich "for the sake of peace." In exchange for this, Hitler gave his word that Germany would make no further territorial claims in Europe.[2] Czechoslovakia, which had already mobilized over one million troops and was prepared to fight, was not allowed to participate in the conference. When the French and British negotiators informed the Czechoslovak representatives about the agreement, and that if Czechoslovakia would not accept it, France and Britain would consider Czechoslovakia to be responsible for war, President Edvard Bene capitulated. Germany took the Sudetenland unopposed.

Causes of World War II German occupation and Slovak independence In March 1939, breaking the Munich Agreement, German troops invaded Prague, and with the Slovaks declaring independence, the country of Czechoslovakia disappeared. The entire ordeal ended the French and British policy of appeasement and enabled Germany to grow stronger in Europe.

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Italian invasion of Albania

After German occupation of Czechoslovakia, Italy saw itself becoming a second-rate member of the Axis. Rome delivered Tirana an ultimatum on March 25, 1939, demanding that it accede to Italy's occupation of Albania. King Zog refused to accept money in exchange for countenancing a full Italian takeover and colonization of Albania. On April 7, 1939, Mussolini's troops invaded Albania. Albania was occupied after short campaign despite stubborn resistance offered by the Albanian forces.

Soviet-Japanese Border War

In 1939, the Japanese attacked west from Manchuria into Mongolian People's Republic. They were decisively beaten by Soviet units under General Georgy Zhukov. Following this battle, the Soviet Union and Japan were at peace until 1945. Japan looked south to expand its empire, leading to conflict with the United States over the Philippines and control of shipping lanes to the Dutch East Indian. The Soviet Union focused on the west, leaving 1 million to 1.5 million troops to guard the frontier with Japan.

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
Nominally, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was a non-aggression treaty between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. It was signed in Moscow on August 23, 1939, by the Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and the German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. In 1939, neither Germany nor the Soviet Union were ready to go to war with each other. The Soviet Union had lost territory to Poland in 1920. Although officially labeled a "non-aggression treaty", the pact included a secret protocol, in which the independent countries of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Romania were divided into spheres of interest of the parties. The secret protocol explicitly assumed "territorial and political rearrangements" in the areas of these countries. Subsequently all the mentioned countries were invaded, occupied, or forced to cede part of their territory by either the Soviet Union, Germany, or both.

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Invasion of Poland
There is some debate towards the claim that Poland had, in 1933, tried to get France to join it in preventive attack after Nazis won in Germany[3] Tensions had existed between Poland and Germany for some time in regards to the Free City of Danzig and the Polish Corridor. This had been settled in 1934 by a non-aggression pact but in spring of 1939, tensions rose again. Finally, after issuing several proposals, Germany declared that diplomatic measures had been exhausted, and shortly after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact had been signed, invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Britain The Soviet Union joined Nazi and France had previously warned that they would Germany's Invasion of Poland. honor their alliances to Poland and issued an ultimatum to Germany: withdraw or war would be declared. Germany declined, and what became World War II was declared by the British and French, without entering the war effectively. The Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east on September 17.

Final diplomatic strategy

In 1940, a trip to Italy was made by British amateur diplomat James Lonsdale-Bryans. The trip, which was arranged with the support of Lord Halifax, was to meet with German ambassador Ulrich von Hassell. Lonsdale-Bryans proposed a deal whereby Germany would be given a free hand in Europe, while the British Empire would control the rest of the world. It is unclear to what extent this proposal enjoyed the official backing of the British Foreign Office. Halifax himself had met with Hitler in 1937.[4] [5]

Invasion of the Soviet Union

Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941. Hitler believed that the Soviet Union could be defeated in a fast-paced and relentless assault that capitalized on the Soviet Union's ill-prepared state, and hoped that success there would bring Britain to the negotiation table, ending the war altogether.

Attack on Pearl Harbor

The Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, hoping to destroy the United States Pacific Fleet at anchor. Even though the Japanese knew that the U.S. had the potential to build more ships, they hoped that they would feed reinforcements in piecemeal and thus the Japanese Navy would be able to defeat them in detail. This nearly happened during the Battle of Wake Island shortly after. Within days, Germany declared war on the United States, effectively ending isolationist sentiment in the U.S. which had so far prevented it from entering the war.

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Further reading
Carley, Michael Jabara 1939 : the Alliance that never was and the coming of World War II, Chicago : I.R. Dee, 1999 ISBN 1-56663-252-8. Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945 (1995). Dutton, David Neville Chamberlain, London : Arnold ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2001 ISBN 0-340-70627-9. Feis, Herbert. The Road to Pearl Harbor: The coming of the war between the United States and Japan. classic history by senior American official. Goldstein, Erik & Lukes, Igor (editors) The Munich crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II, London ; Portland, OR : Frank Cass, 1999 ISBN 0-7146-8056-7. Hildebrand, Klaus The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich, translated by Anthony Fothergill, London, Batsford 1973. Hillgruber, Andreas Germany and the Two World Wars, translated by William C. Kirby, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1981 ISBN 0-674-35321-8. Kuliabin A. Semin S.Russia - a counterbalancing agent to the Asia. Zavtra Rossii, #28, 17 July 1997 [6] Seki, Eiji. (2006). Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940. [7] London: Global Oriental. 10-ISBN 1-905-24628-5; 13- ISBN 978-1-905-24628-1 (cloth) [reprinted by University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2007 -- previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation [8].] Overy, Richard & Mason, Timothy "Debate: Germany, Domestic Crisis and War in 1939" pages 200-240 from Past and Present, Number 122, February 1989. Strang, G. Bruce On The Fiery March : Mussolini Prepares For War, Westport, Conn. : Praeger Publishers, 2003 ISBN 0-275-97937-7. Thorne, Christopher G. The Issue of War: States, Societies, and the Coming of the Far Eastern Conflict of 1941-1945 (1985) sophisticated analysis of each major power. Tohmatsu, Haruo and H. P. Willmott. A Gathering Darkness: The Coming of War to the Far East and the Pacific (2004), short overview. Wandycz, Piotr Stefan The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances, 1926-1936 : French-Czechoslovak-Polish relations from Locarno to the remilitarization of the Rhineland, Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1988 ISBN 0-691-05528-9. Watt, Donald Cameron How war came : the immediate origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939, New York : Pantheon, 1989 ISBN 0-394-57916-X. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany : Diplomatic Revolution in Europe, 1933-36, Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1970 ISBN 0-226-88509-7. Weinberg, Gerhard The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Starting World War II, 1937-1939, Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1980 ISBN 0-226-88511-9. Turner, Henry Ashby German big business and the rise of Hitler, New York : Oxford University Press, 1985 ISBN 0-19-503492-9. Wheeler-Bennett, John Munich : Prologue to Tragedy, New York : Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1948. Yomiuri Shimbun, The; James E. Auer (Editor) (2007). Who Was Responsible? From Marco Polo Bridge to Pearl Harbor. The Yomiuri Shimbun. ISBN 4643060123.- Review of this book: [9] Young, Robert France and the Origins of the Second World War, New York : St. Martin's Press, 1996 ISBN 0-312-16185-9.

Causes of World War II

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External links
The History Channel
[10]

France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the Rhineland [11] Explains the long term conflict between Germany and France over the centuries, which was a contributing factor to the World Wars. The New Year 1939/40, by Joseph Goebbels [12] "We shall fight on the beaches" speech, by Winston Churchill [13] Czechoslovakia primary sources [14] More Czechoslovakia primary sources [15]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldfuturefund. org/ wffmaster/ Reading/ Germany/ mussolini. htm [2] Chamberlain's radio broadcast (http:/ / www. st-andrews. ac. uk/ ~pv/ munich/ czdoc09. html), 27 September 1938 [3] Zygmunt J. Gasiorowski: Did Pilsudski Attempt to Initiate a Preventive War in 1933?, The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Jun., 1955), pp. 135-151 (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0022-2801(195506)27:2<135:DPATIA>2. 0. CO;2-A& size=SMALL& origin=JSTOR-reducePage) [4] Lord Halifax tried to negotiate peace with the Nazis (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ uknews/ 2650832/ Lord-Halifax-tried-to-negotiate-peace-with-the-Nazis. html), the Telegraph, Sept. 4, 2008 [5] UK diplomat sought deal with Nazis (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1220186503336& pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull), Jerusalem Post, Sept. 2, 2008 [6] http:/ / simon31. narod. ru/ article-eng. htm [7] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=u5KgAAAACAAJ& dq=Mrs. + Ferguson%27s+ Tea-set,+ Japan,+ and+ the+ Second+ World+ War& client=firefox-a [8] http:/ / www. uhpress. hawaii. edu/ cart/ shopcore/ ?db_name=uhpress& page=shop/ flypage& product_id=4475& PHPSESSID=75b7d372eb6f6c4d747ec0a150c42ead [9] http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ fb20070311a1. html [10] http:/ / www. historychannel. com/ thcsearch/ thc_resourcedetail. do?encyc_id=226140 [11] http:/ / www. american. edu/ ted/ ice/ saar. htm [12] http:/ / www. calvin. edu/ academic/ cas/ gpa/ goeb21. htm [13] http:/ / www. winstonchurchill. org/ i4a/ pages/ index. cfm?pageid=393 [14] http:/ / www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/ 2WWmunich. htm [15] http:/ / www. st-andrews. ac. uk/ ~pv/ munich/ doclist. html

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Course of the war

Timeline of World War II
World War II series Precursors

Asian events European events Timeline 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Eastern front Pacific War Battles Military operations Commanders Technology Atlas of the World Battle Fronts Manhattan project Aerial warfare Home front Collaboration Resistance
Aftermath Casualties Further effects War crimes Japanese War Crimes Consequences of Nazism Soviet

occupation Depictions World War II articles Alphabetical index: 0-9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Campaigns | Countries | Equipment Lists | Outline | Timeline | Portal | Category

Timelines of World War II Chronological Before (Asia Europe) 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Topical Eastern Front European Air Operations Manhattan Project

This is a timeline of events that stretched over the period of World War II. Because of length it is subdivided into pages by year: Timeline of events preceding World War II Events preceding World War II in Asia Events preceding World War II in Europe Timeline of World War II (1939) Timeline of World War II (1940) Timeline of World War II (1941)

Timeline of World War II Timeline Timeline Timeline Timeline of of of of World World World World War War War War II II II II (1942) (1943) (1944) (1945)

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See also
Timeline of World War I

External links
HistoryOrb.com
[1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. historyorb. com/ war/ world-war-two

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Aftermath
Aftermath of World War II
World War II series Precursors

Asian events European events Timeline 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Eastern front Pacific War Battles Military operations Commanders Technology Atlas of the World Battle Fronts Manhattan project Aerial warfare Home front Collaboration Resistance
Aftermath Casualties Further effects War crimes Japanese War Crimes Consequences of Nazism Soviet

occupation Depictions World War II articles Alphabetical index: 0-9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Campaigns | Countries | Equipment Lists | Outline | Timeline | Portal | Category

The Aftermath of World War II covers a period of history from roughly 1945-1957.

Europe in ruins
At the end of the war, millions of refugees were homeless, the European economy had collapsed, and much of the European industrial infrastructure was destroyed. The Soviet Union had been heavily affected, with 30% of its economy destroyed. Luftwaffe bombings of Frampol, Wielu and Warsaw in 1939 instituted the practice of bombing purely civilian targets. Many other cities suffered similar annihilation as this practice was continued by both the Allies and Axis forces.

Warsaw destroyed by German forces.

The United Kingdom ended the war economically exhausted by the war effort. The wartime coalition government was dissolved; new elections were held, and Winston Churchill was defeated in a landslide general election by the Labour Party under Clement Attlee. In 1947, United States Secretary of State George Marshall devised the "European Recovery Program", better known as the Marshall Plan, effective in the years 1948 - 1952. It

Aftermath of World War II allocated US$13 billion for the reconstruction of Western Europe.

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China
The war was also a pivotal point in China's history. However, the war greatly enhanced China's international status. The central government under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek was able to abrogate most of the unequal treaties China had signed in the past century, and the Republic of China became a founding member of the United Nations and a permanent member in the Security Council. China also reclaimed Manchuria and Taiwan. Nevertheless, eight years of war greatly taxed the central government, and many of its nation-building measures adopted since it came to power in 1928 were disrupted by the war. Communist activities also expanded greatly in occupied areas, making post-war administration of these areas fraught with difficulties. Vast war damages and hyperinflation thereafter greatly demoralized the populace, along with the continuation of the Chinese Civil War Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. between the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Communists. Partly because of the severe blow his army and government had suffered during the war against Japan, the Kuomintangalong with state apparatus of the Republic of Chinaretreated to Taiwan in 1949, and in its place the Chinese communists established the People's Republic of China on the mainland.

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Soviet occupation and control of Central and Eastern Europe

At the end of the war the Soviet Union occupied much of Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans. In all the USSR-occupied countries, with the exception of Austria, the Soviet Union helped communist regimes to power. Furthermore, it occupied and annexed the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

Occupation of Germany and Austria

Germany was partitioned into four zones of occupation, coordinated by the Allied Control Council. The American, British, and French zones joined in 1949 as the Federal Republic of Germany, and the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic. In Germany, economic suppression and German occupation zones in 1946 after territorial denazification took place for several years. annexations in the east. The Saarland (in the French Millions of Germans and Poles were zone) is shown with stripes because it was removed from Germany by France in 1947 as a protectorate, expelled from their homelands as a result and was not incorporated into the Federal Republic of of the territorial annexations in Eastern Germany until 1957. Historical Eastern Germany, not Europe agreed upon at the Yalta and contained in this map was annexed by Poland, and the Potsdam conferences. Mainstream Soviet Union. estimates of German casualties from this process range between 1-2 millions. In the west, Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, and the Saar area was separated from Germany and put in economic union with France. Austria was separated from Germany and divided into four zones of occupation, which reunited in 1955 to become the Republic of Austria.

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Occupation of Japan and Korea

Japan was occupied by the U.S., aided by Commonwealth troops, until the peace treaty took effect in 1952. In accordance with the Yalta Conference agreements, the Soviet Union occupied and subsequently annexed Sakhalin. During the occupation, the Americans focused on demilitarizing the nation, demolishing the Japanese arms industry, and installing a democratic government with a new constitution. Commonly regarded by many historians as a resounding economic and social success, the Japanese occupation formally ended in 1952, soon followed by Japan's meteoric post-war economic boom. The Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council For Japan were also established to look over the occupation of Japan. These bodies served a similar function to the Allied Control Council in occupied Germany Korea was divided between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, leading to the creation of two separate governments in 1948. Under Soviet auspices, the northern part of the peninsula soon declared Evolution of Korean, from the Yalta independence as the Democratic People's Republic Soviet-American 38th parallel division to the of Korea, while the U.S.-backed anticommunist stalemate of 1953 that persists as of today regime in the southern half became the Republic of Korea. These two governments eventually engaged in the first "hot" conflict of the Cold War from 1950-1953 during the Korean War, the first test of the post-war American military and also of the new United Nations organization. The two Koreas are still divided today.

End of European Colonialism

The areas previously occupied by the colonial powers gained their freedom, some peacefully such as the Philippines in 1946, and India and Pakistan in 1947. Others had to fight bloody wars of liberation before gaining freedom, such as against the French attempt to reoccupy Vietnam in the First Indochina War following the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence, and against the Netherlands' attempt to reoccupy the Dutch East Indies. Japan had brought with them a sense of nationalism that grew power bases in the Philippines, and Vietnam. This nationalist nature led to revolutions against the Americans and the French in Asia. This signalled the end of the imperial nature of many of the European powers.

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Border revisions: Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union

As a result of the new borders drawn by the victorious nations, large populations suddenly found themselves in hostile territory. The Soviet Union took over areas formerly controlled by Germany, Finland, Poland, and Japan. Poland received most of Germany east of the Oder-Neisse line, including the industrial regions of Silesia. The German state of the Saar was temporarily a protectorate of France but later returned to German administration. The number of Germans expelled, as set forth at Potsdam, totalled roughly 15 million, including 11 million from Germany proper and 3.5 million from the Sudetenland. Mainstream estimates of casualties from the expulsions range between 1 - 2 million dead. In Eastern Europe, four million Poles were expelled by the Soviet Union from east of the new border which approximated the Curzon Line. This border change reversed the results of the 1919-1920 Polish-Soviet War. Former Polish cities such as L'vov came under control of the Soviet administration of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Soviet expansion, change of Central-Eastern European borders and creation of the Communist Eastern bloc after World War II

Reparations and Allied occupation

Germany paid reparations to the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union mainly in the form of dismantled factories, forced labor, and coal. Germany was to be reduced to the standard of living she had at the height of the Great Depression. [1] Changes to Germany's borders from 1919-1945 Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel comes to the

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conclusion, in his book Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany, that the "intellectual reparations" taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to US$10 billion, equivalent to around US$100 billion in 2006 terms.[2] The program of acquiring German scientists and technicians for the U.S. was also used to deny the expertise of German scientists to the Soviet Union.[2] The case for finding and holding Nobel laurate Werner Heisenberg was summed up thus "he was worth more to us than ten divisions of Germans. Had he fallen into Russian hands, he would have proven invaluable to them."[3] In accordance with the Paris Peace

Changes to Poland's borders from 1919-1945.

Treaties, 1947, payment of reparations was assessed from the countries of Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland.

References
Norman M. Naimark The Russians in Germany; A History of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949 Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-78406-5

Expulsion of Germans from the Sudetenland

References
[1] Cost of Defeat (http:/ / jcgi. pathfinder. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,852764,00. html) Time Magazine Monday, April 8, 1946 [2] Norman M. Naimark The Russians in Germany pg. 206 [3] Norman M. Naimark The Russians in Germany pg. 207

60

Impact of the war

World War II casualties
World War II was the deadliest military conflict in history. Over 60 million persons were killed. The tables below give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses.

Total dead
World War II casualty statistics vary greatly. Estimates of total dead range from 50 million to over 70 million.[36] The sources cited on this page document an estimated death toll in World War II of 61 to 77 million, making it the deadliest war ever. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is uncertain. Civilians killed totaled from 40 to 52 million, including 13 to 20 million from war-related disease and famine. Total military dead: from 21 to 25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 million prisoners of war.

Christmas Day, 1942. An Australian soldier, George "Dick" Whittington, is aided by Papuan orderly Raphael Oimbari, at the Battle of Buna-Gona. Whittington died in February 1943 from the effects of bush typhus, the little-known killer of many Allied and Japanese soldiers in the Pacific. (Picture by George Silk.)

Katyn 1943 exhumation. Photo by Polish Red Cross delegation.

World War II casualties

61

Recent historical scholarship

Recent historical scholarship has shed new insight into the topic of Second World War casualties. Research in Russia since the collapse of the Soviet Union has caused a revision of estimates of Soviet war dead. Estimated USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million.[37] Scholars in post-communist Poland now put total Polish war dead at between 4.9 and 5.6 million.[42]-[94] [47] The German Army historian Dr. Rdiger Overmans published a study in 2000 that estimated German military dead and missing at 5.3 million.[6] War dead totals on this page for the British Commonwealth are based on the research of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.[29] Casualties listed here include about 4 to 12 million war-related famine deaths in China, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, India, and Bangladesh that are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties.[9][5]

An Einsatzgruppe D member about to shoot a Jew kneeling at a mass grave in Vinnitsa, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union, in 1942. The photograph is inscribed: The last Jew in Vinnitsa.

Human losses by country

Some nations in World War II suffered disproportionally more casualties than others. This is especially true regarding civilian casualties. The following chart gives data on the number of dead for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. Military figures include battle deaths (KIA) and personnel missing in action (MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity. Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Nazi persecution, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet Union, Allied war crimes and deaths due to war related famine and disease. Jewish losses in the Holocaust are listed separately for each nation, since they are known. Compiling or estimating the numbers of deaths caused during wars and other violent conflicts is a controversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed during World War II.[36] The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare and collateral damage is not always clear cut. For nations that suffered huge losses such as the U.S.S.R., China, Poland, Germany and Yugoslavia, our sources can give us only the total estimated population loss caused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity, crimes against humanity and war related famine. The footnotes give a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available. Human Losses of World War Two by Country

World War II casualties

62
Population 1939 Military deaths Civilian deaths Jewish Holocaust deaths 200 700 58,700 65,000 Total deaths Deaths as % of 1939 population 2.81% 0.57% see table below 1.02% 0.00% 0.38% 1.69% 0.40% 1.93% to 3.86%

Country

Albania[1] Australia[2] Austria[3]

1,073,000 6,998,000 6,653,000

30,000 40,500

30,200 41,200 123,700

Belgium[4] Brazil[5] Bulgaria[6] Burma[7] Canada[8] China[9]

8,387,000 40,289,000 6,458,000 16,119,000 11,267,000 517,568,000

12,100 1,000 22,000 22,000 45,300 3,000,000 to 4,000,000

49,600 1,000 3,000 250,000

24,400

86,100 2,000 25,000 272,000 45,300

7,000,000 to 16,000,000

10,000,000 to 20,000,000 100 277,000 100 345,000 3,200 3,030,000 to 4,030,000 1,000 51,000

Cuba[10] Czechoslovakia[11] Denmark[12] Dutch East Indies[13]

4,235,000 15,300,000 3,795,000 69,435,000 25,000 2,100

100 43,000 1,000 3,030,000 to 4,030,000

0.00% 2.25% 0.08% 4.3% to 5.76%

Estonia1939 Borders[14] Ethiopia[15] Finland[16] France[17] French Indochina[18]

1,134,000

50,000

4.50%

17,700,000 3,700,000 41,700,000 24,600,000

5,000 95,000 217,600

95,000 2,000 267,000 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 83,000

100,000 97,000 567,600 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 160,000 6,793,000 to 8,493,000 311,300 580,000 200 1,587,000 to 2,587,000 200 1,000

0.6% 2.62% 1.35% 4.07% to 6.1%

Germany[19]

69,623,000

5,533,000

840,000 to 2,800,000

see table below

Greece[20] Hungary[21] Iceland[22] India [23]

7,222,000 9,129,000 119,000 378,000,000

20,000 300,000

220,000 80,000 200

71,300 200,000

4.31% 6.35% 0.17% 0.43% to .057%

87,000

1,500,000 to 2,500,000

Iran[24] Iraq[25]

14,340,000 3,698,000

200 1,000

0.00% 0.03%

World War II casualties

63
2,960,000 44,394,000 71,380,000 23,400,000 301,400 2,120,000 200 145,100 580,000 378,000 to 533,000 147,000 80,000 8,000 200 454,500 2,700,000 378,000 to 533,000 227,000 0.00% 1.02% 3.78% 1.6% to 2.3 % 11.38%

Ireland[26] Italy[27] Japan[28] Korea[29]

Latvia1939 Borders[30] Lithuania1939 Borders[31] Luxembourg[32] Malaya[33] Malta[34] Mexico[35] Mongolia[36] Nauru[37] Netherlands[38] Newfoundland[39] New Zealand[40] Norway[41] Papua and New Guinea [42] Philippines[43]

1,995,000

2,575,000

212,000

141,000

353,000

13.71%

295,000 4,391,000 269,000 19,320,000 819,000 3,400 8,729,000 300,000 1,629,000 2,945,000 1,292,000 21,000 1,000 11,900 3,000 300

1,300 100,000 1,500 100

700

2,000 100,000 1,500 100 300

0.68% 2.28% 0.56% 0.00% 0.04% 14.7% 3.44% 0.37% 0.07% 0.32% 1.17%

500 176,000 100 104,000

500 301,000 1,100 11,900

5,800 15,000

700

9,500 15,000

16,000,000

57,000

500,000 to 1,000,000 1,760,000 to 2,760,000 3,000,000

557,000 to 1,057,000 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 40,000 to 70,000 469,000 833,000

3.48% to 6.6% 14.3% to 17.2%

Poland1939 Borders[44]

34,849,000

240,000

Portuguese Timor[45]

500,000

40,000 to 70,000 300,000 64,000

8.00% to 14.00% 4.22%

Romania1939 Borders[46] Singapore[47] South Africa[48] South Pacific Mandate[49] Soviet UnionSee Table Below[50]

19,934,000

728,000 10,160,000 1,900,000 11,900

50,000

50,000 11,900

6.87% 0.12% 3.00%

57,000

57,000

168,500,000

8,800,000 to 10,700,000 4,500

14,154,000 to 12,254,000

1,000,000

23,954,000

14.18%

Spain[51]

25,637,000

4,500

0.02%

World War II casualties

64
6,341,000 4,210,000 200 2,000 100 5,600 382,700 416,800 446,000 21,582,100 to 25,482,100 300 67,100 1,700 514,000 34,514,100 to 46,6044,100 67,000 5,752,400 2,200 100 5,900 449,800 418,500 1,027,000 61,798,600 to 77,788,600 0.03% 0.00% 0.04% 0.94% 0.32% 6.67% 3.71% to 3.96%

Sweden[52] Switzerland[53] Thailand[54] United Kingdom[55] United States[56] Yugoslavia[57] Totals

15,023,000 47,760,000 131,028,000 15,400,000 1,963,205,000

Human Losses of The Third Reich in World War Two (Included in above figures)
Total Population 1939 Austria Germany 1937 Borders Ethnic Germans other nations Soviet citizens in the German Military Totals 6,653,000 69,623,000 Military Deaths Civilian Deaths Jewish Holocaust Deaths 65,000 160,000 Total deaths % Population

261,000 4,456,000

58,700 840,000 to 1,940,000 100,000 to 730,000

384,700 5,646,000 to 6,556,000 701,000 to 1,331,000 215,000

5.8% 7.8% to 9.4 %

6,912,000

601,000

10.0% to 19.2%

800,000

215,000

26.9%

83,988,000

5,533,000

998,700 to 2,728,700

225,000

6,756,700 to 8,456,700

8.04% to 10.1%

Sources: See Footnotes for Germany and Austria

Human Losses of The USSR in World War Two (Included in the above figures)
Total Population Military Deaths Civilian Deaths Jewish Holocaust Deaths 1,000,000 Total deaths

Soviet Union 1939 Borders[50] Estonia 1939 Borders Latvia 1939 Borders Lithuania 1939 Borders-Less:Klaipeda Poland Eastern Regions-Less:Biaystok (figures included with Poland) Romania Bessarabia & Bukovina (figures included with Romania)

168,524,000

8,800,000 to 10,700,000

14,154,000 to 12,254,000 50,000 147,000 212,000

23,954,000

1,100,000 2,000,000 2,400,000

1,000 80,000 141,000

51,000 227,000 353,000

11,500,000

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

3,700,000

100,000

200,000

300,000

World War II casualties

65
(430,000)

Less: Transfer of ethnic Germans to Germany 1940 Growth of Population 1939 to mid 1941 Soviet deaths included in the German Military Totals for USSR in Borders of June 1941 Sources:[50]

7,923,000

215,000

196,716,000

8,800,000 to 10,700,000

15,163,000 to 13,263,000

2,472,000

26,600,000

Notes
. Figures rounded to the nearest hundredth place. Population in 1939 - Source: Population Statistics[58] War losses are for the national boundaries of 1939. Total Soviet losses in the postwar 1946-91 boundaries [59] were 26.6 million.[37] Total Polish losses in the postwar 1946 boundaries[60] were about 3,500,000.[40,183] Total Romanian losses in the postwar 1946 boundaries. [61] were 460,000[2,133] Military Deaths - Losses include deaths of regular military forces from combat as well as non Chart showing World War II deaths by combat causes. Partisan (military) and Resistance country in millions as well as by percentage of population, and piechart fighter deaths forces are included with military with percentage of military and civilian losses. The deaths of prisoners of war in captivity deaths for the Allied and the Axis Powers and personnel missing in action are also included with military deaths. The armed forces of the various nations are treated as single entities, for example the deaths of Austrians, Soviets, French and ethnic Germans in the Wehrmacht are included with German military losses. Holocaust victims 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German dominated Europe perished in the war.-[14,242-244] Estimates for Holocaust deaths range between 5.1 to 6.0 million Jews.[61] Other groups persecuted and killed by the Nazis [80][60] [49] [48] [17]. included 130,000 to 500,000 Gypsies [48] [50] [62]; 150,000 to 200,000 handicapped persons [51] ; 2.6 to 3 million Soviet prisoners of war[52]; 1.8 to 1.9 million Poles [38]; 4.5 to 8.2 million Soviet civilians [53][60] [48]; about 10,000 Gay men[54]; about 1,000 Jehovah's Witnesses [55]; between 1,000 to 2,000 Roman Catholic clergy [57] and an unknown number of Freemasons [56]. "The fate of black people from 1933 to 1945 in Nazi Germany and in German-occupied territories ranged from isolation to persecution, sterilization, medical experimentation, incarceration, brutality, and murder." [58] During the Nazi era Communists, Socialists, Social Democrats, and trade union leaders were victims of Nazi persecution . [90]

World War II casualties Prisoner of war deaths in Nazi captivity totaled 3.1 Million[17,Table A] Japanese War Crimes R. J. Rummel estimates the civilian victims of Japanese war crimes at 5,424,000. Detailed by country: China 3,695,000; Indochina 457,000; Korea 378,000; Indonesia 375,000; Malaya-Singnapore 283,000; Philippines 119,000, Burma 60,000 and Pacific Islands 57,000. [4, Chap.3]..[5,Table 5A] Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian victims of Japanese war crimes at 20,365,000. Detailed by country: China 12,392,000; Indochina 1,500,000; Korea 500,000; Dutch East Indies 3,000,000; Malaya and Singnapore 100,000 ; Philippines 500,000; Burma 170,000; Forced laborers in Southeast Asia 70,000, 30,000 interned non-Asian civilians; Timor 60,000; Thailand and Pacific Islands 60,000.[111] Werner Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese captivity at 331,584. Detailed by country: China 270,000; Netherlands 8,500; U.K. 12,433; Canada 273; Philippines 20,000; Australia 7,412; New Zealand 31; and the United States 12,935[111] Victims of Soviet Repression The deaths of 400,000 civilians deported during the Soviet annexations in 1939-40 are included with World War II casualties.[47][3,]. Prisoner of war deaths totaled 600,000 in Soviet captivity [7,278] [3,]. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2007-08[29,10] is the source of the military dead for the British Empire The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated The Commonwealth War Graves Commission are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former U.K. Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organisations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of C.W.G.C. the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 03/09/1939 to 31/12/1947. The report is available online at [62] Sources - The footnotes list the details of the losses and their sources.

66

Losses by alliance

Military and civilian deaths during World War II for the Allied and the Axis Powers.

Allied Military personnel killed, percentage by country.

Axis Military personnel killed, percentage by country.

World War II casualties

67

Casualties by branch of service

Casualties of World War Two by Branch of Service
Country Branch of service Army[6,333-335] Air Force[6,333-335] Navy
[6,333-335]

Number served 13,600,000 2,500,000

Killed/missing

Wounded

Prisoner of war

Percent killed 30.9% 17.32%

Germany

4,202,000 433,000

1,200,000 900,000

138,000 314,000

11.5% 34.9%

Waffen SS[6,333-335] Volkssturm and Police[6,333-335] Soviet citizens in German military service[7,278][24] Unidentified by branch of service (see note below) Japan[1,254] Army Navy Soviet Union 1939-40 Soviet Union 1941-45 All branches of service[7,51-80] All branches of service[7,85-87] Conscripted Reservists (see note below)
[3,13-14]

231,000

215,000

6,035,000[7,276] 11,100,000[6,286]

6,300,000 2,100,000

1,526,000 414,900 136,945

85,600 8,900 205,924

30,000 10,000

24.22% 19.76%

34,476,700

8,668,400

14,685,593

4,059,000

25.1%

1,500,000

1,200,000

Paramilitary and Soviet partisan units[3,20-21] All branches of British [19][18] Commonwealthservice
[29]

400,000

11,115,000

580,351

475,000

318,000

5.2%

United States[78]

Army

11,260,000

318,274

565,861

2.8%

World War II casualties

68
(3,400,000) (88,119) (17,360) 2.5%

United States Army Air Forces (included in Army[69]) Navy Marine Corps United States Coast Guard
[16,584]

4,183,446 669,100 241,093

62,614 24,511 1,917

37,778 68,207

1.5% 3.66% 0.78%

United States Merchant Marine [79] Unidentified by branch of service [63].

243,000

9,521

12,000

3.9%

130,201

Notes
Germany 1. The number killed in action was 2,303,320; died of wounds, disease or accidents 500,165; 11,000 sentenced to death by court martial; 2,007,571 missing in action or unaccounted for after the war; 25,000 suicides; 12,000 unknown [6,335]; 459,475 confirmed POW deaths, of whom 77,000 were in the custody of the U.S., UK and France; and 363,000 in Soviet custody. POW deaths includes 266,000 in the post war period after June 1945, primarily in Soviet captivity;[6,239 & 286]. 2. Dr. Rdiger Overmans believes that It seems entirely plausible, while not provable,that one half of the missing were killed in action, the other half however in fact died in Soviet custody [6,289] 3. Soviet sources list the deaths of 474,967 of the 2,652,672 German Armed Forces POW taken in the War. [12,109] 4. The number of wounded includes 1,600,000 permanently disabled which was listed in Geschichte Des Zweiten Weltkrieges A.G. Pltz 1960. P. 81 USSR 1. Estimated total Soviet military war dead from 194145 on the Eastern Front (World War II) including missing in action, POWs and Soviet partisans range from 8.6 to 10.6 million.[3,20-21] There were an additional 127,000 war dead in 1939-40 during the Winter War with Finland[3,20] 2. The official recorded military war dead from 1941-45 were 8,668,400 comprising 6,329,600 combat related deaths, 555,500 non combat deaths.[7,85]., 500,000 missing in action and 1,283,300 POWs.[7,236]. Figures include Navy losses of 154,771.[7,86] Non combat deaths include 157,000 sentenced to death by court martial[3,21] 3. Casualties in 1939-40 include the following dead and missing, Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 (8,931); Invasion of Poland of 1939 (1,139); Winter War with Finland (1939-40) (126,875).[7,51-80] 4. The number of wounded includes 2,576,000 permanently disabled.[7,91]

World War II casualties 5. The number of Soviet POW who survived the war was 1,836,000, plus an additional 939,700 POW and MIA who were redrafted as territory was liberated[7,236] 6. Conscripted reservists is an estimate of men called up, primarily in 1941, who were killed in battle or died as POWs before being listed on active strength. Soviet and Russian sources classify these losses as civilian deaths.[3,13-14] British Commonwealth 1. Number served: UK & Crown Colonies (5,896,000); India (2,582,000), Australia (993,000); Canada (1,100,000); New Zealand (295,000); South Africa (250,000). [1,253-254] 2. Total war related deaths reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission: UK & Crown Colonies (383,667); Undivided India (87,031), Australia (40,458); Canada (45,364); New Zealand (11,928); South Africa (11,903);[29,10] 3. Wounded: UK & Crown Colonies (284,049); India (64,354), Australia (39,803); Canada (53,174); New Zealand (19,314); South Africa (14,363)[19][18][20] 4. Prisoner of war: UK & Crown Colonies (180,488); India (79,481); Australia (26,358); South Africa (14,750); Canada (9,334); New Zealand (8,415)[19][18][20] 5. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [64] U.S. 1. Battle deaths were 292,131, Army 234,874, Navy 36,950, Marine Corps 19,733, Coast Guard 574, and United States Army Air Forces (included in Army) 52,173[69][16,584] 2. The United States Merchant Marine war dead of 9,521 are included with military losses .[79]. 3. During World War Two 1.2 million African Americans served in the Armed Forces and 708 were killed in combat. 350,000 American women served in the military during World War Two and 16 were killed in action.[16,584-585]

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See also
World War II casualties of the Soviet Union Equipment losses in World War II World War I casualties List of wars by death toll

Footnotes
1. ^Albania No reliable statistics on Albania's wartime losses exist, but the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration reported about 30,000 Albanian war dead, 200 destroyed villages, 18,000 destroyed houses, and about 100,000 people left homeless. Albanian official statistics claim somewhat higher losses [102] Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 200.[14,244] 2. ^Austria Military war dead reported by Dr. Rdiger Overmans of 260,749 are included with Germany.[6,335]. The Embassy of Austria, Washington DC USA, provides the following information on human losses during the rule of the Nazis. For Austria the consequences of the Nazi regime and the Second World War were disastrous: During this period 2,700

World War II casualties Austrians had been executed and more than 16,000 citizens murdered in the concentration camps. Some 16,000 Austrians were killed in prison, while over 67,000 Austrian Jews were deported to death camps, only 2,000 of them lived to see the end of the war. In addition, 247,000 Austrians lost their lives serving in the army of the Third Reich or were reported missing, and 24,000 civilians were killed during bombing raids. [110] These figures include the genocide of Romani people of 6,500 persons[13,183] and Jewish Holocaust victims totaling 65,000.[14,244] 3. ^Australia The war dead listed here are those reported by the Commonwealth War Graves CommissionTotal deaths were 40,458[29]. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [64] However, the Australian War Memorial website article, Australian Military Statistics: WWII [65] reports military deaths were 39,366 and civilian deaths of 735 due primarily to Air raids on Australia, 194243 and Axis naval activity in Australian waters. The Australian War Memorial figures include those military deaths while on active duty, however the CWGC figures on this page also include the war related deaths during 1939-47 of discharged military personnel. The preliminary 1945 data for Australian losses was killed 23,365, missing 6,030, wounded 39,803 and POW 26,363.[20] 4. ^Belgium Belgian government sources reported that military war dead included 8,800 killed, 500 missing in action, 200 executed, 800 resistance movement fighters and 1,800 POWs. Civilian losses included deaths due to military operations of 32,200 and 16,900 non-Jewish victims of Nazi reprisals and repression.[2,43-45] Losses of about 10,000 in the German Armed Forces are not included in these figures.[6,230] The genocide of Roma people was 500 persons.[13,183]Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 24,387.[14,244] 5. ^Brazil The Brazilian Expeditionary Force war dead were 510[1,255], Navy losses in the Battle of the Atlantic were 492. Civilian losses due to attacks on merchant shipping were 470 merchant mariners and 502 passengers.[16,540] 6. ^Bulgaria Bulgarian military war dead were as follows, 2,000 military with Axis in Yugoslavia and Greece; 10,124 military dead as allies of the USSR and 10,000 Anti-Fascist Partisan deaths.[3,38-39] Regarding partisan and civilian casualties Vadim Erlikman notes " According to the official data of the royal government 2,320 were killed and 199 executed. [33,158]The communists claim that 20-35,000 persons died. In reality deaths were 10,000, including and unknown number of civilians." [3,38-39] 3,000 civilians were killed by Anglo-American air raids[16,512]; including 1,374 in Bombing of Sofia in World War II.[32,196] 7. ^Burma Military dead of 22,000 were with the pro-Japanese Burma National Army [3,74-75] Civilian deaths during the Japanese occupation of Burma totaled 250,000; 110,000 Burmese, plus 100,000 Indian and 40,000 Chinese civilians in Burma.[16,556]. Werner Gruhl estimates Burma's dead at 170,000 civilians due to the Japanese occupation[111] 8. ^Canada The war dead listed here are those reported by the Commonwealth War Graves

70

World War II casualties Commission[29]. Total deaths were 45,364 [22] and (102) men from Newfoundland [66] Newfoundland's losses are listed separately since it was not part of Canada during World War II. However, the Canadian War Museum puts military losses at 42,000 plus 1,600 Merchant Navy deaths [67] The CANADIAN VIRTUAL WAR MEMORIAL contains a registry of information about the graves and memorials of Canadians and Newfoundlanders who served valiantly and gave their lives for their country[68] The preliminary 1945 data for Canadian losses was killed 37,476, missing 1,843, wounded 53,174 and POW 9,045.[20] 9. ^China Sources for total Chinese war dead range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below. John W. Dower has noted So great was the devastation and suffering in China that in the end it is necessary to speak of uncertain millions of deaths. Certainly, it is reasonable to think in general terms of approximately 10 million Chinese war dead, a total surpassed only by the Soviet Union [9,295-296] The official Chinese government statistics for China's civilian and military casualties in the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937-1945 are 20 million dead and 15 million wounded. The figures for total military casualties, killed and wounded are: Nationalist 3.2 million; Communist 580,000 and collaborator forces 1.18 million; captured: collaborator forces 950,000.[34,4-9] The offical account of the war published in Taiwan reported the Nationalist cCinese Army lost 3,238,000 men ( 1.797,000 WIA; 1,320,000 KIA and 120,000 MIA.) and 5,787,352 civilians in casualties [112] An academic study published in the United States estimates total war deaths of 15-20 million from all causes: military casualties: 1.5 million killed in battle, 750,000 missing in action, 1.5 million deaths due to disease and 3 million wounded; civilian casualties: due to military activity, killed 1,073,496 and 237,319 wounded; 335,934 killed and 426,249 wounded in Japanese air attacks [81] R. J. Rummel's estimate of total war dead from 1937-45 is 19,605,000. The details are as follows: Military dead: 3,400,000 (including 400,000 POW) Nationalist/Communist and 432,000 collaborator forces [5,Table 5A]. Civilian war deaths: 3,808,000 killed in fighting and 3,549,000 victims of Japanese war crimes (not including an additional 400,000 POWs); Other deaths: Repression by Chinese Nationalist's 5,907,000 (3,081,000 military conscripts and 2,826,000 civilian deaths caused by Nationalist government, including the 1938 Yellow River flood; political repression by Chinese Communists 250,000 and by Warlords 110,000. Additional deaths due to famine were 2,250,000[5,Table 5A]. Werner Gruhl estimates China's war dead at 12,392,000 civilian dead due to the Japanese occupation and 3,162,00 military dead. He also estimates an additional 1,445,000 deaths due to internal Chinese conflicts.[111] 10. ^Cuba Cuba lost 5 merchant ships and 79 dead merchant mariners[16,540] The Cuban sub chaser CS-13 sank U-176 on May 15,1943.[69] 11. ^Czechoslovakia Military war dead of 25,000 included Killed during 1938 occupation(171); Czechoslovak Forces with the western allies (3,220); Czechoslovak military units on Eastern front (4,570); Slovak Republic (WWII) Axis forces (7,000); Partisan (military) losses of (2,170)

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World War II casualties and killed in 1945 uprising(8,000).[3,54]--[35,270]Totals do not include an additional estimated 30,000 dead in Hungarian Army.[8,58-59] Civilian losses in include killed during 1938 occupation(262); non Jewish victims of Nazi reprisals (26,500) and killed in military operations (10,000)).[3,54]--[35,270] Civilian losses include the territories of prewar Czechoslovakia, including Carpathian Ruthenia which was ceded to the USSR after the war. The genocide of Roma people was 7,500 persons.[13,183-184]Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 277,000.[14,244] 12. ^Denmark During the Occupation of Denmark military war dead included 1,281Merchant Marine, 797 resistance fighters and 49 Army personnel. Civilian deaths included 628 victims of Nazi reprisals and 440 killed during military operations. The 3,900 Danish deaths in German military service are included with German losses. Figures are from Danish Military Historie website[70] It has been argued that the disproportionately low figure for Danish dead is due mainly to the non violent policy of the Danish resistance movement during the occupation (see video: "A Force More Powerful", OCLC 45399754). Deaths of Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 77.[14,244] 13. ^Dutch East Indies Sources for total Indonesian civilian war dead range from 3 to 4million as detailed below. Not including 30,000 non Asians interned by the Japanese John W. Dower cites a UN report that estimated 4 million famine and forced labor dead during the Japanese Occupation of Indonesia. [9,296]. The United Nations reported in 1947 that about 30,000 Europeans and 300,000 Indonesian internees and forced laborers died during the occupation. They reported, The total number who were killed by the Japanese, or who died from, hunger, disease and lack of medical attention is estimated at 3,000,000 for Java alone, 1,000,000 for the Outer Islands. Altogether 35,000 of the 240,000 Europeans died; most of them were men of working age. [91,13-14] The Dutch Red Cross reported the deaths in Japanese custody of 14,800 European civilians out of 80,000 interned and 12,500 of the 34,000 POW captured. [92,170] Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian death toll due to the war and Japanese occupation at 3,000,000 Indonesians and 30,000 interned Europeans.[111,143] 14. ^Estonia The total of the civilian deaths due to the Soviet occupation in 1940-41 were 33,900 including 7,800 deaths of arrested people, 6,000 deportee deaths, 5,000 evacuee deaths, 1,100 people gone missing during the occupation, 2,000 conscripts en route, and 12,000 conscripts in the Soviet labour camps.[96,Table 2] Losses during the Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany were 9,040, the Nazis executed 7,800 people and 1,040 people perished in Nazi prison camps. A documented 200 people perished in forced labour service in Germany or en route.[96,Table 2] The documented civilian deaths in Soviet air raids in March 925 were 800.[96,Table 2] An estimated 1,000 Estonians were killed in Allied air raids on Germany and 1,200 perished at sea while attempting to flee the country in 1944-45[96,35] An dditional 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet prisons during 1944-45. [96,31] Figures do not include the executions, deportee deaths, and insurgent losses in 19461989 caused by the Soviet reoccupation documented at 11,000.[96,Table 2] The figures on the table do not include the military deaths among the illegally drafted conscripts within the Soviet (10,000) [96,Table 2] and German Armed Forces (11,000).

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World War II casualties

[96,Table 2]

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The genocide of Roma people was 243 people,[96,16] Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 1,000.[14,244] Total deaths from 1940-53 due the war and the Soviet occupation were 81,740 (8% of the population).[96,Table 2] Not included in these figures are 102,000 persons who fled the country and became refugees.[96,Table 2] 15. ^Ethiopia Total military and civilian dead in the East African Campaign were 100,000.[16,491]. Military losses were 5,000[74]. These totals do not include losses in the Italian Second Italo-Abyssinian War and Italian occupation from 1935-41. The official Ethiopian government report lists 760,000 deaths due to the war and Italian occupation from 1935-41. [75]. However, R. J. Rummel estimates 200,000 Ethiopians and Libyans killed by the Italians from the 1920's-41, his estimate is " based on Discovery TV Cable Channel Program "Timewatch" 1/17/92.[4,Chap.14] 16. ^Finland The Finnish National Archives website lists the names of the 95,000 Finnish military war dead [71].Figures include killed and missing from the Winter War and Continuation War with the Soviet Union as well as action against German forces in 1944-45, Winter War (1939-40) losses were 22,830, military deaths from 1941-44 were 58,715[28] and 1,036[28] in 1944-45 in the Lapland War Soviet sources list the deaths of 403 of the 2,377 Finnish POW taken in the War. [3,52] During the Winter war of 1939-40 the Swedish Volunteer Corps served alongside the Finns and lost 28 men in combat. 1,407 Finnish volunteers served in the German SS-Volunteer Battalion Nordost and 256 were killed in action.[72] Civilian war dead were 2,000 .[2,58-59], due in part to theBombing of Helsinki in World War II 17. ^France Military war dead include 150,000 regular forces(1939-40 Battle of France 92,000; 1940-45 on Western Front (World War II) 58,000); 20,000 French resistance fighters and 40,000 POWs in Germany.[2,60-65] There were an additional 5,000 military deaths in French Indochina.[16,414-15] The pro-German Vichy France forces lost 2,653 killed.[16,582] Vadim Erlikman, a Russian historian, estimates losses of Africans in the French Colonial Forces at about 22,000.[3,83-99] French deaths in German Army (30-40,000), mostly men conscripted in Alsace-Lorraine, are not included in these totals. Civilian losses include 120,000 killed due to military action and 230,000 victims of the Nazi reprisals and genocide (including 83,000 Jews).[2,60-65]The genocide of Roma people was 15,000 persons.[13,183]Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 83,000.[14,244] 18. ^French Indochina Sources for total IndoChinese civilian war dead range from 1 to 1.5 million as detailed below. John W. Dower estimated 1.0 million deaths due to Vietnamese Famine of 1945 during Japanese occupation[9,297] Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian death toll due to the war and Japanese occupation at 1,500,000.[111,143] 19. ^Germany German Population The 1939 Population is for Germany within 1937 borders and the Free City of Danzig. Not included in the German population are Austria and the 6,912,000 [23,] ethnic Germans of eastern Europe[73]. However, the 601,000 military deaths of ethnic Germans from Eastern and Western Europe and 261,000 Austrians are included with total German

World War II casualties military losses[6]. German Military Casualties Dr. Rdiger Overmans, an associate of the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office until 2004, provided an official reassessment of German military war dead based on a statistical analysis of German military personnel records. The Overmans research project was supported and funded by the German government. The study found that the statistics collected by German military during the war were incomplete and did not provide an accurate accounting of casualties. The research by Overmans concluded that German military dead and missing were 5,318,0000.[6], not including an additional 215,000 Soviet citizens conscripted by Germany [7,278]. Overmans includes 344,000 deaths that were previously listed as civilian losses in eastern Europe and 230,000 deaths of paramilitary, Volkssturm and police forces fighting with the regular forces., Military Losses by Theatre Overmans lists the following losses- Africa 16,066 ; the Balkans 103,693 ; Northern Europe 30,165 ; Western Europe until 12/31/44- 339,957 ; Italy 150,660; against the U.S.S.R. until 12/31/44- 2,742,909 ; final battles in Germany during 1945-1,230,045 ; other (including air war in Germany & at sea) 245,561 ; confirmed deaths of POWs in captivity 459,475 - Grand Total 5,318,000. Military Losses by Country of origin Overmans lists deaths of 4,456,000 men from pre-war Germany(1937 borders) and the Free City of Danzig, 261,000 from Austria, 534,000 ethnic Germans conscripted in eastern Europe, 30,000 French (mostly men conscripted in Alsace-Lorraine), and 37,000 volunteers from western Europe. In addition to these losses the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht reported the losses of Soviet citizens serving in the German military [24] separately, these losses were not included in the Overmans analysis of German casualties.[6,228-230]. A Russian source, G. I. Krivosheev reported these losses as 215,000[7,278]. In this schedule they are included with German military war dead. Military Losses by branch of service Overmans lists losses by branch as: Army-4,202,030; Air Force-432,706; Navy-138,429; Waffen SS 313,749; Volkssturm 77,726;Other Paramilitary and support forces153,891- Grand Total 5,318,531.[6,335]. Military Prisoners of War and Missing Overmans Includes in the total of 5,318,000 war dead 2,008,000 men that are listed as missing in action or unaccounted for after the war and 459,000 prisoners of war who died in captivity.[6,333-336] The details of these POW deaths by country that held them in custody are as follows: USSR 363,000; France 34,000; USA 22,000; UK 21,000; Yugoslavia 11,000; other nations 8,000[6,286]Dr. Rdiger Overmans believes that It seems entirely plausible, while not provable, that one half of the missing were killed in action, the other half however in fact died in Soviet custody [6,289] Soviet sources list the deaths of 474,967 of the 2,652,672 German Armed Forces POW taken in the War. [12,109] German Civilian casualties during the war German civilian casualties totaled 1,130,000 including: 360-370,000 killed by Strategic bombing within the 1937 German boundaries[25,460]., 125,000 civilians were killed in the Battle of Berlin [16,515]. A study by the German government archives estimated 260,000 German civilians were killed by the Soviet military and their allies in Eastern Europe[82,19] [106]. The German government reported that 300,000 Germans were victims

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World War II casualties of Nazi political, racial and religious persecution [107, 32] (including 160,000 German Jews .[17,Table A] and 15,000 Roma people[13,183]). In addition there were 70,273 German victims of the Action T4 euthanasia program. [108] German Civilian Casualties-Due to Expulsions and Forced Labor in the Soviet Union Civilian deaths due to the expulsion of Germans after World War II and the Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union are sometimes included with World War Two Casualties. A 1958 West German government demographic study estimated 2,225,000 civilians perished during the post war expulsions ( 1,339,000 from pre war Germany and 886,000 ethnic Germans from eastern Europe not including the Soviet Union). [31,111-129] [83,26] A revised demographic analysis published in 1995, which has the support of the German government , estimated 2,020,000 civilians perished during the post war expulsions and the Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union ( 978,000 from pre war Germany, 732,000 ethnic Germans from eastern Europe and 310,000 ethnic Germans from the Soviet Union). (Including 270,000 German civilians who perished during the Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union ( 160,000 from pre war Germany, 110,000 ethnic Germans from eastern Europe) [23]. [23,] Dr. Rdiger Overmans points out that there are only about 500,000 confirmed deaths of German civilians in eastern Europe, the balance being a demographic estimate, Overmans believes that new research on the number of expulsion deaths is needed. [6,298-299] [106] [74] A 1974 study by the German government archives estimated the civilian death toll of 160,000 in post war deportation camps or in transit during the expulsion of Germans after World War II. These figures do not include additional post war deaths from hunger and disease of those civilians subject to the expulsions, estimated but not confirmed at about 1.0 million persons [82,19] [106] Polish scholars maintain that the official German government statistics are overstated because they include persons who were listed as missing and presumed dead ,but were living in the GDR and bi-lingual persons who remained in Eastern Europe but were no longer considered ethnic Germans in the census figures. [97]. The study of German military casualties by Dr. Rdiger Overmans found 344,000 additional military deaths of Germans from Eastern Europe. Overmans believes this will reduce the number of civilians previously listed as missing in Eastern Europe. [6 298-299] There were additional post war famine deaths in occupied Germany of 250,000 [3,43] In Allied occupied the Germany shortage of food was an acute problem according to Alan S. Milward in 194647 the average kilocalorie intake per day was only 1,080, an amount insufficient for long-term health. [101] Summary of German Civilian deaths in Eastern Europe A recap of the roughly 2 million German civilian deaths in Eastern Europe is as follows: About 500,000 are confirmed deaths, the balance being a demographic estimate. [6,298-299] [106] . Broken out by national origin; 978,000 were from pre war Germany in 1937 borders, 732,000 were ethnic Germans from eastern Europe and 310,000 were ethnic Germans in the Soviet Union [23,] Those deaths during the war included 260,000 German civilians killed by the Soviet military and their allies in Eastern Europe [82,19] [106] Those deaths after the war included 270,000 German civilians who perished during the Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union. [23,], 160,000 confirmed deaths in the post

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World War II casualties war deportation camps or in transit during the expulsion of Germans after World War II and a demographic estimate of an additional 1.0 million deaths from hunger and disease of civilians subject to the expulsions. [82,19] [106]. The 310,000 deaths of ethnic Germans deported in the USSR .[23,]. are included with the balance of total Soviet war losses Prior estimates made in the 1950s by German government A preliminary estimate of war dead made in 1949 by the West German government for the population only within the borders of 1937 Germany, was 3,250,000 military dead and missing plus 500,000 dead and 1,533,000 missing civilians[30,1949-8/226]. In 1956 these figures were revised by the West German government for losses only within the borders of 1937 Germany; 3,760,000 military dead and missing, 410,000 civilians killed by Strategic bombing and 1,260,000 civilians killed in the expulsions from Poland.[30,1956-10/494]. These figures did not include additional losses from Austria, 280,000 in the German military and 24,000 civilians; ethnic Germans from eastern Europe, 432,000 deaths in the German military and 886,000 ethnic German civilians killed in expulsions ; and 60,000 German military deaths of men conscripted in France and western Europe. Total 4,530,000 for entire German Armed Forces and 2,556,000 civilians[31,111-129]. 20. ^Greece The war dead included 20,000 military deaths in the Greco-Italian War of 1940-41, 60,000 non-Jewish civilians, 20,000 non Jewish deportees and 140,000 famine deaths during the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II.[2,89-91] Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 71,301.[14,244] 21. ^Hungary Tams Stark of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences has provided the following assessment of losses from 1941-45 in Hungary. Military losses were 300,000-310,000 including 110-120,000 killed in battle and 200,000 missing in action and POW in the Soviet Union. Hungarian military losses include 110,000 men who were conscripted from the annexed territories of Greater Hungary in Slovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia and the deaths of 20-25,000 Jews conscripted for Army labor units. Soviet sources list the deaths of 54,700 of the 513,700 Hungarian POW taken in the War. [7,278] Civilian losses of about 80,000 include 45,500 killed in the 1944-45 military campaign and in air attacks,[8,58-60] and the genocide of Roma people of 28,000 persons.[13,188]Jewish Holocaust victims, in 1939 borders, totaled 200,000.[14,244]. 22. ^Iceland Confirmed losses of civilian sailors due to German attacks and mines.[26] 23. ^India 1939 Population of India included the present day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The war dead listed here are those reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, total deaths were 87,031[29]. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [64]The preliminary 1945 data for Indian losses was, killed 24,338, missing 11,754, wounded 64,354 and POW 79,489.[20]The pro-Japanese Indian National Army lost 2,615 dead and missing[16,556]. Gurkhas recruited from Nepal fought with the British Indian Army during the Second World War. Sources for total Indian Empire civilian war dead range from 1.5 to 2.5 million as detailed below.

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World War II casualties John W. Dower estimated 1.5 million civilian deaths in the Bengal famine of 1943. [4, Chap 3][9,297] . Amartya Sen currently the Lamont University Professor at Harvard University has recently estimated that two to two and a half million fatalities may be more accurate. [98] Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian death toll due to the Bengal famine of 1943 at [111,143] 2,000,000. 24. ^Iran Losses during allied occupation in 1941.[16,498]. 25. ^Iraq Losses during Anglo-Iraqi War and UK occupation in 1941.[3,65][16,498]. 26. ^Ireland Despite being neutral, Ireland suffered casualties. In 1995 Irish Taoiseach(Prime Minister)John Bruton claimed at least 10,000 Irish were killed serving in the British or Commonwealth armed forces.[27] The civilian death figure includes 33 Irish merchantmen were killed when a U-Boat torpedoed the Irish Pine[75] and deaths caused by the presumably accidental bombing of Ireland in three instances.[76] [27]. 27. ^Italy The official Italian government accounting of World War Two 1940-45 losses listed the following data. [68,]. Total military dead and missing from 1940-45 were 291,376, losses prior to the September 8, 1943 Armistice with Italy totaled 204,346 ( 66,686 killed, 111,579 missing, 26,081 died of disease), after the September 8, 1943 Armistice with Italy, 87,030 (42,916 killed, 19,840 missing, 24,274 died of disease). Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354; Chaplains 91; Fascist militia 10,066; Paramilitary 3,252; not indicated 45,078. Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice); Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania & Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice); USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice); other & unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice). POW losses are included with military losses mentioned above. Civilian losses were 153,147 ( 123,119 post armistice) including 61,432 (42,613 post armistice) in air attacks[68]. A brief summary of data from this report can be found online at -[77](go to Vol 13, No. 15). There were in addition to these losses the deaths of African soldiers conscripted by Italy which were estimated by the Italian military at 10,000 in East African Campaign of 1940-41.[73]. Included in the losses are 64,000 victims of Nazi reprisals and genocide including 30,000 POWs and 8,500 Jews[17, Table A]. Soviet sources list the deaths of 28,000 of the 49,000 Italian war prisoners in Soviet Union 1942-1954[3,47] Military losses in Italy after the September 1943 Armistice with Italy, included 5,927 with the Allies, 17,488 Italian resistance movement fighters and 13,000 RSI Italian Social Republic Fascist forces.[77] The genocide of Roma people was 1,000 persons.[13,183]Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 8,562. (including Libya)[14,244] 28. ^Japan 1939 Japanese population includes 1.7 million Japanese in China and Korea.[15,15] John W. Dower reported that Japanese government figures list the military deaths of 1,740,955 from 1937-45. The details are as follows: 185,647 in China from 1937-41 and 1,555,308 from 1941-45 in the Pacific War. Army - Against US- 485,717; Against UK/Netherlands-208,026; In China-202,958; Against Australia -199,511; French

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World War II casualties Indochina -2,803; Against USSR -7,483; Other overseas -23,388; Japan proper -10,543. Navy 1941/45 -414,879."only one third of the military deaths occurred in actual combat, the majority being caused by illness and starvation"[9,297-299]. In addition there were the deaths of prisoners after the surrender. According to John W. Dower; the "Known deaths of Japanese troops awaiting repatriation in Allied (non-Soviet) hands were listed as 81,090 by U.S. authorities"[9,363]. An additional 300,000 Japanese prisoners died in Soviet hands after the surrender in Manchuria, Korea and the U.S.S.R.[9,297-299]. The Japanese Ministry of Welfare and Foreign Office reported that 347,000 military personnel and civilians were dead or missing in Soviet hands after the war. The Japanese list the losses of 199,000 in Manchurian transit camps, 36,000 in North Korea, 9,000 from Sakhalin and 103,000 in the U.S.S.R.. [44,116-118] These figures were disputed by the Soviet Union, which reported the deaths of only about 60,000 of the 609,400 Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union [3,81] Military deaths include Koreans (14,527) [84,57] and Chinese from Taiwan(30,304)[78] conscripted by Japan. Not included in Japanese war dead are 432,000 Chinese military forces collaborating with Japan. [5,Table 5A] John W. Dower reports civilian losses due to U. S. Strategic bombing according to official Japanese figures were 393,367 dead, including 210,000 killed in the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and 97,031 in the Bombing of Tokyo in World War II. In addition to these deaths 150,000 civilians were killed on Okinawa and 10,000 on Saipan during the fighting.[9,297-299] War related deaths of Japanese merchant marine personnel were 27,000.[16,578] The Yasukuni Shrine in Japan lists a total of 2,325,128 military deaths from 1937-1945 including civilians who participated in combat, Chinese(Taiwan) and Koreans in the Japanese Armed Forces. 29. ^Korea Sources for total Korean civilian war dead range from 378,000 to 533,000 as detailed below. The American researcher R. J. Rummel's estimates 378,000 Korean dead due to forced labor in Japan and Manchuria. According to Rummel Information on Korean deaths under Japanese occupation is difficult to uncover. We do know that 5,400,000 Koreans were conscripted for labor beginning in 1939, but how many died can only be roughly estimated..[4,Chap 3]. John W. Dower has reported Between 1939 and 1945, close to 670,000 Koreans were brought to Japan for fixed terms of work, mostly in mines and heavy industry, and it has been estimated that 60,000 or more of them died under harsh conditions of their work places. Over 10,000 others were probably killed in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki [9,47]. Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian death toll due to the war and Japanese occupation at 483,000 and an additional 50,000 deaths of Koreans conscripted in the Japanese military service[111,143] A Korean demographic study reports the mortality level and the course of mortality changes among Koreans in Korea during the war, appear not to have been much affected. Even for all Koreans living in Korea, Japan and Manchuria, the impact of World War II on the trend and level of mortality is not likely to have been significant. The same source reports '6,369 Koreans to have died in the Japanese military forces, and the number rises to 14,527 when civilians attached to the military forces is added[84,57]

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World War II casualties Korean military forces fighting against Japan were the Korean Liberation Army under Chinese Nationalist command and the Korean Volunteer Army which fought with the Chinese Communist guerrillas. 30. ^Latvia Includes civilian losses due to war (220,000) and Soviet occupation in 1940-41(7,000). Does not include military dead with Soviet(13,000) and German Armed Forces (24,000).Total deaths from 1940-53 due the war and the Soviet occupation were 287,000(14% of the population)[3,28]The genocide of Roma people was 2,500 persons.[13,183]Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 80,000[14,244] 31. ^Lithuania Includes civilian losses due to war (345,000) and Soviet occupation in 1940-41(8,000). Does not include military dead with Soviet (27,000) and German Armed Forces (8,000).Total deaths from 1940-53 due the war and the Soviet occupation were 448,000(15% of the population)[3,29] The genocide of Roma people was 1,000 persons.[13,183]Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 141,000[14,244] 32. ^Luxembourg Total war dead were 5,000 [2,107]which included military losses of about 3,000 with the German Armed Forces and 200 in Belgian Army. The genocide of Roma people was 200 persons.[13,183]Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 700.[14,244] 33. ^Malaysia Victims of forced labor and reprisals during the Japanese occupation.[9,296] 34. ^Malta Air attack victims.[16,491]. The BBC has an online report on the siege of Malta [79] 35. ^Mexico Mexico lost 7 merchant ships and 63 dead merchant mariners[16,540]A Mexican Air Force unit Escuadrn 201 served in the Pacific and suffered 5 combat deaths. 36. ^Mongolia Military losses with USSR against Japan in the 1939 Battle of Khalkhin Gol (200) and the 1945 Soviet invasion of Manchuria (72) campaigns.[3,74] 37. ^Nauru Estimate of 1939 population of Nauru (Australian trust territory) sourced from Populstat.info [80]. Deaths are for 463 Nauruan labourers deported by Japanese authorities to the Caroline Islands (details from [www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/16447.htm United States State Department) 38. ^Netherlands Dutch government figures for losses in Europe released in 1948 by the Central Bureau of Statistics( CBS)[100] listed 210,000 direct war casualties plus an additional 70,000 disease deaths caused by the war. The details are as follows: Military deaths of 8,100; which included 2,200 regular Army, 1,700 Dutch Resistance forces, 2,600 Navy forces, 250 POW in Germany and 1,350 Merchant seaman. Civilian deaths of 271,900; which included 27,000 forced workers in Germany, 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany, 2,800 victims of executions, 2,500 deaths in Dutch concentration camps, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 20,400 deaths due to military activities, 3,700 Dutch serving in the German military, 104,000 deported Jews and 16,000 deaths in the Dutch famine of 1944. The official statistics also reported an additional 70,000 "indirect war casualties", which are attributed to various diseases caused by wartime conditions. Not included in these figures are an additional 1,650 foreign nationals killed while

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World War II casualties serving in the Dutch Merchant Marine[100] At least 3,121 [99,283] civilian members of various Dutch resistance groups were killed during the occupation, on this page they are included under military casualties. On this page the losses of the 3,700 Dutch in the German Armed Forces are not considered Dutch war casualties, they are included with the military of Germany. The Dutch suffered additional losses in the Far East which were not included in the CBS figures except for the Navy. Military losses in Asia were 900 in the 1942 Dutch East Indies campaign and 8,500 military POW deaths in Japanese captivity.[87,1275]. The Australian War Memorial website reports 8,000 of the 37,0000 Dutch POW died in Japanese captivity[81]. Civilian losses in Asia reported by the Dutch Red Cross included the deaths in Japanese custody of 14,800 Europeans out of 80,000 interned in the Dutch East Indies.[92,170] The Netherlands War Graves Foundation maintains a registry of the names of Dutch war dead. [82] The genocide of Roma people was 500 persons.[13,183] 39. ^Newfoundland Newfoundland's losses are listed separately since it was not part of Canada during World War II. Military losses were 1,058: with 956 with the UK: Navy(351),Army (115),Air Force (134) and Merchant Navy (356) and 102 with Canada: Navy (21), Army(41) and Air Force (40). Source: [66]. The losses of the Newfoundland Merchant Navy are commemorated at the Allied Merchant Navy Memorial in Newfoundland,[83]. Civilian due to the sinking of the SS Caribou in October 1942[84]. 40. ^New Zealand The New Zealand government reported 11,928 total militray war dead, mostly fighting in Europe. [85] The military deaths listed here are those reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission Total deaths were 11,928 [29]. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [64] Details can be found online at the New Zealand Armed Forces Memorial Project[85]The preliminary 1945 data for New Zealand losses was, killed 10,033, missing 2,129, wounded 19,314 and POW 8,453.[20] 41. ^Norway Military deaths were 2,000 regular forces and 1,000 resistance fighters. Civilian dead include 3,600 merchant marine. Total does not include 700 deaths with German Armed Forces.[2,112-113] The Norwegian Foreign Ministry reported that "10,262 Norwegians had been killed, including 3,670 seamen. The Germans had executed 366 and tortured 39 to death. Among political prisoners and members of the underground, 658 died at home and 1,433 abroad. About 6,000 Norwegians had served the German war cause, and 709 of them had fallen in battle. [86] Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 728.[14,244] 42. ^Pacific Islands - This territory includes areas now known as the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Palau, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Guam. The estimate by R. J. Rummel of the number of victims due to Japanese war crimes on the various Pacific Islands is 57,000.[4,Chap 3] The plight of the civilian population of Micronesia was the subject of a study published by the University of Hawaii, The Typhoon of War. They reported Micronesian war related civilian deaths were caused by American bombing and shellfire; and malnutrition caused by the U.S. blockade of the islands. In addition the civilian population was conscripted by

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World War II casualties the Japanese as forced laborers and were subjected to numerous mindless atrocities by the Japanese military.[93] During the Battle of Guam (1944) the number of Chamorro people killed or wounded is not accurately known but it was well over six hundred. [93], During the Battle of Saipan [9,297-99] 10,000 persons perished in a mass suicide of the Japanese civilian population. 43. ^ Papua New Guinea Civilian deaths were caused by Allied bombing and shellfire and Japanese atrocities. Both the Allies and Japanese also conscripted civilians to work as laborers and porters.[103,244] 44. ^Philippines Sources for total Philipino civilian war dead range from 500,000 to 1,000,000 as detailed below. The United States State Dept. has reported that, In total, an estimated one million Filipinos lost their lives in the war [109] The primary reason for this high death toll was war related famine and disease. Civilian losses included victims of Japanese war crimes, such as those inflicted on comfort women as well as the Bataan Death March. The Manila massacre claimed the lives of 90,000 Filipinos. [9,296]. Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian death toll due to the war and Japanese occupation at 500,000 ( 141,000 massacred, 22,500 forced labor deaths and 336,500 deaths due war related famine).[111,143] The estimate in 1946 by the U.S. War Dept. for Filipino military war dead was 27,260. [5,Table 5A] Michael Clodfelter presents more recent figures for military war dead, including 7,000 in the Battle of the Philippines (1941-42), 8,000 anti-Japanese guerrillas and 42,000 (out of 98,000) POWs in Japanese captivity[16,566]. Werner Gruhl estimates an 27,000 Filiipinos died serving in the military (including 20,000 POW)[111,143] 45. ^Poland Total Polish War Dead. In 2007 the Polish government estimated World War Two war dead at 6.0 million. This figure includes losses due to the German occupation, Soviet repression and massacres of Poles in Volhynia.[104] The official figure of 6.0 million war dead has been disputed by Polish scholars since the end of communist rule in 1989. They maintain that the official statistics include those persons who were listed as missing in 1945, but remained abroad in the west and the USSR after the war.[94,108]. Czesaw uczak estimated the actual total of war dead to be 4.9 to 5.0 million, including 2.9 to 3.0 million Jews. He estimated the number of ethnic Poles who perished at 2.0 million, including 1.5 million, due to the German occupation of the territory of modern day Poland and the balance of 500,000 in the former eastern Polish regions under both Soviet and German occupation.[42]-[94] Dr. Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated in 2005 Polands losses in World War Two to be 5.6 million; including 5,150,000 victims of Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles and the Holocaust, 350,000deaths during the Soviet occupation in 1940-41 and about 100,000 Poles killed in 1943-44 during the massacres of Poles in Volhynia. Losses by ethnic group were 3,100,000 Jews; 2,000,000 ethnic Poles; 500,000 Ukrainians,Belarusians and ethnic Germans [47] Civilian losses by geographic area [60] were about 3.5 million in present day Poland [40] and about 1.5 million in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union [41] Contemporary Russian sources also include the Baltic states' and Poland's losses in the annexed territories with Soviet war deaths. [11,78] [12,158].

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World War II casualties The official Polish government report on war damages prepared in 1947 listed 6,028,000 war victims during the German occupation (including 123,178 military deaths, 2.8 million Poles and 3.2 million Jews), out of a population of 27,007,000 ethnic Poles and Jews; this report excluded ethnic Ukrainian and Belarusian losses. Losses were calculated for the territory of Poland in 1939, including the territories annexed by the U.S.S.R.[39]. This report has been disputed by Polish scholars since the end of communism rule in 1989 who put the total actual losses at about 5.0 million. This revision of estimated war losses was the topic of articles in the Polish academic journals Dzieje Najnowsze .[42] and The Polish Quarterly of International Affairs[94] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum has reported that in addition to 3 million Polish Jews killed in the Holocaust. "Documentation remains fragmentary, but today scholars of independent Poland believe that 1.8 to 1.9 million Polish civilians (non-Jews) were victims of German Occupation policies and the war",[43][38]. The genocide of Roma people was 35,000 persons[13,183] Jewish Holocaust victims, in 1939 borders, totaled 3,000,000[14,244], including 2 million within the borders of contemporary Poland and 1 million in the territories annexed by the U.S.S.R [40], [41] ,[2,115-126] Polish Losses during the Soviet Occupation (1939-1941) In 1987 Franciszek Proch from the Polish Association of Former Political Prisoners of Nazi and Soviet Concentration Camps estimated the total dead due to the Soviet occupation at 1,050,000. [76] Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.[41] Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish deaths at 90-100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets. [72,372] In 2005 Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000[47] Poland's Military Losses Poland lost a total of 239,800 regular soldiers and Polish resistance movement fighters during the war. [94,115]. Military dead and missing were 95,000-97,000 and 130,000 wounded in the 1939 Invasion of Poland, including 17-19,000 killed by the Soviets in the Katyn massacre and 12,000 in German POW camps. [95]. The Polish contribution to World War II included the Polish Armed Forces in the West, and the 1st Polish Army fighting under Soviet command. Total casualties of these forces in exile were 33,256 killed in action, 8,548 missing in action, 42,666 wounded and 29,385 interned. [95] The Polish Red Cross reported that the 1944 Warsaw Uprising cost the lives of 120,000 -130,000 Polish civilians and 16-17,000 Polish resistance movement fighters [94,115]. The names of Polish war dead are presented at a database online [87] During the war 2,762,000[70] Polish citizens of German descent declared their loyalty to Germany by signing the Deutsche Volksliste. A German source lists the deaths of 108,000 Polish citizens serving in the German armed forces [31,115], these men were conscripted in violation of international law [97] 46. ^Timor Officially neutral, East Timor was occupied by Japan during 1942-45. Allied commandos initiated a guerilla resistance campaign and most deaths were caused by Japanese reprisals against the civilian population. The civilian death toll is estimated at 40,000 to 70,000 Department of Defence (Australia), 2002, "A Short History of East Timor" [88] (Access date: January 3, 2007.)

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World War II casualties 47. ^Romania Total Romanian military war dead were approximately 300,000[16,582]. Total Killed were 93,326 ( 72,291 with Axis and 21,035 with allies)[10,216-217] Total POW deaths of about 215,000; (200,000 in Soviet captivity[10,216-217] and 15,000 in German captivity [3,51]. Soviet sources list the deaths of 54,600 of the 201,800 Romanian POW taken in the War. [3,51] Figures do not include an additional estimated 40,000 to 50,000 dead in Hungarian Army.[8,58-60] Civilian losses of 64,000 included 20,000 during Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Bukovina in 1940-41 [3,51]; the genocide of Roma people 36,000 deaths.[13,184]; Allied air raids on Romania caused the deaths of 7,693 civilians[10,314]. Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 469,000 in 1939 borders which includes 325,000 in Bessarabia and Bukovina occupied by the U.S.S.R. in 1940.[61].[14,244] 48. ^Singapore Victims of Japanese war crimes including the Japanese Occupation of Singapore and the Sook Ching massacre[4,Chap 3] 49. ^South Africa The losses listed here are those reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission Total deaths were 11,903 [29]. The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [64]The preliminary 1945 data for South African losses was killed 6,840, missing 1,841 wounded 14,363 and POW 14,589.[20] 50. ^Soviet Union Military Losses Military losses from 1939-1945, totaling 10.7 million, include 7.7 million killed or missing in action and 2.6 million POW dead, out of 5.7 million total POW captured, plus 400,000 paramilitary and Soviet partisan losses.[3, 20-21] The official Russian Ministry of Defense figure for military deaths from 1941-1945 is 8,668,400; including 6,330,000 killed in action or died of wounds and 556,000 dead from non-combat causes[7,85] plus an estimated 500,000 MIA and 1,283,000 POW dead out of 4,059,000 total POW captured [7,236] These figues do not include additional casualties in 1939-40, which totaled 136,945: Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 (8,931); Invasion of Poland of 1939 (1,139); and the Winter War with Finland (1939-40) (126,875).[7,51-80] The estimate by western historians of Soviet military POW deaths is about 3 million out of 5.7 million total POWs in German hands[89].[17, Table A] Richard Overy has noted that " The official figures themselves must be viewed critically, given the difficulty of knowing in the chaos of 1941 and 1942 exactly who had been killed, wounded or even conscripted".[21,XV] The official Russian statistics for military dead do not include an additional estimated 1,500,000 conscripted reservists missing or killed before being listed on active strength, as well as an estimated 150,000 militia and 250,000 Soviet partisan dead, which are considered civilian war losses in the official figures. [3, 20-21] Total Soviet population losses included approximately 12 million men aged 18 to 39.[11,78]The names of many Soviet war dead are presented in the OBD Memorial database online [90] Total Population Losses of the Soviet Union 1941-1945 A report published by the Russian Academy of Science in 1993 estimated that the total Soviet population losses from 1941-1945, within Soviet borders of 1946-1991, were 26.6 million out of a total population of 196.7 million, which included the annexed

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World War II casualties territories.[11,] [37]. Civilian deaths listed here of 12.4 million are for USSR within 1939 borders only, [91] and do not include an estimated 2.5 million civilian dead in the territories annexed by the USSR in 1939-1945 and the 215,000 Soviet war dead in the German armed forces.[7,278]-[24]. Civilian losses in territories annexed by USSR are included in totals of the Baltic states(600,000)[3,23-34], Poland(1,500,000) [42] [41]and Romania(300,000)[14,244]. Total Soviet war dead include losses include an estimated 2.5 to 3.2 million civilian dead due to famine in Soviet territory not occupied by the Germans[12,158]. Additional famine deaths which totaled 1 million during 1946-47 are not included with World War Two casualties.[3,20-21] Soviet Era Statistics for War Losses The deaths of 8.2 million Soviet civilians, including Jews, were documented from 1942-1946 by the Soviet Extraordinary State Commission[60,140]. The official Soviet era statistics for war losses list 25.3 million war related deaths. Total military losses of 8.7 million dead which includes 1.8 million missing in action and POW deaths out of 4.0 million total POW captured. Soviet sources reported civilian deaths in the German occupied USSR totaling 13.7 million, which includes 7.4 million victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals; 2.2 million deaths of persons deported to Germany for forced labor; and 4.1 million famine and disease deaths in occupied territory. There were an additional estimated 3.0 million famine deaths in the territory not under German occupation. These losses are for the entire territory of the USSR in 1941, including territories annexed in 1939-40[12,127] Documents from the Soviet archives list the total deaths of prisoners in the Gulag from 1941 to 1945 at 621,637. [12,175]. An independent Russian journalist believes the actual death toll may be as high as 1.7 million, when one takes into account summary executions and deaths of those forcibly deported during the war.. [3,21] Total Soviet military dead from 1941-45, including partisans & militia, of the individual Soviet republics were 10.5 million[3, 23-35]: Russia 6,750,000 ; Armenia 150,000 ; Azerbaijan 210,000 ; Belarus 620,000 ; Georgia 190,000 ; Moldova 41,000 ; Ukraine 1,620,000 ; Estonia 13,000 ; Latvia 18,000 ; Lithuania 27,000 ; Kazakhstan 310,000 ; Kyrgyzstan 70,000 ; Tajikistan 50,000 ; Turkmenistan 70,000 ; Uzbekistan 330,000. Total war related civilian deaths, including territories annexed 1939-45, of the individual Soviet republics were 15.7 million[3, 23-35]: Russia 7,200,000 ; Armenia 30,000 ; Azerbaijan 110,000 ; Belarus 1,670,000 ; Georgia 110,000; Moldova 120,000 ; Ukraine 5,200,000 ; Estonia 35,000 ; Latvia 220,000 ; Lithuania 345,000 ; Kazakhstan 350,000 ; Kyrgyzstan 50,000 ; Tajikistan 70,000 ; Turkmenistan 30,000 ; Uzbekistan 220,000. The genocide of Roma people was 30,000 persons.[13,184]Jewish Holocaust victims, within 1939 borders, totaled 1,000,000.[14,244] 51. ^Spain Military deaths were of volunteer soldiers from the all Spanish Blue Division serving alongside Germany Army in the U.S.S.R. The unit was withdrawn by Spain in 1943.[16,515]. R. J. Rummel estimates the deaths of 20,000 anti-Fascist Spanish refugees resident in France who were deported to Nazi camps, these deaths are included with French civilian casualties.[17, Table A] 52. ^Sweden During the Winter war of 1939-40 the Swedish Volunteer Corps served alongside the Finns and lost 117 men in combat (combined Swedish losses in Finland between

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World War II casualties 1939-45) [92]. About 300 Swedish volunteers served in the German Wehrmacht and 30-45 were killed in action. [93] 33 Swedish sailors were killed when submarine HMS Ulven was sunk by a German mine on April 16, 1943. 187 Swedish merchant marine crew were killed by Soviet submarine attacks.[94] Immediately following the outbreak of the Second World War, Sweden concluded war-trade agreements with Great Britain and Germany, which anticipated largely unchanged trade with both sides during the conflict., in all there were 226 sailings to and 222 sailings from Sweden within the framework of the war-trade agreements . Nine ships were lost, claiming the lives of 142 men. [95] In total there were about 2000 Swedish casualties in the merchant and fishing marine, with probably several more as many Swedes served in other countries navies, and casualties amongst them has not been investigated. In total 201 Swedish merchant ships and 31 fishing vessels were sunk [96]. 53. ^Switzerland The Americans accidentally bombed Switzerland during the war causing civilian casualties. [97]-[98]Losses of about 300 Swiss in the German Armed Forces are included with German casualties.[6,230] 54. ^Thailand Military deaths in French-Thai War 1940-41, the Japanese invasion, and Burma Campaign 1942-45. Civilian deaths caused by Allied bombing 1944-45. Military deaths consists of 143 officers, 474 non-commissioned officers, 4942 other ranks, and 88 field policemen. Royal Thai Armed Forces Education Department [99] Werner Gruhl believes that Thailand suffered "to a lesser extent" than other nations but did not provide exact figures for estimated losses.[111] 55. ^United Kingdom and Colonies The losses listed here are those reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.Total military deaths were 383,677, including Newfoundland [29] The 'Debt of Honour Register' from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars. [64] The losses of Newfoundland (1,000 military) are included in these figures but are listed separately on this schedule. [66] The Commonwealth War Graves Commission maintains a Roll of Honour of those civilians under Crown Protection who died as a result of enemy actions in the Second World War. The names of 67.073 are commemorated in the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour. [29,10] UK casualties include losses of the colonial forces which are the topic of the following BBC article- [100]. UK colonial forces included units from East Africa, West Africa,Ghana, the Caribbean, Malaya, Burma, Hong Kong, Jordan, Sudan, Malta and the Jewish Brigade The official UK report on war casualties of June 1946 provided a preliminary tally of war losses. This report listed the war deaths of 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606); Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service (624); Merchant Navy (30,248); British Home Guard ( 1,206) and Civilians (60,595). The total still missing on 2/28/1946 was 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089); Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service (18); Merchant Navy (530); British Home Guard (0) and Civilians (0). These figures included the losses of Newfoundland and Southern Rhodesia. There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to "natural causes" which are not included in these figures. Deaths due to air and rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206 British

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World War II casualties Home Guard. The deaths of civilians interned was unknown at that time.[19,7] The preliminary 1945 data for colonial forces was killed 6,877, missing 14,208, wounded 6,972 and POW 8,115.[20] 56. ^United States Total U. S. military deaths in battle and from other causes were 416,837 The breakout by service is as follows, Army 318,274 [78], Navy 62,614, [78], Marine Corps 24,511 [78], United States Coast Guard 1,917. [16,584-591]. and United States Merchant Marine 9,521.[79]. Deaths in battle were 292,131 The breakout by service is as follows, Army 234, 874 [78], Navy 36,950, [78], Marine Corps 19,733 [78], United States Coast Guard 574. [101] [16,584-591]. These losses were incurred during the period 12/1/41 until 12/31/46 including an additional 126 men in October 1941 when the USS Kearny and the USS Reuben James were attacked by U-Boats. The United States Army Air Forces losses, which are included in the Army total, were 52,173 deaths due to combat and 35,946 from non combat causes[69].U.S. Combat Dead by Theater of war - Europe-Atlantic 183,588; Army ground forces 141,088; United States Army Air Forces 36,461 and Navy/Coast Guard 6,039; Asia-Pacific 108,504; Army ground forces 41,592; United States Army Air Forces 15,694; Navy/Coast Guard 31,485; Marine Corps 19,733. Unidentified TheatresArmy 39[69] [16,584-591]. Included in combat deaths are 14,059 POWs, in Europe (1,124) and (12,935) in Asia[16,584-591]. The details of U.S. casualties are listed online: The US Army[102]. The U.S. Army Air Force [103]. The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps [104]. The U.S. Merchant Marine [105] Civilian dead were 1,704 American civilians interned, by the Japanese(1,536) and in Europe (168), which are the subject of a U.S. Congressional Research Service report. Go to page CRS-11[63]. During the Attack on Pearl Harbor 68 U.S. civilians were killed by friendly fire[16,552] and 6 U.S. civilians were killed in Oregon in 1945 by Japanese balloon bombs [16,580]. The names of individual U.S. military personnel killed in World War II can be found at the U.S. National Archives website [106] The names of U.S. Merchant Mariners killed in World War II can be found at the USMM website [107] The names of the 6,043 US military personnel buried at sea, during World War II, are listed at[108] {broken down as US Army 368; US Army Air Forces 33; USMC 1,042; US Navy 4,600}. The names of the 74,384 of the US personnel, who served in World War II, whose remains not recovered are listed at [109] {Broken down as US Army 17,096; US Army Air Forces 20,683; USMC 3,119; US Navy 32,636; Civilians 850}. American Battle Monuments Commission website lists the names of 176,399 military and civilian war dead from World War II buried in ABMC cemeteries or listed on Walls of the Missing {ABMC Cemeteries have 93,238 buried and 78,979 MIA} [110] {Note: the ABMC website notes ABMC database does not list names of 233,174 Americans returned to the United States for burial}. A U.S. Department of Defense report puts in the total number of US World War II missing at 73,291 [111] .Examples of non combat casualties within the continental United States-not listed on the ABMC website-were the Port Chicago explosion where 320 were killed and the Women Airforce Service Pilots of whom 38 lost their lives. "Project Priam" website lists Pacific Allied/Axis recoveries from 1958 to 2007. See[112]

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World War II casualties 57. ^Yugoslavia The U.S. Bureau of the Census published a report in 1954 that concluded that Yugoslav war related deaths were 1,067,000. The U.S. Bureau of the Census noted that the official Yugoslav government figure of 1.7 million war dead was overstated because it "was released soon after the war and was estimated without the benefit of a postwar census" [67,23] A recent study by Vladimir erjavi estimates total war related deaths at 1,027,000. Military losses of 237,000 Yugoslav partisans and 209,000 Ustae. Civilian dead of 581,000, including 57,000 Jews. Losses of the Yugoslav Republics were Bosnia 316,000; Serbia 273,000; Croatia 271,000; Slovenia 33,000; Montenegro 27,000; Macedonia 17,000; and killed abroad 80,000. [66]. Bogoljub Koovi a statistician, who is a Bosnian Serb by ethnic affiliation, calculated that the actual war losses were 1,014,000[85,172-80] The late Jozo Tomasevich , Professor Emeritus of Economics at San Francisco State University, believes that the calculations of Koovi and erjavi seem to be free of bias, we can accept them as reliable [86,737] The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as follows: A.Military operations between the Germans, Italians and their Ustae collaborators on one hand against the Yugoslav partisans and Chetniks[86,744-50] B.German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a special vengeance against the Serbs, who were considered Untermensch [86,744-50] One of the worst massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was the Kragujevac massacre. C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war Ustae collaborators were killed during the Bleiburg massacre[86,744-50] D.The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims were Serbs [86,744-50] The USHMM reports between 56,000 and 97,000 persons were killed at the Jasenovac concentration camp[64] [63] . However, Yad Vashem reports 600,000 deaths at Jasenovac. [65]. The genocide of Roma was 40,000 persons.[13,183-184]Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 67,122.[14,244]: E.The reduced food supply caused famine and disease. [86,744-50]: F.Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities were Podgorica, Leskovac, Zadar and Belgrade. [86,744-50]: G. The demographic losses due to a 335,000 reduction in the number of births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties. [86,744-50]

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World War II casualties 7. ^G. I. Krivosheev. Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses. Greenhill 1997 ISBN 1-85367-280-7 8. ^Tmas Stark. Hungary's Human Losses in World War II. Uppsala Univ. 1995 ISBN 91-86624-21-0 9. ^ John W. Dower War Without Mercy 1986 ISBN 0-394-75172-8 10. ^Mark Axworthy. Third Axis Fourth Ally. Arms and Armour 1995 ISBN 1-85409-267-7 11. ^Andreev, EM, et al., Naselenie Sovetskogo Soiuza, 1922-1991. Moscow, Nauka, 1993. ISBN 5-02-013479-1 12. ^Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny:sbornik statei. Sankt-Peterburg 1995 ISBN 5-86789-023-6 13. ^Donald Kendrick, The Destiny of Europe's Gypsies. Basic Books 1972 ISBN 0-465-01611-1 14. ^Martin Gilbert. Atlas of the Holocaust 1988 ISBN 0-688-12364-3 15. ^ Annual Changes in Population of Japan Proper 1 October 1920-1 October 1947, General Headquarters for the Allied Powers Economic and Scientific Section Research and Programs Division. Tokyo, July 1948. 16. ^ Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6. 17. ^R. J. Rummel. Democide Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder. Transaction 1992 ISBN 1-56000-004-X 18. ^The UK Central Statistical Office Statistical Digest of the War HMSO 1951 19. ^ Strength and Casualties of the Armed Forces and Auxiliary Services of the United Kingdom 1939-1945 HMSO 1946 Cmd.6832 20. ^The Times on November 30, 1945. The official losses of the Commonwealth and the Colonies were published here. 21. ^ Richard Overy, Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941-1945, Penguin Books, 1998, ISBN 0-14-027169-4 22. ^Commonwealth War Graves Commission-Debt of Honour Register [114] 23. ^Gerhard Reichling. Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen, Bonn 1995, ISBN 3-88557-046-7 24. ^Russian Volunteers in the German Wehrmacht in WWII-by Lt. Gen Wladyslaw Anders and Antonio Munoz [115] 25. ^Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Bd. 9/1, ISBN 3-421-06236-6. (This was prepared by the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office, an agency of the German government) 26. ^Hve margir slendingar du seinni heimsstyrjldinni? [116] 27. ^The Challenge Of The Irish Volunteers of World War [117] 28. ^ National Defence College (1994), Jatkosodan historia 6, Porvoo. ISBN 951-0-15332-X 29. ^Commonwealth War Graves Commission-Annual Report 2007-08. Finances, Statistics and Service, Page 10. Available online at [62] 30. ^Wirtschaft und Statistik, journal published by Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland.(German government Statistical Office) 31. ^Steinberg, Heinz Gnter. Die Bevlkerungsentwicklung in Deutschland im Zweiten Weltkrieg : mit einem berblick ber die Entwicklung von 1945 bis 1990. Bonn 1991. ISBN 3885570890

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World War II casualties 32. ^ Kiradzhiev, Svetlin. Sofia 125 Years Capital 1879-2004 Chronicle. Sofia 2006 (In Bulgarian) ISBN 954-617-011-9 33. ^ Meshkova, Polya. Blgarskata gilotina. Sofia 1994. ISBN 9548802015 34. ^China's Anti-Japanese War Combat Operations.(In Chinese) Guo Rugui, editor-in-chief Huang Yuzhang Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 2005 ISBN 7214030349 35. ^ Pacner, K. Osudove okamziky Ceskoslovenska- Praha 1997 ISBN 80-85821-46-X 36. ^ Second Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm [118] 37. ^ Michael Ellman, Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War:a note-World War IIEurope Asia Studies, July 1994 38. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Poles as Victims of the Nazi Era .[119] 39. ^Poland. Bureau odszkodowan wojennych, Statement on war losses and damages of Poland in 1939-1945. Warsaw 1947 40. ^U.S. Bureau of the Census The Population of Poland Ed. W. Parker Mauldin, Washington- 1954 41. ^Krystyna Kersten, Szacunek strat osobowych w Polsce Wschodniej. Dzieje Najnowsze Rocznik XXI- 1994 42. ^ Czesaw uczak, Szanse i trudnosci bilansu demograficznego Polski w latach 1939-1945. Dzieje Najnowsze Rocznik XXI- 1994 43. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust EncyclopediaPolish Victims-[120] 44. ^Nimmo, William. Behind a curtain of silence : Japanese in Soviet custody, 1945-1956, Greenwood 1989 ISBN 9780313257629 45. ^Stphane Bruchfeld & Paul A. Levine, Suomen juutalaisvestst ja -pakolaisista: Stphane Bruchfeld & Paul A. Levine: Kertokaa siit lapsillenne, Werner Sder 46. ^Concise statistical year-book of Poland, Polish Ministry of Information. London June 1941 P.9 & 10 47. ^Project In Posterum[121](go to note on Polish Casualties by Tadeusz Piotrowski at the bottom of the page) 48. ^Niewyk, Donald L. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, ISBN 0231112009 49. ^United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia MOSAIC OF VICTIMS: OVERVIEW [122] 50. ^United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia. GENOCIDE OF EUROPEAN ROMA (GYPSIES), 1939-1945 [123] 51. ^United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia EUTHANASIA PROGRAM [124] 52. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia NAZI PERSECUTION OF SOVIET PRISONERS OF WAR [89] 53. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia THE GERMAN ARMY AND THE RACIAL NATURE OF THE WAR AGAINST THE SOVIET UNION [125] 54. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia PERSECUTION OF HOMOSEXUALS IN THE THIRD REICH [126]

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World War II casualties 55. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES [127] 56. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia FREEMASONRY UNDER THE NAZI REGIME [128] 57. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia How many Catholics were killed during the Holocaust?[129] 58. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia BLACKS DURING THE HOLOCAUST [130] 59. ^ Kogan, Eugan. The Therory and Practice of Hell. New York 1960. 60. ^ A Mosaic of Victims- Non Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis. Ed. by Michael Berenbaum New York University Press 1990 ISBN 1-85043-251-1 61. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia. How many Jews were killed during the Holocaust? [131] 62. ^United States Holocaust Memorial Museum SINTl AND ROMA ("GYPSIES" ): VICTIMS OF THE NAZI ERA [132] 63. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum - Holocaust Era in Croatia:1941-1945, Jasenovac (go to section III Concentration Camps)[133] 64. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Holocaust Encyclopedia. Jasenovac.[134] 65. ^. Yadvashem. Jasenovac. [135] 66. ^Vladimir erjaviYugoslavia manipulations with the number Second World War victims, - Zagreb: Croatian Information center,1993 ISBN 0-919817-32-7 [136] 67. ^U.S. Bureau of the Census The Population of Yugoslavia Ed. Paul F. Meyers and Arthur A. Campbell , Washington
D.C.- 1954

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68. ^Roma:Instituto Centrale Statistica' Morti E Dispersi Per Cause Belliche Negli Anni 1940-45 Rome 1957 69. ^United States Dept. of the Army, Army Battle Casualties and Non Battle Deaths in World War II. Available online at [102] 70. ^Nrnberg Document No. 3568. Data from this document is listed in Martin Brozat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Fischer Bcheri 1961. Page 125 71. ^ Jan T. Gross, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia, Princeton University Press, 2002 ISBN 0691096031 72. ^ Stephane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard Univ Pr, 1999 ISBN 0674076087 73. ^ Del Boca, Angelo, The Ethiopian war. Univ. of Chicago Press. 1969 ISBN 0226142175 74. ^Small, Melvin & Singer, Joel David, Resort to Arms : International and Civil Wars 1816-1965. 1982 75. ^Italy's War Crimes in Ethiopia- 1946 (reprinted 2000), ISBN 0-9679479-0-1. 76. ^ Franciszek Proch, Poland's Way of the Cross, New York 1987 77. ^ Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito. Commissariato generale C.G.V. Ministero della Difesa - Edizioni 1986. 78. ^Congressional Research Report American War and Military Operations Casualties. Updated June 29, 2007, [137]

World War II casualties 79. ^ American Merchant Marine at War, www.usmm.org, [105] 80. ^ Florida Center for Instructional Technology, College of Education, University of South Florida , A Teachers Guide to the Holocaust[138] 81. ^ Ho Ping-ti. Studies on the Population of China, 1368-1953. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959. 82. ^Vertreibung und Vertreibungsverbrechen 1945-1978. Bericht des Bundesarchivs vom 28 Mai 1974. Archivalien und ausgewlte Erlebenisberichte, Bonn 1989. (This is a study of German civilian casualties prepared by the German government Archives) 83. ^Gerhard Reichling. Die Vertriebenen in Spiegel der Statistik, Bonn 1958. 84. ^ Tai Hawn Kwon. Demography of Korea. Seoul National University Press. 1977 85. ^ Koovi ,Bogoljub-rtve Drugog svetskog rata u Jugoslaviji 1990 ISBN 8601019285 86. ^ Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941-1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0804736154 In Cap.17 Alleged and True Population Losses there is a detailed account of the controversies related to Yugoslav war losses. 87. ^Fremy, M. , Quid 1996, Paris. 88. ^Nationale Koopvaardijmonument Rotterdam [139] 89. ^CRS Report for Congress-U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II: The Issue of Compensation by Japan Go to page CRS-11[63]. 90. ^Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C. Non-Jewish Resistance [140] 91. ^ United Nations, Economic and Social Council, Report of the Working Group for Asia and the Far East, Supp. 10. 1947 92. ^ M. Z. Aziz. Japans Colonialism and Indonesia. The Hague 1955. 93. ^ Poyer, Lin; Falgout, Suzanne; Carucci, Laurence Marshall . The Typhoon of War: Micronesian Experiences of the Pacific War Univ of Hawaii Pr, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A., 2001 ISBN 0824821688 94. ^,Gniazdowski, Mateusz. Losses Inflicted on Poland by Germany during World War II. Assessments and Estimatesan Outline The Polish Quarterly of International Affairs, 2007, no. 1.This article is available for purchase from the Central and Eastern European Online Library at http:/ / www. ceeol. com 95. ^ T. Panecki, Wsiek zbrojny Polski w II wojnie wiatowej pl:Wojskowy Przegld Historyczny, 1995, no. 1-2, pp 1318 96. ^Estonian State Commission on Examination of Policies of Repression. The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes. 1940 1991. Tallinn 2005. ISBN 9985-70-195-X [141] 97. ^Schimitzek, Stanislaw, Truth or Conjecture? Warsaw 1966 98. ^Amartya Sen interviewed by David Barsamian of Alternative Radio[142] 99. ^ Loek Caspers, Vechten voor vrijheid ISBN 9789087040482 100. ^ CBS, 1948, Oorlogsverliezen 19401945. Maandschrift van het Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, blz. 749.
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101. ^Alan S. Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe 102. ^Albania : a country study Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Raymond E. Zickel and Walter R. Iwaskiw. 2nd ed. 1994 ISBN 0-8444-0792-5.

World War II casualties Available online at Federal Research Division of the U.S. Library of Congress See section On The Communist Takeover. 103. ^Bjij, V. Lal and Kate Fortune. The Pacific Islands- An Encyclopedia 104. ^ Biuro Odszkodowan Wojennych przy Prezydium Rady Ministrw (Poland), Report on Poland's wartime losses and damage in the years 1939-1945 = Warszawa : Biuro odszkodowan Wojennych przy Prezydium Rady Ministrw, 2007 105. ^ Marschalck, Peter Bevlkerungsgeschichte Deutschlands im 19. Und 20. Jahrhundert Suhrkamp 1984 106. ^ Dr. Rdiger Overmans- Personelle Verluste der deutschen Bevlkerung durch Flucht und Vertreibung. (A parallel Polish translation was also included, this paper was a presentation at an academic conference in Warsaw Poland in 1994), Dzieje Najnowsze Rocznik XXI-1994 107. ^ Germany Reports, Press and Information Office of the Federal Republic of Germany, Weisbaden 1961. 108. ^Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis, Harvard 1988, 109. ^ United States State Dept. Background Note: Philippines . [144] 110. ^ Embassy of Austria, Washington, D.C. USA, Rule of the Nazis [145] 111. ^ Werner Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931-1945 Transaction 2007 ISBN 978-0-7658-0352-8 112. ^Hsu Long-hsuen "History of the Sino-Japanese war (1937-1945)" Taipei 1972

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External links
R J Rummel's Statistics of Democide [146] World War II: Combatants and Casualties (1937 - 45)
[147]

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Consequences of German Nazism

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Consequences of German Nazism

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German Nazism and the acts of the Nazi German state profoundly affected many countries, communities and peoples before, during and after World War II. While the attempt of Germany to exterminate several nations viewed as subhuman by Nazi ideology was stopped by the Allies, Nazi aggression nevertheless led to the deaths of tens of millions and the ruin of several states.

Jewish people
Of the world's 15 million Jews in 1939, more than a third were killed in the Holocaust.[1] [2] Of the 3 million Jews in Poland, the heartland of European Jewish culture, fewer than 350,000 survived. Most of the remaining Jews in Eastern and Central Europe were destitute refugees who were unable or unwilling to return to countries that became Soviet puppet states, or countries they felt had betrayed them to the Nazis. Jewish support for Zionism had increased largely because the Holocaust killed off almost all political Jews opposing Zionism (such as the General Jewish Labor Union) and gave weight to the Zionist claim that Jews would only be safe within a nation of their own. This gave a profound impetus for the Zionist movement to press more radically for the creation of a Jewish state (Israel) in the British Mandate of Palestine. This outraged Arab residents, many of whom firmly opposed such a new state. After various militant acts by the radical Zionist factions on the British Mandate's apparatus, the British withdrew in 1948, placing the region into the Arab-Israeli Conflict, which continues to this day.

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Austria
Austria, which had been unified with Germany in 1938 (Anschluss), was separated from Germany again and, like Germany, divided up into four zones occupied by the four victorious nations. However, Austrian diplomacy succeeded in preventing the country from being split into "Western" and "Eastern" parts. Rather, Austria regained its full independence and sovereignty in 1955 with the signing of the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag), and after adopting a position of 'permanent neutrality'. Denazification as well as the restitution of Jewish property were carried out slowly and half-heartedly by the authorities. For decades to come, the Austrian people, supported by politicians of all major political parties, preferred seeing themselves as "Hitler's first victim" over taking responsibility for the crimes that had been committed by Austrian Nazis like Adolf Eichmann, Ernst Kaltenbrunner and Hitler himself. Similarly to West Germany, the Austrian economy quickly recovered in the course of the 1950s.

Poland
The Nazis intended to destroy the Polish nation completely and in 1941 Nazi leadership decided that in 10 to 20 years Polish state was to be fully cleared of any ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists.[3] From the beginning of occupation, German policy was to plunder and exploit Polish territory, turning it into a giant concentration camp for Poles who were to be eventually exterminated as "untermenschen".[3] The policy of plunder and exploitation inflicted enormous material losses to Polish industry, agriculture, infrastructure and cultural landmarks. The cost of the destruction by Germans alone is estimated at approximately 525 billion or $640 billion.[4] The remaining industry was largely destroyed or transported to Russia by Soviet Union occupation forces following the war. The official Polish government report of war losses prepared in 1947 reported 6,028,000 war victims out of a population of 27,007,000 ethnic Poles and Jews alone. For political reasons the report excluded the losses to the Soviet Union and the losses among Polish citizens of Ukrainian and Belarusian origin. Poland's eastern border was significantly moved westwards to the Curzon line. The resulting territorial loss of 188,000km (formerly populated by 5.3 million ethnic Poles[5] ) was to be compensated by the addition of 111,000km of former German territory east of the Oder-Neisse line (formerly populated by 11.4 million ethnic Germans[6] ). Kidnapping of Polish children by Germany also took place, in which children who were believed to hold German blood were taken away; 20,000-200,000[7] Polish children were taken away from their parents. Out of the abducted only 10-15% returned home.[8] Polish elites were decimated and over half of Polish intelligentsia were murdered. Some professions lost 20-50% of their members, for example 58% of Polish lawyers were exterminated by Germany, 38% of medical doctors and 28% of university workers. The Polish capital Warsaw was razed by German forces and most of its old and newly acquired cities were lying in ruins (e.g. Wrocaw) or lost to the Soviet Union (e.g. Lww). In addition Poland became a Soviet satellite state, remaining under a Soviet-controlled Communist government until 1989. The Russian troops did not withdraw from Poland until 1993.

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See also
World War II crimes in Poland Expulsion of Germans by Poland Expulsion of Poles by Germany Holocaust in Poland Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles Massacres of Poles in Volhynia Destruction of Warsaw

Central Europe
The peoples of Central Europe found themselves under Soviet military occupation at the end of the war, and the Soviets rapidly installed Communist puppet governments in all the countries they controlled, especially Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and what was then Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic and Slovakia). For all the affected countries installing the totalitarian Communist regimes also meant the collapse of their economies and total loss of their national sovereignty for many years to come. It was to be almost 50 years before the Russian forces were driven out of their gains of 1945.

The Soviet Union

More than 27 million Soviet citizens had been killed as a result of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, including some 10,651,000 soldiers who fell in battle against Hitler's armies or died in POW camps.[9] Millions of civilians also died from starvation, exposure, atrocities, and massacres, and a huge area of the Soviet Union from the suburbs of Moscow and the Volga River to the western border had been destroyed, depopulated, and reduced to rubble. The staggering mass death and destruction there badly damaged the Soviet economy, society, and national psyche. The death toll included c.a. 2 million Soviet Execution of Soviet Partisans. Jews killed by the German invaders.[10] The mass destruction and mass murder was one of the reasons why the Soviet Union installed satellite states in Central Europe; as the government hoped to use the countries as a buffer zone against any new catastrophic invasions from the West. This helped break down the wartime alliance between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted until the USSR's collapse in 1991. Soviet culture in the 1950s was defined by results of the Great Patriotic War. Close to 60% of the European war dead were from the Soviet Union. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman has detailed Soviet losses totaling 26.5 million war related deaths. Military losses of 10.6 million include 7.6 million killed or missing in action and 2.6 million POW

Consequences of German Nazism dead, plus 400,000 paramilitary and Soviet partisan losses. Civilian deaths totaled 15.9 million which included 1.5 million from military actions; 7.1 million victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals; 1.8 million deported to Germany for forced labor; and 5.5 million famine and disease deaths. Additional famine deaths which totaled 1 million during 1946-47 are not included here. These losses are for the entire territory of the USSR including territories annexed in 1939-40.[11] To the north, the Germans reached Leningrad (Saint Petersburg) in August 1941. The city was surrounded on 8 September, beginning a 900-day Siege of Leningrad during which almost 1 million civilians died. Of the 5.7 million Soviet prisoners of war captured by the Germans, more than 3.5 million had died while in German captivity by the end of the war.[12] On 11 February 1945, at the conclusion of the Yalta Conference, the United States and United Kingdom signed a Repatriation Agreement with the USSR.[13] The interpretation of this Agreement resulted in the forcible repatriation of all Soviets regardless of their wishes.[14] Millions of Soviet POWs and forced laborers transported to Germany are believed to be treated as traitors, cowards and deserters on their return to the USSR(see Order No. 270) .[15] [16] According to some sources, many were executed or deported to the Soviet prison camps, over 1.5 million surviving Red Army soldiers imprisoned by the Germans were sent to the Gulag in Siberia and the far north.[17] [18] [19] . However, statistical data from Soviet archives, that became available after Perestroika, attest that the overall increase of the Gulag population was minimal during 1945-46 [20] and only 272,867 of repatriated Soviet POWs and civilians (out of 4,199,488) were imprisoned [21] .

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Belarus
Belarus lost a quarter of its pre-war population, including practically all its intellectual elite and 90% of the countrys Jewish population. Following bloody encirclement battles, all of the present-day Belarus territory was occupied by the Germans by the end of August 1941. The Nazis imposed a brutal regime, deporting some 380,000 young people for slave labour, and killing hundreds of thousands of civilians more. At least 5,295 Belarusian settlements were destroyed by the Nazis and some or all their inhabitants killed (out of 9200 settlements that were burned or otherwise destroyed in Belarus during World War II). More than 600 villages like Khatyn were burned with their entire population.[22] More than 209 cities and towns (out of 270 total) were destroyed. Himmler had pronounced a plan according to which 3/4 of Belarusian population was designated for "eradication" and 1/4 of racially cleaner population (blue eyes, light hair) would be allowed to serve Germans as slaves. Some recent estimates raise the number of Belarusians who perished in War to "3 million 650 thousand people, unlike the former 2.2 million. That is to say not every fourth inhabitant but almost 40% of the pre-war Belarusian population perished (considering the present-day borders of Belarus)." [23]

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Ukraine
Ukraine also suffered heavily, with estimates on population losses ranging from 6.5 million to as high as 11 million. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.[24]

See also
World War II casualties Generalplan Ost Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany Forced settlements in the Soviet Union Operation Keelhaul Hunger Plan

Yugoslavia
The demographic loss is estimated at 1,027,000 individuals by Vladimir Zerjavic and Bogoljub Koovi, an estimate accepted by the United Nations, while the official Yugoslav authorities claimed 1,700,000 casualties. Very high losses were among Serbs who lived in Bosnia and Croatia, as well as Jewish and Roma minorities, high also among all other non-collaborating population. In the summer of 1941, the Serbian uprising came at the time of the German invasion of the USSR. The Nazi response was harsh. For every killed soldier, the Germans executed 100 Serbian civilians, and for each wounded, they killed 50.[25] The Yugoslav Partisans fought both a guerrilla campaign against the Axis occupiers and a civil war against the Chetniks. The Independent State of Croatia was established as a Nazi puppet-state, ruled by the fascist militia known as the Ustae. During this time the Independent State of Croatia created extermination camps for anti-fascists, communists, Serbs, Muslims, Gypsies and Jews, one of the most infamous being Jasenovac. A large number of men, women and children, mostly Serbs, were murdered in these camps. In 1945, Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was created as a communist republic.

Western Europe
Britain and France were on the side of the victors, but they were exhausted and bankrupted by the war, and Britain never recovered its status as a superpower. With Germany and Japan in ruins as well, the world was left with two dominant powers, the United States and the Soviet Union. Economic and political reality in Western Europe would soon force the dismantling of the European colonial empires, especially in Africa and Asia. One of the most important political consequences of the Nazi experience in Western Europe was the establishment of new, human rights based political alliances which eventually became the European Union and an international military alliance of democratic European countries known as NATO to counterbalance the Soviets' Warsaw Pact and Comintern until communist rule in Eastern Europe ended in the late 1980s. The Communists emerged from the war sharing the vast prestige of the victorious Soviet armed forces, and for a while it looked as though they might take power in France, Italy and Greece. The West quickly acted to prevent this from happening, hence the Cold War.

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Greece
In Greece the German occupation (April 1941-October 1944) destroyed the economy through war reparations, plundering of the country's resources and hyper-inflation. In addition, the Germans left most of the country's infrastructure in ruins as they withdrew in 1944. As a result of an Allied blockade and German indifference to local needs, the first winter of the occupation was marked by widespread famine in the main urban centres, with as many as 300,000 civilians dead from starvation. Although these levels of starvation were not repeated in the next years, malnourishment was common throughout the occupation. In addition, thousands more were executed by German forces as reprisals for partisan activities. As part of the Holocaust, Greece's Jewish community was almost wiped out. Especially the large Sephardi community of Thessaloniki, which had existed in the city since the Middle Ages and earned it the sobriquet "Mother of Israel", was eliminated. In total, at least 81% (ca. 60,000) of Greece's total pre-war Jewish population perished. The bitterest and longest-lasting legacy of the German occupation was the social upheaval it wrought. The old political elites were sidelined, and the Resistance against the Axis brought to the fore the leftist National Liberation Front (EAM), arguably the country's first true mass-movement, where the Communists played a central role. In an effort to oppose its growing influence, the Germans encouraged the pre-war conservative establishment to confront it, and allowed the creation of armed units. As elsewhere in Eastern Europe, in the last year of the occupation, conditions in Greece often approximated a civil war between EAM and everyone else. The rift would become permanent in December 1944, when EAM and the British-backed government clashed in Athens, and again in a fully fledged Communist insurgency from 1946-1949.

Germany
More than 7 million Germans, including almost 2 million civilians, died during World War II. (see World War II casualties) After the end of the war in Europe additional casualties were incurred during the Allied occupation and also during the population expulsions that followed. After the war, the German people were often viewed with contempt because they were blamed for Nazi crimes by other Europeans. Germans visiting abroad, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s, attracted insults from locals, and from foreigners who may have had their families or friends live through or perish in the atrocities. Today in Europe and worldwide (particularly in countries that fought against the Axis), Germans may be scorned by elderly people who were alive to experience the atrocities committed by Nazi Germans during World War II. This resulted in a feeling of controversy for many Germans, causing numerous discussions and rows among scholars and politicians in Post-War West Germany (for example, the "Historikerstreit" [historians' argument] in the 1980s) and after Reunification. Here, the discussion was mainly about the role that the unified Germany should play in the world and in Europe. Bernard Schlink's The Reader documents how post-war Germans dealt with the issue. Following World War II, the Allies embarked on a program of denazification, but as the Cold War intensified these efforts were curtailed in the west. Germany itself and the German economy were devastated, with great parts of most major cities destroyed by the bombings of the Allied forces, sovereignty was taken away by the

Consequences of German Nazism Allies and the territory filled with millions of refugees from the former eastern provinces which the Allies had decided were to be annexed by the Soviet Union and Poland, moving the eastern German border westwards to the Oder-Neisse line and effectively reducing Germany in size by roughly 25%. (see also Potsdam Conference) The remaining parts of Germany were divided among the Allies and occupied by British (the north-west), French (the south-west), American (the south) and Soviet (the east) troops. The expulsions of Germans from the lost areas in the east (see also Former eastern territories of Germany), the Sudetenland, and elsewhere in eastern Europe went on for several years. The number of Germans expelees totaled roughly 15,000,000. Estimates of number of deaths in connection with expulsion range from under 500,000 to 3 million. After a short time the Allies broke over ideological problems (Communism versus Capitalism), and thus both sides established their own spheres of influence, creating a previously non-existent division in Germany between East and West, (although the division largely followed the borders of states which had existed in Germany before Bismarck's unification less than 100 years before).
German occupation zones in 1946 after territorial annexations

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A constitution for East Germany was drafted on 30 May 1949. Wilhelm Pieck, a leader of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) party (which was created by a forced merger of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in the Soviet sector), was elected first President of the German Democratic Republic. West Germany, (officially: Federal Republic of Germany, FRG - this is still the official name of the unified Germany today) received (de facto) semi-sovereignty in 1949, as well as a constitution, called the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). The document was not called a Constitution officially, as at this point, it was still hoped that the two German states would be reunited in the near future. The first free elections in West Germany were held in 1949, which were won by the Christian Democratic Party of Germany (CDU) (conservatives) by a slight margin. Konrad Adenauer, a member of the CDU, was the first Bundeskanzler (Chancellor) of West Germany. Both German states introduced, in 1948, their own money, colloquially called West-Mark and Ost-Mark (Western Mark and Eastern Mark). Foreign troops still remain in Germany today, for example Ramstein Air Base, but the majority of troops left following the end of the Cold War (By 1994 for Soviet troops, mandated under the terms of the Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany and in the mid-1990s for Western forces). The Bush Administration in the United States in 2004 stated intentions to withdraw most of the remaining American troops out of Germany in the coming years. During the years 1950-2000 more than 10,000,000 U.S. military personnel were stationed in Germany.[26] The West German economy was by the mid 50's rebuilt thanks to the abandonment in mid-1947 of some of the last vestiges of the Morgenthau Plan and to fewer war reparations imposed on West Germany (see also Wirtschaftswunder). After lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Generals Clay and Marshall, the Truman administration finally realized that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the

Consequences of German Nazism German industrial base on which it had previously had been dependent.[27] In July 1947, President Harry S. Truman rescinded on "national security grounds"[27] the punitive JCS 1067, which had directed the U.S. forces of occupation in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."[28] The dismantling of factories in the western zones, for further transport to Russia as reparations, was in time halted as frictions grew between East and West. Limits were placed on permitted levels of German production in order to prevent resurgence of German militarism, part of which included severely restricting German steel production and affected the rest of the German economy very negatively (see "The industrial plans for Germany"). Dismantling of factories by France and Great Britain as reparations and for the purpose of lowering German war and economic potential under the "level of industry plans" took place (finally halted in 1951), but to nowhere near the scale of the dismantling and transport to the Soviet Union of factories in the eastern zone of occupation. The Eastern Block did not accept the Marshall Plan, denouncing it as American economic imperialism, and thus it (East Germany included) recovered much more slowly than their Western counterparts. German political end economic control of its main remaining centers of industry was reduced, the Ruhr area was under international control. The Ruhr Agreement was imposed on the Germans as a condition for permitting them to establish the Federal Republic of Germany.[29] (see also the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR)). In the end, the beginning of the Cold War led to increased German control of the area, although permanently limited by the pooling of German coal and steel into a multinational community in 1951 (see European Coal and Steel Community). The neighboring Saar area, containing much of Germany's remaining coal deposits, was by the U.S. handed over to French economic administration as a protectorate in 1947 and did not politically return to Germany until January 1957, with economic reintegration occurring a few years later. (see also the Monnet Plan). Upper Silesia Germany's second largest center of mining and industry had at the Potsdam Conference been handed over to Poland and its population expelled.

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The Allies confiscated intellectual property of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies.[30] Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel comes to the conclusion, in his book "Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany", that the "intellectual reparations" taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 billion.[31] [32] [33] During the more than two years that this policy was in place, no industrial research in Germany could take place, as any results would have been automatically available to overseas competitors who were encouraged by the occupation authorities to access all records and facilities. Meanwhile thousands of the best German researchers were being put to work in the Soviet Union and in the U.S. (see also Operation Paperclip) For several years following the surrender German nutritional levels were very low, resulting in very high mortality rates. Throughout all of 1945 the U.S. forces of occupation ensured that no international aid reached ethnic Germans. [34] It was directed that all relief went to non-German displaced persons, liberated Allied POWs, and concentration camp

Consequences of German Nazism inmates.[34] During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and U.K occupation zones received 1200 calories a day.[34] Meanwhile non-German Displaced Persons were receiving 2300 calories through emergency food imports and Red Cross help.[34] In early October 1945 the U.K. government privately acknowledged in a cabinet meeting that German civilian adult death rates had risen to 4 times the pre-war levels and death rates amongst the German children had risen by 10 times the pre-war levels. [34] The German Red Cross was dissolved, and the International Red Cross and the few other allowed international relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through strict controls on supplies and on travel.[34] The few agencies permitted to help Germans, such as the indigenous Caritas Verband, were not allowed to use imported supplies. When the Vatican attempted to transmit food supplies from Chile to German infants the U.S. State Department forbade it.[34] The German food situation reached its worst during the very cold winter of 1946-1947 when German calorie intake ranged from 1,000-1,500 calories per day, a situation made worse by severe lack of fuel for heating.[34] Meanwhile the Allies were well fed, average adult calorie intake was; U.S. 3200-3300; UK 2900; U.S. Army 4000.[34] German infant mortality rate was twice that of other nations in Western Europe until the close of 1948.[34] As agreed by the Allies at the Yalta conference Germans were used as forced labor as part of the reparations to be extracted to the countries ruined by Nazi aggression. By 1947 it is estimated that 4,000,000 Germans (both civilians and POWs) were being used as forced labor by the U.S., France, the UK and the Soviet Union. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the low countries. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or maimed each month in accidents.[35] In Norway the last available casualty record, from August 29, 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been maimed.[36] Death rates for the German civilians doing forced labor in the Soviet Union ranged between 19% - 39%, depending on category. (see also Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union). Norman Naimark writes in "The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949." that although the exact number of women and girls who were raped by members of the Red Army in the months preceding and years following the capitulation will never be known, their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, quite possibly as high as the 2,000,000 victims estimate made by Barbara Johr, in "Befreier und Befreite". Many of these victims were raped repeatedly. Naimark states that not only had each victim to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it inflicted a massive collective trauma on the East German nation (the German Democratic Republic). Naimark concludes "The social psychology of women and men in the soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until-one could argue-the present."[37] The post-war hostility shown to the German people is exemplified in the fate of the War children, sired by German soldiers with women from the local population in nations such as Norway where the children and their mothers after the war had to endure many years of abuse. In the case of Denmark the hostility felt towards all things German also showed itself in the treatment of German refugees during the years 1945 to 1949. During 1945 alone 7000 German children under the age of 5 died as a result of being denied sufficient food and denied medical attention by Danish doctors who were afraid that rendering aid to the children of the former enemy would be seen as an unpatriotic act. Many children died

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Consequences of German Nazism of easily treatable ailments. As a consequence "more German refugees died in Danish camps, "than Danes did during the entire war.""[38] [39] [40] [41] During the Cold War, it was difficult for West Germans to visit East German relatives and friends and impossible vice versa. For East Germans, especially after the building of the Berlin Wall on 13 August 1961 and until Hungary opened up its border to the West in the late 1980s, thus allowing hundreds of thousands of vacationing East Germans to flee into Western Europe, it was only possible to get to West Germany by illegally fleeing across heavily-fortified and guarded border areas. 44 years after the end of World War II, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November 1989. Both the East as well as the West parts of Germany were reunited on 3 October 1990. Economic and social divisions between East and West Germany still continue to play a major role in politics and society in Germany today. It is likely the contrast between the generally well-off and economically-diverse West and the weaker, heavy-industry reliant East will continue at least until the foreseeable future.

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See also
History of Germany since 1945 Germany East Germany West Germany Cold War Marshall Plan Berlin Wall Ostpolitik German reunification

World politics
The war led to the discrediting and dissolution of the League of Nations and led to the founding of the United Nations on 24 October 1945. Like its predecessor, the UN was established to help prevent other world wars and contain or stop smaller conflicts. The principles enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations are a testament to the world's attitudes at the fall of the Third Reich.

International law
The effect the Nazis had on present-day international law should not be underestimated. The United Nations Genocide Convention, a series of laws that made genocide a crime, was approved in December 1948, three years after the Nazi defeat. That same month, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights also became a part of international law. The Nuremberg trials, followed by other Nazi war crimes trials, also created an unwritten rule stating that government officials who "follow orders" from leaders in committing crimes against humanity cannot use such a motive to excuse their crimes. It also had an effect through the Fourth Geneva Convention (Art 33) in making collective punishments a war crime.

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Racism
After the world viewed the Nazi death camps, many western peoples began to outwardly oppose ideas of racial superiority. Liberal anti-racism became a staple of many western governments. Whereas racism was still present, openly racist publications were looked down upon. The social progression towards tolerance of different cultures in western societies has continued to the present day. Although figures such as Martin Luther King, Jr. had a profound effect on anti-racism in the west, the effect of the Holocaust, particularly the Jewish death toll during World War II was equally profound. Since the collapse of Nazi Germany, western populations have been wary of racial political parties and have actively discouraged white ethnocentrism, fearing the return of a catastrophe similar to the purges carried out by Nazis in Germany.

Future armed conflicts

The major tactical innovation which Nazi Germany introduced was the blitzkrieg, with closely coordinated use of motorized, mechanized, and airborne forces on the schwerpunkt (focal point), followed by encirclement by motorized forces, and exploitation of the gap by conventional infantry forces . Radio communication allowed for the close coordination necessary for such attacks, and allowed for coordination of the airforce. Similarly, the use of air power to supplement conventional ground forces was another innovation in warfare originated by German forces in WWII. The introduction of rockets and jet engines also revolutionized warfare. The use of the V-1 flying bomb and V2 rocket represented a new facet of warfare. Jet engines allowed for more sophisticated aircraft and mach speeds. This revolutionized both military and commercial aircraft. The idea of total war was also a revolutionary concept, in which the enemy's economy, industry, and civilian populations were all legitimate targets. This was a major shift in ideology from the rules of engagement which previously governed nations at war. These new technologies, tactics, and ideologies introduced by Nazi Germany have resulted in major changes in the way nations conduct war, and have been the groundwork for many of the operations carried out today.

References
Steven Bela Vardy and T. Hunt Tooley, eds. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe ISBN 0-88033-995-0. subsection by Richard Dominic Wiggers, The United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians after World War II

References
[1] History of the Holocaust - An Introduction (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Holocaust/ history. html) [2] Pipeline workers find mass grave of Jews killed by Nazis (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ ukraine/ story/ 0,,2096327,00. html) [3] Volker R. Berghahn "Germans and Poles 18711945" in "Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences", Rodopi 1999 [4] Poles Vote to Seek War Reparations (http:/ / www. dw-world. de/ dw/ article/ 0,,1324630,00. html), Deutsche Welle, 11 September 2004 [5] Concise statistical year-book of Poland , Polish Ministry of Information. London June 1941 P.9 & 10 [6] The Expulsion of Germans from Poland, Revisited (http:/ / www. h-net. org/ reviews/ showrev. cgi?path=260621074909720), H-Net Review

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[7] A. Dirk Moses, Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History, Google Print, p.260 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5zHAGNPTkqIC& pg=PA260& dq=Germanization+ "Polish+ children& ei=t24wR9WvDYPU7QLL5OjsCQ& sig=mBzLuS86EO-HWkxMzZA4oERSW5U) [8] Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947, Google Print, p.22 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A4FlatJCro4C& pg=PA22& dq=Germanization+ "Polish+ children"& ei=WIcwR4bxIoia7AKX1KHXCQ& sig=sWXkGcyu7JESf94H4kGH1KzW03k) [9] Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 4530565. stm) [10] Zvi Gitelman, History, Memory and Politics: The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (http:/ / hgs. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 5/ 1/ 23) [11] Soviet deaths in the Great Patriotic War: a note - World War II (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m3955/ is_n4_v46/ ai_15654726) [12] Soviet Prisoners of War: Forgotten Nazi Victims of World War II (http:/ / www. historynet. com/ wars_conflicts/ world_war_2/ 3037296. html) [13] The United States and Forced Repatriation of Soviet Citizens, 1944-47 by Mark Elliott Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 88, No. 2 (Jun., 1973), pp. 253-275 [14] Forced Repatriation to the Soviet Union: The Secret Betrayal (http:/ / www. hillsdale. edu/ news/ imprimis/ archive/ issue. asp?year=1988& month=12) [15] The warlords: Joseph Stalin (http:/ / www. channel4. com/ history/ microsites/ H/ history/ t-z/ warlords1stalin. html) [16] Remembrance (Zeithain Memorial Grove) (http:/ / www. stsg. de/ main/ zeithain/ geschichte/ gedenken/ index_en. php) [17] Sorting Pieces of the Russian Past (http:/ / www. hoover. org/ publications/ digest/ 3063246. html) [18] Patriots ignore greatest brutality (http:/ / www. smh. com. au/ news/ opinion/ patriots-ignore-greatest-brutality/ 2007/ 08/ 12/ 1186857342382. html?page=2) [19] Joseph Stalin killer file (http:/ / www. moreorless. au. com/ killers/ stalin. html) [20] Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. " Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years (http:/ / www. etext. org/ Politics/ Staljin/ Staljin/ articles/ AHR/ AHR. html)". . [21] // (http:/ / scepsis. ru/ library/ id_1234. html) [22] Khatyn WWII Memorial in Belarus (http:/ / www. belarusguide. com/ travel1/ Khatyn. html) [23] Partisan Resistance in Belarus during World War II (http:/ / www. belarusguide. com/ history1/ WWII_partisan_resistance_in_Belarus. htm) [24] Ukraine :: World War II and its aftermath (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-30082/ Ukraine) [25] German Occupation of Serbia and the Kragujevac Massacre, by Carl K. Savich (http:/ / www. antiwar. com/ orig/ savich3. html) [26] Tim Kane, PhD., Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950-2003 (http:/ / www. heritage. org/ Research/ NationalSecurity/ cda04-11. cfm), Heritage Foundation 27 October 2004 [27] Ray Salvatore Jennings "The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq (http:/ / www. usip. org/ pubs/ peaceworks/ pwks49. pdf) May 2003, Peaceworks No. 49 pg.15 [28] Pas de Pagaille! (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,887417,00. html) Time Magazine July 28, 1947. [29] Amos Yoder, "The Ruhr Authority and the German Problem", The Review of Politics, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Jul., 1955), pp. 345-358 [30] C. Lester Walker "Secrets By The Thousands" (http:/ / www. scientistsandfriends. com/ files/ secrets. doc), Harper's Magazine. October 1946 [31] Norman M. Naimark The Russians in Germany pg. 206. (Naimark refers to Gimbels book) [32] The $10 billion compares to the U.S. annual GDP of $258 billion in 1948. [33] The $10 billion compares to the total Marshall plan expenditure (1948-1952) of $13 billion, of which Germany received $1,4 billion (partly as loans). [34] Steven Bela Vardy and T. Hunt Tooley, eds. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe ISBN 0-88033-995-0. subsection by Richard Dominic Wiggers, "The United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians after World War II" [35] S. P. MacKenzie "The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II" The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 66, No. 3. (Sep., 1994), pp. 487-520. [36] Jonas Tjersland, Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere (http:/ / www. vg. no/ pub/ vgart. hbs?artid=166207), VG Nett, 8 April 2006 [37] Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. 132,133

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[38] Children were starved in war aftermath (http:/ / www. cphpost. dk/ get/ 87301. html), Copenhagen Post, 15 April 2005 [39] Manfred Ertel, Denmark's Myths Shattered: A Legacy of Dead German Children (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ international/ 0,1518,355772,00. html), Spiegel Online, 16 May 2005 [40] Andrew Osborn, Documentary forces Danes to confront past (http:/ / observer. guardian. co. uk/ international/ story/ 0,6903,891930,00. html), The Observer, 9 February 2003 [41] Danish Study Says German Children Abused (http:/ / www. dw-world. de/ dw/ article/ 0,1564,1545676,00. html), Deutsche Welle, 10 April 2005

108

Japanese war crimes

Japanese war crimes occurred during the period of Japanese imperialism. Some of the incidents have also been described as an Asian Holocaust[1] and Japanese war atrocities.[2] [3] Some war crimes were committed by military personnel from the Empire of Japan in the late 19th century, although most took place during the first part of the Shwa Era, the name given to the reign of Emperor Hirohito, until the military defeat of the Empire of Japan, in 1945. Historians and governments of some countries officially hold Japanese military forces, namely the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy, responsible for killings and other crimes committed against millions of civilians and prisoners of war.

Definitions
War crimes have been defined by the Nuremberg Charter as "violations of the laws or customs of war," which includes crimes against enemy civilians and enemy combatants.[5] Military personnel from the Empire of Japan have been accused or convicted of committing many such acts during the period of Japanese imperialism from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries. They have been accused of conducting a series of human rights abuses against civilians and prisoners of war (POWs) throughout East Asia and the western Pacific region. These events reached their height during the Second Sino-Japanese War of 193745 and the Asian and Pacific campaigns of World War II (1941-45).

International and Japanese law

Hsuchow, China, 1938. A ditch full of the bodies of Chinese civilians, killed by Japanese [4] soldiers.

Although the Empire of Japan did not sign the Geneva Conventions, which have provided the standard definition of war crimes since 1864, the crimes committed fall under other aspects of international and Japanese law. For example, many of the alleged crimes committed by Japanese personnel during World War II broke Japanese military law, and were not subject to court martial, as required by that law.[6] The Empire also violated international agreements signed by Japan, including provisions of the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907) such as a ban on the use of chemical

Japanese war crimes weapons and protections for prisoners of war.[7] The Japanese government also signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1929), thereby rendering its actions in 1937-45 liable to charges of crimes against peace,[8] a charge that was introduced at the Tokyo Trials to prosecute "Class A" war criminals. "Class B" war criminals were those found guilty of war crimes per se, and "Class C" war criminals were those guilty of crimes against humanity. The Japanese government also accepted the terms set by the Potsdam Declaration (1945) after the end of the war, including the provision in Article 10 of punishment for "all war criminals, including those who have visited cruelties upon our prisoners." In Japan, the term "Japanese war crimes" generally only refers to cases tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, also known as the Tokyo Trials, following the end of the Pacific War. However, the tribunal did not prosecute war crimes allegations involving mid-ranking officers or more junior personnel. Those were dealt with separately in other cities throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Japanese law does not define those convicted in the post-1945 trials as criminals, despite the fact that Japan's governments have accepted the judgments made in the trials, and in the Treaty of San Francisco (1952). This is because the treaty does not mention the legal validity of the tribunal. Had Japan certified the legal validity of the war crimes tribunals in the San Francisco Treaty, the war crimes would have become open to appeal and overturning in Japanese courts. This would have been unacceptable in international diplomatic circles. Former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has advocated the position that Japan accepted the Tokyo tribunal and its judgements as a condition for ending the war, but that its verdicts have no relation to domestic law. According to this view, those convicted of war crimes are not criminals under Japanese law.[9] This view may have been accepted by Japanese courts.

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Historical and geographical extent

Outside Japan, different societies use widely different timeframes in defining Japanese war crimes. For example, the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 was enforced by the Japanese military, and was followed by the deprivation of civil liberties and exploitation of the Korean people. Thus, some Koreans refer to "Japanese war crimes" as events occurring during the period of 1910 (or earlier) to 1945.[10] By comparison, the Western Allies did not come into military conflict with Japan until 1941, and North Americans, Australasians, South East Asians and Europeans may consider "Japanese war crimes" to be events that occurred in 1941-45.[11] Japanese war crimes were not always carried out by ethnic Japanese personnel. A small minority of people in every Asian and Pacific country invaded or occupied by Japan collaborated with the Japanese military, or even served in it, for a wide variety of reasons, such as economic hardship, coercion, or antipathy to other imperialist powers.[12] Japan's sovereignty over Korea and Formosa, in the first half of the 20th century, was recognized by international agreementsthe Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) and the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty (1910)and they were considered at the time to be integral parts of the Japanese Empire. However, the legality of these treaties is in question,[10] as the native populations were not consulted, there was armed resistance to Japan's annexations, and war crimes may also be committed during civil wars.

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Background
Japanese military culture and imperialism
Main articles: Militarism-Socialism in Showa Japan, Japanese militarism, Eugenics in Showa Japan, Xenophobia in Showa Japan Military culture, especially during Japan's imperialist phase had great bearing on the conduct of the Japanese military before and during World War II. Centuries previously, the samurai of Japan had been taught unquestioning obedience to their lords, as well as to be fearless in battle. After the Meiji Restoration and the collapse of the Tokugawa Shogunate, the Emperor became the focus of military loyalty. During the so-called "Age of Empire" in the late 19th century, Japan followed the lead of other world powers in developing an empire, pursuing that objective aggressively. As with other imperial powers, Japanese popular culture became increasingly jingoistic through the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century. The rise of Japanese nationalism was seen partly in the adoption of Shinto as a state religion from 1890, including its entrenchment in the education system. Shinto held the Emperor to be divine because he was deemed to be a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu. This provided justification for the requirement that the emperor and his representatives be obeyed without question. Victory in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) signified Japan's rise to the status of a major military power. Unlike the other major powers, Japan did not sign the Geneva Conventionwhich stipulates the humane treatment of civilians and POWsuntil after World War II. Nevertheless, an Imperial Proclamation (1894) stated that Japanese soldiers should make every effort to win the war without violating international law. According to historian Yuki Tanaka, Japanese forces during the First Sino-Japanese War, released 1,790 Chinese prisoners without harm, once they signed an agreement not to take up arms against Japan again.[13] After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), all 79,367 Russian Empire prisoners were released, and were paid for labour performed, in accordance with the Hague Convention.[13] Similarly the behaviour of the Japanese military in World War I (1914-18) was at least as humane as that of other militaries, with some German POWs of the Japanese finding life in Japan so agreeable that they stayed and settled in Japan after the war.[14] [15]

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The events of the 1930s and 1940s

By the late 1930s, the rise of militarism in Japan created at least superficial similarities between the wider Japanese military culture and that of Nazi Germany's elite military personnel, such as those in the Waffen-SS. Japan also had a military secret police force, known as the Kempeitai, which resembled the Nazi Gestapo in its role in annexed and occupied countries. As in other dictatorships, irrational brutality, hatred and fear became commonplace. Perceived failure, Two Japanese officers, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda or insufficient devotion to the competing to see who could kill (with a sword) one hundred Emperor would attract people first. The bold headline reads, "'Incredible Record' (in the punishment, frequently of the Contest To Cut Down 100 PeopleMukai 106 105 NodaBoth physical kind. In the military, 2nd Lieutenants Go Into Extra Innings". officers would assault and beat men under their command, who would pass the beating on to lower ranks, all the way down. In POW camps, this meant prisoners received the worst beatings of all.[16]

Crimes
The Japanese military during the 1930s and 1940s is often compared to the military of Nazi Germany during 193345 because of the sheer scale of suffering. Much of the controversy regarding Japan's role in World War II revolves around the death rates of prisoners of war and civilians under Japanese occupation. The historian Chalmers Johnson has written that: It may be pointless to try to establish which World War Two Axis aggressor, Germany or Japan, was the more brutal to the peoples it victimised. The Germans killed six million Jews and 20 million Russians [i.e. Soviet citizens]; the Japanese slaughtered as many as 30 million Filipinos, Malays, Vietnamese, Cambodians, Indonesians and Burmese, at least 23 million of them ethnic Chinese. Both nations looted the countries they conquered on a monumental scale, though Japan plundered more, over a longer period, than the Nazis. Both conquerors enslaved millions and exploited them as forced labourersand, in the case of the Japanese, as [forced] prostitutes for front-line troops. If you were a Nazi prisoner of war from Britain, America, Australia, New Zealand or Canada (but not Russia) you faced a 4% chance of not surviving the war; [by comparison] the death rate for Allied POWs held by the Japanese was nearly 30%.[17] According to the findings of the Tokyo Tribunal, the death rate among POWs from Asian countries, held by Japan was 27.1%.[18] The death rate of Chinese POWs was much larger becauseunder a directive ratified on August 5, 1937 by Emperor Hirohitothe constraints

Japanese war crimes of international law on treatment of those prisoners was removed.[19] Only 56 Chinese POWs were released after the surrender of Japan.[20]

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Mass killings
R. J. Rummel, a professor of political science at the University of Hawaii, states that between 1937 and 1945, the Japanese military murdered from nearly 3,000,000 to over 10,000,000 people, most likely 6,000,000 Chinese, Indonesians, Koreans, Filipinos, and Indochinese, among others, including Western prisoners of war. "This democide was due to a morally bankrupt political and military strategy, military expediency and custom, and national culture."[21] According to Rummel, in China alone, during 1937-45, approximately 3.9 million Chinese were killed, mostly civilians, as a direct result of the Japanese operations and 10.2 millions in the course of the war.[22] The most infamous incident during this period was the Nanking Massacre of 1937-38, when, according to the findings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, the Japanese Army massacred as many as 200,000 civilians and prisoners of war, although the accepted figure is somewhere in the hundreds of thousands.[23] A similar crime was the Changjiao massacre. In Southeast Asia, the Manila massacre, resulted in the deaths of 100,000 civilians in the Philippines and in the Sook Ching massacre, between 25,000 and 50,000 ethnic Chinese in Singapore were taken to beaches and massacred. There were numerous other massacres of civilians e.g. the Kalagong massacre. Historian Mitsuyoshi Himeta reports that a "Three Alls Policy" (Sank Sakusen) was implemented in China from 1942 to 1945 and was in itself responsible for the deaths of "more than 2.7 million" Chinese civilians. This scorched earth strategy, sanctioned by Hirohito himself, directed Japanese forces to "Kill All, Burn All, and Loot All." Additionally, captured allied service personnel were massacred in various incidents, including: Laha massacre Banka Island massacre Parit Sulong Palawan massacre SS Tjisalak massacre perpetrated by Japanese submarine I-8 Wake Island massacre-see Battle of Wake Island

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Human experimentation and biological warfare

Special Japanese military units conducted experiments on civilians and POWs in China. One of the most infamous was Unit 731 under Shir Ishii. Victims were subjected to vivisection without anesthesia, amputations, and were used to test biological weapons, among other experiments. Anesthesia was not used because it was believed to affect results. To determine the treatment of frostbite, prisoners were taken outside in freezing weather and left with exposed arms, periodically drenched with water until frozen solid. The arm was later amputated; the doctor would repeat the process on the victims upper arm to the shoulder. After both arms were gone, the doctors moved on to the legs until only a head and torso remained. The victim was then used for plague and pathogens experiments.[24] According to GlobalSecurity.org, the experiments carried out by Unit 731 alone caused 3,000 deaths.[25] Furthermore, according to the 2002 International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare, the number of people killed by the Imperial Japanese Army germ warfare and human experiments is around 580,000.[26] According to other sources, "tens of thousands, and perhaps as many as 400,000, Chinese died of bubonic plague, cholera, anthrax and other diseases...", resulting from the use of biological warfare.[27]

Shiro Ishii, commander of Unit 731

One of the most notorious cases of human experimentation occurred in Japan itself. At least nine out of 12 crew members survived the crash of a U.S. Army Air Forces B-29 bomber on Kysh, on May 5, 1945. (This plane was Lt. Marvin Watkins' crew of the 29th Bomb Group of the 6th Bomb Squadron.[28] ). The bomber's commander was sent to Tokyo for interrogation, while the other survivors were taken to the anatomy department of Kyushu University, at Fukuoka, where they were subjected to vivisection or killed.[29] On March 11, 1948, 30 people including several doctors were brought to trial by the Allied war crimes tribunal. Charges of cannibalism were dropped, but 23 people were found guilty of vivisection or wrongful removal of body parts. Five were sentenced to death, four to life imprisonment, and the rest to shorter terms. In 1950, the military governor of Japan, General Douglas MacArthur, commuted all of the death sentences and significantly reduced most of the prison terms. All of those convicted in relation to the university vivisection were free by 1958. In 2006, former IJN medical officer Akira Makino stated that he was orderedas part of his trainingto carry out vivisection on about 30 civilian prisoners in the Philippines between December 1944 and February 1945.[30] The surgery included amputations.[31] Ken Yuasa, a

Body disposal at Unit 731. Most victims were both civilian and military of Chinese

Japanese war crimes former military doctor in China, has also admitted to similar incidents he was compelled to participate in.[32]

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Use of chemical weapons

According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, Emperor Hirohito authorized by specific orders (rinsanmei) the use of chemical weapons in China.[33] For example, during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions, despite Article 23 of the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)[7] and article V of the Treaty in Relation to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare[34] and a resolution adopted by the League of Nations on May 14, condemning the use of poison gas by Japan. In 2004, Yoshimi and Yuki Tanaka discovered in the Australian National archives documents showing that cyanide gas was tested on Australian and Dutch prisoners in November 1944 on Kai islands (Indonesia).[35]

Preventable famine
Deaths caused by the diversion of resources to the Japanese military in occupied countries are also regarded as war crimes by many people. Millions of civilians in south-east Asiaespecially Vietnam and the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), both of which were major rice-growing countriesdied during a preventable famine in 194445.[36] (See, for example, the articles on the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 and Japanese occupation of Indonesia.) An estimated 2 million Vietnamese, or 10% of the population then, died during the famine of 194445.[37] A later UN report stated that 4 million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation.[38]

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year=2004}}</ref> The sheer volume of murdered civilians posed a formidable logistical challenge when it came to disposing of the bodies. Many Chinese were conscripted into "burial teams", an experience they would later recall as horrifically traumatic.<ref>Honda, Katsuichi and Gibney, Frank. The Nanjing Massacre. 1999, page 272-6</ref>

Torture of POWs
Japanese imperial forces employed widespread use of torture on prisoners, usually in an effort to gather military intelligence quickly.[39] Tortured prisoners were often later executed. A former Japanese Army officer who served in China, Uno Shintaro, stated: The major means of getting intelligence was to extract information by interrogating prisoners. Torture was an unavoidable necessity. Murdering and burying them follows naturally. You do it so you won't be found out. I believed and acted this way because I was convinced of what I was doing. We carried out our duty as instructed by our masters. We did it for the sake of our country. From our filial obligation to our ancestors. On the battlefield, we never really considered the Chinese humans. When

Japanese war crimes you're winning, the losers look really miserable. We concluded that the Yamato [i.e. Japanese] race was superior.[40]

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Cannibalism
Many written reports and testimonies collected by the Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, and investigated by prosecutor William Webb (the future Judge-in-Chief), indicate that Japanese personnel in many parts of Asia and the Pacific committed acts of cannibalism against Allied prisoners of war. In many cases this was inspired by ever-increasing Allied attacks on Japanese supply lines, and the death and illness of Japanese personnel as a result of hunger. However, according to historian Yuki Tanaka: "cannibalism was often a systematic activity conducted by whole squads and under the command of officers".[41] This frequently involved murder for the purpose of securing bodies. For example, an Indian POW, Havildar Changdi Ram, testified that: "[on November 12, 1944] the Kempeitai beheaded [an Allied] pilot. I saw this from behind a tree and watched some of the Japanese cut flesh from his arms, legs, hips, buttocks and carry it off to their quarters... They cut it small pieces and fried it."[42] In some cases, flesh was cut from living people: another Indian POW, Lance Naik Hatam Ali (later a citizen of Pakistan), testified that in New Guinea: the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and killed and eaten by the soldiers. I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the Japanese. The remainder of us were taken to another spot 50 miles [80 km] away where 10 prisoners died of sickness. At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat. Those selected were taken to a hut where their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later died.[43] Perhaps the most senior officer convicted of cannibalism was Lt Gen. Yoshio Tachibana (,Tachibana Yoshio), who with 11 other Japanese personnel was tried in relation to the execution of U.S. Navy airmen, and the cannibalism of at least one of them, in August 1944, on Chichi Jima, in the Bonin Islands. They were beheaded on Tachibana's orders. As military and international law did not specifically deal with cannibalism, they were tried for murder and "prevention of honorable burial". Tachibana was sentenced to death, and hanged.[44]

Forced labor
The Japanese military's use of forced labor, by Asian civilians and POWs also caused many deaths. According to a joint study by historians including Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyoshi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, more than 10 million Chinese civilians were mobilized by the Ka-in (Japanese Asia Development Board) for forced labour.[45] More than 100,000 civilians and POWs died in the construction of the Burma-Siam Railway.[46] The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between four and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborer"), were forced to work by the Japanese military.[47] About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%. According to historian Akira Fujiwara, Emperor Hirohito personally ratified the decision to remove the constraints of international law (Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)) on the treatment of Chinese prisoners of war in the directive of August 5, 1937. This notification

Japanese war crimes also advised staff officers to stop using the term "prisoners of war".[48] The Geneva Convention exempted POWs of sergeant rank or higher from manual labour, and stipulated that prisoners performing work should be provided with extra rations and other essentials. However, Japan was not a signatory to the Geneva Convention at the time, and Japanese forces did not follow the convention.

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Comfort women
The terms "comfort women" ( ianfu) or "military comfort women" ( jgun-ianfu) are euphemisms for women in Japanese military brothels in occupied countries, many of whom were recruited by force or deception, and regard themselves as having been sexually assaulted or sex slaves.[49] In 1992, historian Yoshiaki Yoshimi published material based on his research in archives at Japan's National Institute for Defense Studies. Yoshimi claimed that there was a direct link between imperial institutions such as the Ka-in and "comfort stations". When Yoshimi's findings were published in the Japanese news media on January 12, 1993, they caused a sensation and forced the government, represented by Chief Cabinet Secretary Kato Koichi, to acknowledge some of the facts that same day. On January 17, Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa presented formal apologies for the suffering of the victims, during a trip in South Korea. On July 6 and August 4, the Japanese government issued two statements by which it recognized that "Comfort stations were operated in response to the request of the military of the day", "The Japanese military was, directly or indirectly, involved in the establishment and management of the comfort stations and the transfer of comfort women" and that the women were "recruited in many cases against their own will through coaxing and coercion".[50] The controversy was re-ignited on March 1, 2007, when Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe mentioned suggestions that a U.S. House of Representatives committee would call on the Japanese Government to "apologize for and acknowledge" the role of the Japanese Imperial military in wartime sex slavery. However, Abe denied that it applied to comfort stations. "There is no evidence to prove there was coercion, nothing to support it."[51] Abe's comments provoked negative reactions overseas. For example, a New York Times editorial on March 6 said:[52] These were not commercial brothels. Force, explicit and implicit, was used in recruiting these women. What went on in them was serial rape, not prostitution. The Japanese Armys involvement is documented in the governments own defense files. A senior Tokyo official more or less apologized for this horrific crime in 1993... Yesterday, he grudgingly acknowledged the 1993 quasi apology, but only as part of a pre-emptive declaration that his government would reject the call, now pending in the United States Congress, for an official apology. America isnt the only country interested in seeing Japan belatedly accept full responsibility. Korea, China, and the Philippines are also infuriated by years of Japanese equivocations over the issue. The same day, veteran soldier Yasuji Kaneko admitted to The Washington Post that the women "cried out, but it didn't matter to us whether the women lived or died. We were the emperor's soldiers. Whether in military brothels or in the villages, we raped without reluctance."[53] On April 17, 2007, Yoshimi and another historian, Hirofumi Hayashi, announced the discovery, in the archives of the Tokyo Trials, of seven official documents suggesting that

Japanese war crimes Imperial military forces, such as the Tokeitai (naval secret police), directly coerced women to work in frontline brothels in China, Indochina and Indonesia. These documents were initially made public at the war crimes trial. In one of these, a lieutenant is quoted as confessing having organized a brothel and having used it himself. Another source refers to Tokeitai members having arrested women on the streets, and after enforced medical examinations, putting them in brothels.[54] On May 12, 2007, journalist Taichiro Kaijimura announced the discovery of 30 Netherland government documents submitted to the Tokyo tribunal as evidence of a forced massed prostitution incident in 1944 in Magelang.[55] In other cases, some victims from East Timor testified they were forced when they were not old enough to have started menstruating and repeatedly raped by Japanese soldiers.[56] A Dutch-Indonesian "comfort woman", Jan Ruff-O'Hearn (now resident in Australia), who gave evidence to the U.S. committee, said the Japanese Government had failed to take responsibility for its crimes, that it did not want to pay compensation to victims and that it wanted to rewrite history.[57] Ruff-O'Hearn said that she had been raped "day and night" for three months by Japanese soldiers when she was 21. To this day, only one Japanese woman published her testimony. This was done in 1971, when a former "comfort woman" forced to work for showa soldiers in Taiwan, published her memoirs under the pseudonym of Suzuko Shirota.[58] There are different theories on the breakdown of the comfort women's place of origin. While some Japanese sources claim that the majority of the women were from Japan, others, including Yoshimi, argue as many as 200,000 women,[59] mostly from Korea and China, and some other countries such as the Philippines, Burma, the Dutch East Indies, Netherlands,[60] and Australia[61] were forced to engage in sexual activity.[62] On 26 June 2007, the U.S. House of representatives Foreign Affairs Committee passed a resolution asking that Japan "should acknowledge, apologize and accept historical responsibility in a clear and unequivocal manner for its military's coercion of women into sexual slavery during the war".[63] On 30 July 2007, the House of Representatives passed the resolution, while Shinzo Abe said this decision was "regrettable".[64]

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Looting
Many historians state that the Japanese government and individual military personnel engaged in widespread looting during the period of 1895 to 1945.[65] The stolen property included private land, as well as many different kinds of valuable goods looted from banks, depositories, temples, churches, other commercial premises, mosques, museums and private homes. Sterling and Peggy Seagrave, in their 2003 book Gold Warriors: Americas secret recovery of Yamashita's goldreport that secret repositories of loot from across Southeast Asia, were created by the Japanese military in the Philippines during 194245. They allege that the theft was organized on a massive scale, either by yakuza gangsters such as Yoshio Kodama, or by officials at the behest of Emperor Hirohito, who wanted to ensure that as many of the proceeds as possible went to the government. The Seagraves also allege that Hirohito appointed his brother, Prince Chichibu, to head a secret organisation called Kin no yuri (Golden Lily) for this purpose.

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War crimes trials

Soon after the war, the Allied powers indicted 25 individuals as Class-A war criminals, and 5,700 individuals were indicted as Class-B or Class-C war criminals by Allied criminal trials. Of these, 984 were initially condemned to death, 920 were actually executed, 475 received life sentences, 2,944 received some prison terms, 1,018 were acquitted, and 279 were not sentenced or not brought to trial. These numbers included 178 ethnic Taiwanese and 148 ethnic Koreans.[66] The Class-A charges were all tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, also known as "the Tokyo Trials". Other courts were formed in many different places in Asia and the Pacific.
General Tomoyuki Yamashita (second right) was tried in Manila between October 29 and December 7, 1945, by a U.S. military commission, on charges relating to the Manila Massacre and earlier occurrences in Singapore, and was sentenced to death. The case set a precedent regarding the responsibility of commanders for war crimes, and is known as the Yamashita Standard. The legitimacy of the hasty trial has been called into question.

The Tokyo Trials

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East was formed to try accused people in Japan itself. High ranking officers who were tried included

Koichi Kido and Sadao Araki. Three former (unelected) prime ministers: Koki Hirota, Hideki Tojo, and Kuniaki Koiso were convicted of Class-A war crimes. Many military leaders were also convicted. Two people convicted as Class-A war criminals later served as ministers in post-war Japanese governments. Mamoru Shigemitsu served as foreign minister both during the war and in the post-war Hatoyama government. Okinori Kaya was finance minister during the war and later served as justice minister in the government of Hayato Ikeda. However, these two had no direct connection to alleged war crimes committed by Japanese forces, and foreign governments never raised the issue when they were appointed. Hirohito and all members of the imperial family implicated in the war such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Asaka, Prince Takeda and Prince Higashikuni were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by MacArthur, with the help of Bonner Fellers who allowed the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor would be spared from indictment.[67] Many historians criticize this decision. According to John Dower, "with the full support of MacArthur's headquarters, the prosecution functioned, in effect, as a defense team for the emperor"[68] and even Japanese activists who endorse the ideals of the Nuremberg and Tokyo charters, and who have labored to document and publicize the atrocities of the Showa regime "cannot defend the American decision to exonerate the emperor of war responsibility and then, in the chill of the Cold war, release and soon afterwards openly embrace accused right-winged war criminals like the later prime

Japanese war crimes minister Nobusuke Kishi."[69] For Herbert Bix, "MacArthur's truly extraordinary measures to save Hirohito from trial as a war criminal had a lasting and profoundly distorting impact on Japanese understanding of the lost war."[70]

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Other trials
Between 194651, the United States, the United Kingdom, China, the USSR, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, France, the Netherlands, and the Philippines all held military tribunals to try Japanese indicted for Class B and Class C war crimes. Some 5,600 Japanese personnel were prosecuted in more than 2,200 trials outside Japan. Class B defendants were accused of having committed such crimes themselves; class C defendants, mostly senior officers, were accused of planning, ordering, or failing to prevent them. The judges presiding came from the United States, China, the United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands, France, the Soviet Union, New Zealand, India and the Philippines. Additionally, the Chinese Communists also held a number of trials for Japanese personnel. More than 4,400 Japanese personnel were convicted and about 1,000 were sentenced to death.

October 26, 1945, Sandakan, North Borneo. During the investigation into Sandakan Death Marches and other incidents, Sergeant Hosotani Naoji (left, seated), a member of the Kempeitai unit at Sandakan, is interrogated by Squadron Leader F. G. Birchall (second right) of the Royal Australian Air Force, and Sergeant Mamo (right), a Nisei member of the U.S. Army/Allied Translator and Interpreter Service. Naoji confessed to shooting two Australian POWs and five ethnic Chinese civilians.

The largest single trial was that of 93 Japanese personnel charged with the summary execution of more than 300 Allied POWs, in the Laha massacre (1942). The most prominent ethnic Korean convicted was Lieutenant General Hong Sa Ik, who orchestrated the organization of prisoner of war camps in south east Asia. In 2006, the South Korean government "pardoned" 83 of the 148 convicted Korean war criminals.[71]

Post-war events and reactions

The parole-for-war-criminals movement
In 1950, after most Allied war crimes trials had ended, thousands of convicted war criminals sat in prisons across Asia and across Europe, detained in the countries where they were convicted. Some executions were still outstanding as many Allied courts agreed to reexamine their verdicts, reducing sentences in some cases and instituting a system of parole, but without relinquishing control over the fate of the imprisoned (even after Japan and Germany had regained their status as sovereign countries). An intense and broadly supported campaign for amnesty for all imprisoned war criminals ensued (more aggressively in Germany than in Japan at first), as attention turned away from the top wartime leaders and towards the majority of ordinary war criminals (Class

Japanese war crimes B/C in Japan), and the issue of criminal responsibility was reframed as a humanitarian problem. On March 7, 1950, MacArthur issued a directive that reduced the sentences by one-third for good behavior and authorized the parole of those who had received life sentences after fifteen years. Several of those who were imprisoned were released earlier on parole due to ill-health. The Japanese popular reaction to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal found expression in demands for the mitigation of the sentences of war criminals and agitation for parole. Shortly after the San Francisco Peace Treaty came into effect in April 1952, a movement demanding the release of B- and C-class war criminals began, emphasizing the "unfairness of the war crimes tribunals" and the "misery and hardship of the families of war criminals." The movement quickly garnered the support of more than ten million Japanese. In the face of this surge of public opinion, the government commented that public sentiment in our country is that the war criminals are not criminals. Rather, they gather great sympathy as victims of the war, and the number of people concerned about the war crimes tribunal system itself is steadily increasing. The parole-for-war-criminals movement was driven by two groups: those from outside who had a sense of pity for the prisoners; and the war criminals themselves who called for their own release as part of an anti-war peace movement. The movement that arose out of a sense of pity demanded just set them free (tonikaku shakuho o) regardless of how it is done. On September 4, 1952, President Truman issued Executive Order 10393,establishing a Clemency and Parole Board for War Criminals to advise the President with respect to recommendations by the Government of Japan for clemency, reduction of sentence, or parole, with respect to sentences imposed on Japanese war criminals by military tribunals.[72] On May 26, 1954, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles rejected a proposed amnesty for the imprisoned war criminals but instead agreed to "change the ground rules" by reducing the period required for eligibility for parole from 15 years to 10.[73] By the end of 1958, all Japanese war criminals, including A-, B- and C-class were released from prison and politically rehabilitated. Hashimoto Kingor, Hata Shunroku, Minami Jir, and Oka Takazumi were all released on parole in 1954. Araki Sadao, Hiranuma Kiichir, Hoshino Naoki, Kaya Okinori, Kido Kichi, shima Hiroshi, Shimada Shigetar, and Suzuki Teiichi were released on parole in 1955. Sat Kenry, whom many, including Judge B. V. A. Rling regarded as one of the convicted war criminals least deserving of imprisonment, was not granted parole until March 1956, the last of the Class A Japanese war criminals to be released. On April 7, 1957, the Japanese government announced that, with the concurrence of a majority of the powers represented on the tribunal, the last ten major Japanese war criminals who had previously been paroled were granted clemency and were to be regarded henceforth as unconditionally free from the terms of their parole.

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Official apologies
The Japanese government considers that the legal and moral positions in regard to war crimes are separate. Therefore, while maintaining that Japan violated no international law or treaties, Japanese governments have officially recognised the suffering which the Japanese military caused, and numerous apologies have been issued by the Japanese government. For example, Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama, in August 1995, stated that Japan "through its colonial rule and aggression, caused tremendous damage and suffering to the people of many countries, particularly to those of Asian nations", and he expressed his "feelings of deep remorse" and stated his "heartfelt apology". Also, on September 29, 1972, Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka stated: "[t]he Japanese side is keenly conscious of the responsibility for the serious damage that Japan caused in the past to the Chinese people through war, and deeply reproaches itself."[74] However, the official apologies are widely viewed as inadequate or only a symbolic exchange by many of the survivors of such crimes or the families of dead victims. On October 2006, while Prime Minister Shinzo Abe expressed an apology for the damage caused by its colonial rule and aggression, more than 80 Japanese lawmakers from his ruling party LDP paid visits to the Yasukuni Shrine. Many people aggrieved by Japanese war crimes also maintain that no apology has been issued for particular acts or that the Japanese government has merely expressed "regret" or "remorse".[75] On 2 March 2007, the issue was raised again by Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe, in which he denied that the military had forced women into sexual slavery during World War II. He stated, "The fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coercion." Before he spoke, a group of Liberal Democratic Party lawmakers also sought to revise Yohei Kono's 1993 apology to former comfort women.[76] [77] However, this provoked negative reaction from Asian and Western countries. On 31 October 2008, the chief of staff of Japan's Air Self-Defense Force Toshio Tamogami was dismissed with a 60 million yen allowance[78] due to an essay he published, arguing that Japan was not an aggressor during World War II, that the war brought prosperity to China, Taiwan and Korea, that the Imperial Japanese Army's conduct was not violent and that the Greater East Asia War is viewed in a positive way by many Asian countries and criticizing the war crimes trials which followed the war.[79] On 11 November, Tamogami added before the Diet that the personnal apology made in 1995 by former prime minister Tomiichi Murayama was "a tool to suppress free speech".[78] Some in Japan have asserted that what is being demanded is that the Japanese Prime Minister or the Emperor perform dogeza, in which an individual kneels and bows his head to the grounda high form of apology in East Asian societies that Japan appears unwilling to do.[80] Some point to an act by West German Chancellor Willy Brandt, who knelt at a monument to the Jewish victims of the Warsaw Ghetto, in 1970, as an example of a powerful and effective act of apology and reconciliation similar to dogeza, although not everyone agrees.[81] Citing Brandt's action as an example, John Borneman, associate professor of anthropology at Cornell,[82] states that, "an apology represents a non-material or purely symbolic exchange whereby the wrongdoer voluntarily lowers his own status as a person." Borneman further states that once this type of apology is given, the injured party must forgive and seek reconciliation, or else the apology won't have any effect. The injured party may reject the apology for several reasons, one of which is to prevent reconciliation, because, "By

Japanese war crimes keeping the memory of the wound alive, refusals prevent an affirmation of mutual humanity by instrumentalizing the power embedded in the status of a permanent victim."[83] Therefore, some argue that a nation's reluctance to accept the conciliatory gestures that Japan has made may be because that nation doesn't think that Japan has "lowered" itself enough to provide a sincere apology. On the other hand, others state their belief that that particular nation is choosing to reject reconciliation in pursuit of permanent "victimhood" status as a way to try to assert power over Japan.[84]

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Compensation
There is a widespread perception that the Japanese government has not accepted the legal responsibility for compensation and, as a direct consequence of this denial, it has failed to compensate the individual victims of Japanese atrocities. In particular, a number of prominent human rights and women's rights organisations insist that Japan still has a moral or legal responsibility to compensate individual victims, especially the sex slaves conscripted by the Japanese military in occupied countries and known as comfort women. The Japanese government officially accepted the requirement for monetary compensation to victims of war crimes, as specified by the Potsdam Declaration. The details of this compensation have been left to bilateral treaties with individual countries, except North Korea, because Japan recognises South Korea as the sole legitimate government of the Korean peninsula. In the Asian countries involved, claims to compensation were either abandoned by their respective countries, or were paid out by Japan under the specific understanding that it was to be used for individual compensation. However, in some cases such as with South Korea, the compensation was not paid out to victims by their governments, instead being used for civic projects and other works. Due to this, large numbers of individual victims in Asia received no compensation. Therefore, the Japanese government's position is that the proper avenues for further claims are the governments of the respective claimants. As a result, every individual compensation claim brought to Japanese court has failed. Such was the case in regard to a British POW who was unsuccessful in an attempt to sue the Japanese government for additional money for compensation. As a result, the UK Government later paid additional compensation to all British POWs. There were complaints in Japan that the international media simply stated that the former POW was demanding compensation and failed to clarify that he was seeking further compensation, in addition to that paid previously by the Japanese government. A small number of claims have also been brought in US courts, though these have also been rejected. During the treaty negotiation with South Korea, the Japanese government proposed that it pay monetary compensation to individual Korean victims, in line with the payments to western POWs. The Korean government instead insisted that Japan pay money collectively to the Korean government, and that is what occurred. The South Korean government then used the funds for economic development. The content of the negotiations was not released by the Korean government until 2004, although it was public knowledge in Japan. Due to the release of the information by the Korean government, a number of claimants have stepped forward and are attempting to sue the government for individual compensation of victims. There are those that insist that because the governments of China and Taiwan abandoned their claims for monetary compensation, then the moral or legal responsibility for

Japanese war crimes compensation belongs with these governments. Such critics also point out that even though these governments abandoned their claims, they signed treaties that recognised the transfer of Japanese colonial assets to the respective governments. Therefore, to claim that these governments received no compensation from Japan is incorrect, and they could have compensated individual victims from the proceeds of such transfers. However, others dispute that Japanese colonial assets in large proportion were built or stolen with extortion or force in occupied countries, as was clearly the case with artworks collected (or stolen) by Nazis during WWII throughout Europe. The Japanese government, while admitting no legal responsibility for the so-called "comfort women", set up the Asian Women's Fund in 1995, which gives money to people who claim to have been forced into prostitution during the war. Though the organisation was established by the government, legally, it has been created such that it is an independent charity. The activities of the fund have been controversial in Japan, as well as with international organisations supporting the women concerned.[85] Some argue that such a fund is part of an ongoing refusal by the Japanese government to face up to its responsibilities, while others say that the Japanese government has long since finalised its responsibility to individual victims and is merely correcting the failures of the victims' own governments. The reality is that without a sincere and unequivocal apology from the government of Japan, the majority of surviving Comfort Women refused to accept these funds.[86] Intermediate compensation The term "intermediate compensation" (or intermediary compensation) was applied to the removal and reallocation of Japanese industrial (particularly military-industrial) assets to Allied countries. It was conducted under the supervision of Allied occupation forces. This reallocation was referred to as "intermediate" because it did not amount to a final settlement by means of bilateral treaties, which settled all existing issues of compensation. By 1950, the assets reallocated amounted to 43,918 items of machinery, valued at 165,158,839 (in 1950 prices). The proportions in which the assets were distributed were: China, 54.1%; the Netherlands, 11.5%; the Philippines 19%, and; the United Kingdom, 15.4%. Compensation under the San Francisco Treaty Compensation from Japanese overseas assets Japanese overseas assets refers to all assets owned by the Japanese government, firms, organisation and private citizens, in colonised or occupied countries. In accordance with Clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty, Allied forces confiscated all Japanese overseas assets, except those in China, which were dealt with under Clause 21. It is considered that Korea was also entitled to the rights provided by Clause 21.
Japanese overseas assets in 1945 Country/region Korea Taiwan North East China North China Value (1945, 15=US$1) 70,256,000,000 42,542,000,000 146,532,000,000 55,437,000,000

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125
36,718,000,000 28,014,000,000 379,499,000,000

Central South China Others Total

Compensation to Allied POWs Clause 16 of the San Francisco Treaty stated that Japan would transfer its assets and those of its citizens in countries which were at war with any of the Allied Powers or which were neutral, or equivalents, to the Red Cross, which would sell them and distribute the funds to former prisoners of war and their families. Accordingly, the Japanese government and private citizens paid out 4,500,000 to the Red Cross. According to historian Linda Goetz Holmes, many funds used by the government of Japan were not Japanese funds but relief funds contributed by the governments of USA, UK and Netherlands and sequestred in the Yokohama Specie Bank during the final year of the war.[87] Allied territories occupied by Japan Clause 14 of the treaty stated that Japan would enter into negotiations with Allied powers whose territories were occupied by Japan and suffered damage by Japanese forces, with a view to Japan compensating those countries for the damage. Accordingly, the Philippines and South Vietnam received compensation in 1956 and 1959 respectively. Burma and Indonesia were not original signatories, but they later signed bilateral treaties in accordance with clause 14 of the San Francisco Treaty.
Japanese compensation to countries occupied during 1941-45 Country Burma Philippines Indonesia Vietnam Total Amount in Yen 72,000,000,000 198,000,000,000 80,388,000,000 14,400,000,000 364,348,800,000 Amount in US$ 200,000,000 550,000,000 223,080,000 38,000,000 US$1,012,080,000 Date of treaty November 5, 1955 May 9, 1956 January 20, 1958 May 13, 1959

The last payment was made to the Philippines on July 22, 1976.

Debate in Japan
There is a widespread perception, outside Japan, that there is a reluctance inside Japan to discuss such events or admit that there were war crimes. However, the controversial events of the Japanese imperial era are openly debated in the media, with the various political parties and ideological groups taking quite different positions. What differentiates Japan from Germany and Austria is that in Japan, there is no restriction to the freedom of speech in regard to this matter, while in Germany, Austria and some other European countries, Holocaust denial is a criminal offence. Until the 1970s, such debates were considered a fringe topic in the media. In the Japanese media, the opinions of the political centre and left tend to dominate the editorials of newspapers, while the right tend to dominate magazines. Debates regarding war crimes were confined largely to the editorials of tabloid magazines where calls for the overthrow of

Japanese war crimes "Imperialist America" and revived veneration of the Emperor coexisted with pornography. In 1972, to commemorate the normalisation of relationship with China, Asahi Shimbun, a major liberal newspaper, ran a series on Japanese war crimes in China including the Nanking Massacre. This opened the floodgates to debates which have continued ever since. The 1990s are generally considered to be the period in which such issues become truly mainstream, and incidents such as the Nanking Massacre, Yasukuni Shrine, comfort women, the accuracy of school history textbooks, and the validity of the Tokyo Trials were debated, even on television. As the consensus of Japanese jurists is that Japanese forces did not technically commit violations of international law, many right wing elements in Japan have taken this to mean that war crimes trials were examples of victor's justice. They see those convicted of war crimes as "Martyrs of Shwa" ( Shwa Junnansha), Shwa being the name given to the rule of Hirohito. This interpretation is vigorously contested by Japanese peace groups and the political left. In the past, these groups have tended to argue that the trials hold some validity, either under the Geneva Convention (even though Japan hadn't signed it), or under an undefined concept of international law or consensus. Alternatively, they have argued that, although the trials may not have been technically valid, they were still just, somewhat in line with popular opinion in the West and in the rest of Asia. By the early 21st century, the revived interest in Japan's imperial past had brought new interpretations from a group which has been labelled both "new right" and "new left". This group points out that many acts committed by Japanese forces, including the Nanjing Incident (they generally do not use the word "massacre"), were violations of the Japanese military code. It is suggested that had war crimes tribunals been conducted by the post-war Japanese government, in strict accordance with Japanese military law, many of those who were accused would still have been convicted and executed. Therefore, the moral and legal failures in question were the fault of the Japanese military and the government, for not executing their constitutionally-defined duty. The new right/new left also takes the view that the Allies committed no war crimes against Japan, because Japan was not a signatory to the Geneva Convention, and as a victors, the Allies had every right to demand some form of retribution, to which Japan consented in various treaties. However, under the same logic, the new right/new left considers the killing of Chinese who were suspected of guerilla activity to be perfectly legal and valid, including some of those killed at Nanjing, for example. They also take the view that many Chinese civilian casualties resulted from the scorched earth tactics of the Chinese nationalists. Though such tactics are arguably legal, the new right/new left takes the position that some of the civilian deaths caused by these scorched earth tactics are wrongly attributed to the Japanese military. Similarly, they take the position that those who have attempted to sue the Japanese government for compensation have no legal or moral case. The new right/new left also takes a less sympathetic view of Korean claims of victimhood, because prior to annexation by Japan, Korea was a tributary of the Qing Dynasty and, according to them, the Japanese colonisation, though undoubtedly harsh, was "better" than the previous rule in terms of human rights and economic development. They also argue that, the Kantgun (also known as the Kwantung Army) was at least partly culpable. Although the Kantgun was nominally subordinate to the Japanese high command at the time, its leadership demonstrated significant self-determination, as shown by its

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Japanese war crimes involvement in the plot to assassinate Zhang Zuolin in 1928, and the Manchurian Incident of 1931, which led to the foundation of Manchukuo in 1932. Moreover, at that time, it was the official policy of the Japanese high command to confine the conflict to Manchuria. But in defiance of the high command, the Kantgun invaded China proper, under the pretext of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident. However, the Japanese government not only failed to court martial the officers responsible for these incidents, but it also accepted the war against China, and many of those who were involved were even promoted. (Some of the officers involved in the Nanking Massacre were also promoted.) Whether or not Hirohito himself bears any responsibility for such failures is a sticking point between the new right and new left. Officially, the imperial constitution, adopted under Emperor Meiji, gave full powers to the Emperor. Article 4 prescribed that "The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution" and article 11 prescribed that "The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and the Navy". For historian Akira Fujiwara, the thesis that the emperor as an organ of responsibility could not reverse cabinet decisions is a myth (shinwa) fabricated after the war.[88] Others argue that Hirohito deliberately styled his rule in the manner of the British constitutional monarchy, and he always accepted the decisions and consenses reached by the high command. According to this position, the moral and political failure rests primarily with the Japanese High Command and the Cabinet, most of whom were later convicted at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal as class-A war criminals, apart all members of the imperial family such as prince Chichibu, prince Yasuhiko Asaka, prince Higashikuni, prince Hiroyasu Fushimi and prince Takeda.

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Controversial reinterpretations outside Japan

Some activists outside Japan are also attempting controversial reinterpretations of Japanese imperialism. For example, the views of a South Korean ex-military officer and right wing commentator, Ji Man-Won, have caused controversy in Korea and further abroad. Ji has praised Japan for "modernising" Korea, and has said of women forced to become sex slaves: "most of the old women claiming to be former comfort women, or sex slaves to the Japanese military during World War II, are fakes." In East Asia, such views are widely regarded as being offensive, libellous of the women concerned, and as representing negationism in a similar fashion to the Holocaust deniers of Europe.

Later investigations
As with investigations of Nazi war criminals, official investigations and inquiries are still ongoing. During the 1990s, the South Korean government started investigating some individuals who had allegedly become wealthy while collaborating with the Japanese military. In South Korea, it is also alleged that, during the political climate of the Cold War, many such individuals or their associates or relatives were able to acquire influence with the wealth they had acquired collaborating with the Japanese and assisted in the covering-up, or non-investigation, of war crimes in order not to incriminate themselves. With the wealth they had amassed during the years of collaboration, they were able to further benefit their families by obtaining higher education for their relatives. Non-government bodies and individuals have also undertaken their own investigations. For example, in 2005, a South Korean freelance journalist, Jung Soo-woong, located in Japan

Japanese war crimes some descendants of people involved in the 1895 assassination of Empress Myeongseong (Queen Min), the last Empress of Korea. The assassination was conducted by the Dark Ocean Society, perhaps under the auspices of the Japanese government, because of the Empress's involvement in attempts to reduce Japanese influence in Korea. Jung recorded the apologies of the individuals. As these investigations continue more evidence is discovered each day. It has been claimed that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed the reports on Korean comfort women.[89] [90] Some have cited Japanese inventory logs and employee sheets on the battlefield as evidence for this claim. For example, one of the names on the list was of a comfort woman who stated she was forced to be a prostitute by the Japanese. She was classified as a nurse along with at least a dozen other verified comfort women who were not nurses or secretaries. Currently, the South Korean government is looking into the hundreds of other names on these lists.[91] Sensitive information regarding the Japanese occupation of Korea is often difficult to obtain. Many argue that this is due to the fact that the Government of Japan has gone out of its way to cover up many incidents that would otherwise lead to severe international criticism.[89] [90] [92] On their part, Koreans have often expressed their abhorrence of Human experimentations carried out by the Imperial Japanese Army where people often became fodder as human test subjects in such macabre experiments as liquid nitrogen tests or biological weapons development programs (See articles: Unit 731 and Shiro Ishii). Though some vivid and disturbing testimonies have survived, they are largely denied by the Japanese Government even to this day. Today cover-ups by Japan and other countries such as Britain are slowly exposed as more thorough investigations are conducted. "Britain and Japan tried to keep secret one of the worst war crimes of WWII." The reason for the cover-up was because the British ministers wanted to end the war crimes trial early in order to maintain good relations with Japan to prevent the spread of communism.[93]

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List of major incidents

Alexandra Hospital massacre Andaman Islands occupation Banka Island massacre Bataan Death March Burma Railway Changjiao massacre Changteh chemical weapon attack Comfort women Hell ships Kaimingye germ weapon attack Kalagong massacre Korea under Japanese rule Laha massacre Manila massacre Nanking Massacre

Palawan Massacre Parit Sulong Massacre

Japanese war crimes Panjiayu tragedy Sandakan Death Marches Sook Ching massacre Three Alls Policy Tol Plantation massacre Unit 100 Unit 200 Unit 516 Unit 543 Unit 731 Unit 773 Unit Ei 1644 Unit 1855 Unit 2646 Unit 8604 Unit 9420 Wake Island massacre

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War crimes in Manchukuo

See also
Allied war crimes during World War II Anti-Japanese sentiment Command responsibility Japan-China Joint Declaration On Building a Partnership of Friendship and Cooperation for Peace and Development Japanese fascism Japanese militarism Japanese nationalism Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China Ken Yuasa List of war crimes Statism in Shwa Japan List of war apology statements issued by Japan 2005 anti-Japanese demonstrations

Japanese war crimes

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References
Books
Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare, Frog Ltd, 1999. ISBN 1-883319-85-4 ISBN 0-7567-5698-7 ISBN 0-8264-1258-0 ISBN 0-8264-1415-X Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Trials. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000. Bayly, C.A. & Harper T. Forgotten Armies. The Fall of British Asia 1941-5 (London: Allen Lane) 2004 Bix, Herbert. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. New York: HarperCollins, 2000. Bergamini, David. Japan's Imperial Conspiracy, William Morrow, New York, 1971. Brackman, Arnold C. The Other Nuremberg: the Untold Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trial. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1987. Chang, Iris. The Rape of Nanking, Perseus books LLC, 1997. ISBN 0-465-06835-9 Cook, Haruko Taya; Theodore F. Cook (1993). Japan at War: An Oral History. New Press. ISBN 1-56584-039-9.- Compilation of interviews with Japanese survivors of World War II, including several who describe war crimes that they were involved with. Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: New Press, 1999. Dower, John W. (1987). War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 0-394-75172-8. Endicott, Stephen and Edward Hagerman. The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-253-33472-1 Frank, Richard B. (1999). Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire. New York: Penguin Books. Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony, Charles E Tuttle Co., 1996. ISBN 4-900737-39-9 Handelman, Stephen and Ken Alibek. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the WorldTold from Inside by the Man Who Ran It, Random House, 1999. ISBN 0-375-50231-9 ISBN 0-385-33496-6 Harries, Meirion; Susie Harries (1994). Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-75303-6. Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman. A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Random House, 2002. ISBN 0-8129-6653-8 Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45 and the American Cover-Up, Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0-415-09105-5 ISBN 0-415-93214-9 Holmes, Linda Goetz (2001). Unjust Enrichment: How Japan's Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Using American POWs. Mechanicsburg, PA, USA: Stackpole Books. Horowitz, Solis. "The Tokyo Trial" International Conciliation 465 (November 1950), 473-584. Kratoksa, Paul (2005). Asian Labor in the Wartime Japanese Empire: Unknown Histories. M.E. Sharpe and Singapore University Press. ISBN 0765612631. Lael, Richard L. (1982). The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes and Command Responsibility. Wilmington, Del, USA: Scholarly Resources. Latimer, Jon, Burma: The Forgotten War, London: John Murray, 2004. ISBN 0-7195-6576-6

Japanese war crimes Lord, of Liverpool Russell (2006). The Knights of Bushido: A Short History of Japanese War Crimes. Greenhill Books. ISBN 1-85367-651-9. Maga, Timothy P. (2001). Judgment at Tokyo: The Japanese War Crimes Trials. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-2177-9. Minear, Richard H. (1971). Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press. Neier, Aryeh. War Crimes: Brutality, Genocide, Terror and the Struggle for Justice," Times Books, Random House, New York, 1998. Piccigallo, Philip R. (1979). The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations in the East, 1945-1951. Austin, Texas, USA: University of Texas Press. Rees, Laurence. Horror in the East, published 2001 by the British Broadcasting Company Seagrave, Sterling & Peggy. Gold warriors: Americas secret recovery of Yamashitas gold, Verso Books, 2003. ISBN 1-85984-542-8 Sherman, Christine (2001). War Crimes: International Military Tribunal. Turner Publishing Company. ISBN 1563117282.-Detailed account of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East proceedings in Tokyo Tsurumi, Kazuko (1970). Social change and the individual;: Japan before and after defeat in World War II. Princeton, USA: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09347-4. Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II, Free Press, 1989. ISBN 0-02-935301-7 Yamamoto, Masahiro (2000). Nanking: Anatomy of an Atrocity. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-96904-5.- A rebuttal to Iris Chang's book on the Nanking massacre.

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Audio/visual media
Minoru Matsui (2001), Japanese Devils, documentary with interview of veteran soldiers from the Imperial Japanese Army (Japanese Devils shed light on a dark past, CNN, http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2002/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ east/ 04/ 07/ japan. devils/ index. html, Japanese Devils, Midnight Eye, http:/ / www. midnighteye. com/ reviews/ japdevil. shtml) The History Channel. Japanese War Crimes: Murder Under The Sun [Video documentary (DVD & VHS)]. A & E Home Video.

External links
Battling Bastards of Bataan
[94]

"Biochemical Warfare - Unit 731". Alliance for Preserving the Truth of Sino-Japanese War. [95] No date. "Cannibalism". Dan Ford, "Japan at War, 1931-1945" [96] September 2007. "Confessions of Japanese war criminals". [97] No date. Chalmers Johnson, "The Looting of Asia" [98] in London Review of Books, 2003-11-20 "History of Japan's biological weapons program" [99] Federation of American Scientists, 2000-04-16 Ji Man-Won's website (in Korean) [100] Various dates. Justin McCurry, "Japan's sins of the past" [101] in The Guardian, 2004-10-28 "Nanking 1937" [102], Princeton University, 1997-11-09 Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group (IWG) [103] U.S. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). No date. "No Riot Apology" [104] Sky News (UK), 2005-04-17

Japanese war crimes "The Other Holocaust" [105] No date. "Rape of Queen MIN" [106] 2002 R.J. Rummel, "Statistics Of Japanese Democide: Estimates, Calculations, And Sources" [113] University of Hawaii, 2002 Shane Green. "The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731" [107] in The Age, 2002-08-29 "Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama" [108] 1995-08-15 "Synopses of Yokohama Trials of War Crimes against Japanese Defendants (UC Berkeley WCSC)" [109] Steven Butler, "A half century of denial: the hidden truth about Japan's unit 731" [110] in US News & World Report 1995-07-31 Borneman, John. "Can Public Apologies Contribute to Peace? An Argument for Retribution [111]" (PDF). Cornell University. http:/ / condor. depaul. edu/ ~rrotenbe/ aeer/ v17n1/ Borneman. pdf. Retrieved 2006-07-29. Fasces Japan labor camp of Nishimatsu
[112]

132

Imperial Japanese Army special research units Unit 100 (Shenyang) | Unit 516 (Qiqihar) | Unit 543 (Hailar) | Unit 731 (Pingfang) / Unit 200 (Manchuria) / Unit 8604 or Nami Unit (Guangzhou) | Unit 773 (Songo) | Unit Ei 1644 (Nanjing) | Unit 1855 (Nanjing) | Unit 2646 or Unit 80 (Hailar) | Unit 9420 or Oka Unit (Singapore)

References
[1] Blumenthal, Ralph (March 7, 1999). " The World: Revisiting World War II Atrocities; Comparing the Unspeakable to the Unthinkable (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9B05E6DB153FF934A35750C0A96F958260& sec=& spon=& partner=permalink& exprod=permalink)". The New York Times. . Retrieved 2008-07-26. [2] " (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ low/ in_depth/ 39166. stm)". BBC News Online. December 13, 1997. . Retrieved 2008-07-26. [3] Sanger, David (October 22, 1992). " Japanese Edgy Over Emperor's Visit to China (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9E0CE1D81439F931A15753C1A964958260)". . Retrieved 2008-07-26. [4] China Weekly Review October 22, 1938 (http:/ / www2u. biglobe. ne. jp/ ~sus/ crime@q. htm) [5] Nuremberg Tribunal (October 1, 1946). " Judgment: The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ imt/ proc/ judlawre. htm)". Yale Law School. . Retrieved 2008-07-26. [6] See, for example: Wai Keng Kwok, 2001, "Justice Done? Criminal and Moral Responsibility Issues In the Chinese Massacres Trial Singapore, 1947" (http:/ / yale. edu/ gsp/ publications/ WaiKeng. doc) (Genocide Studies Program Working Paper No. 18, Yale University), p. 27. Access date: April 23, 2007. [7] Chang, Maria Hsia; Barker, Robert P. (2003), "Victor's Justice and Japan's Amnesia", in Peter, Li, Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice, Transaction Publishers, pp.44, ISBN 0765808900 [8] Lippman, Matthew (January 1, 2004). " The history, development, and decline of crimes against peace (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa5433/ is_200401/ ai_n21362456/ pg_1?tag=artBody;col1)". George Washington International Law Review 36 (5): 25. . Retrieved 2008-07-26. [9] " Under Japanese law, 14 at Yasukuni not criminals: Abe (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20061007a4. html)". The Japan Times. October 7, 2006. . Retrieved 2008-07-26. [10] See, for example, Yutaka Kawasaki, Was the 1910 Annexation Treaty Between Korea and Japan Concluded Legally? Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, v.3, no. 2 (July 1996) (http:/ / www. murdoch. edu. au/ elaw/ issues/ v3n2/ kawasaki. html) Access date: February 15, 2007. [11] See, for example: Craig Symonds, War, Politics, and Grand Strategy in the Pacific, 1941-1945, Air University Review, November-December 1979 (http:/ / www. airpower. maxwell. af. mil/ airchronicles/ aureview/ 1979/ nov-dec/ symonds. html) (Access date: February 15, 2007): most American historians, date the war from December 1941. See also Edward Drea, "Introduction", in Edward Drea, Greg Bradsher, Robert Hanyok, James Lide, Michael Petersen & Daqing Yang, 2006, Researching Japanese War Crimes Records (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ iwg/ japanese-war-crimes/ introductory-essays. pdf) (National Archives and Records Administration, Washington D.C.; p. 15): "The atrocities at Nanjing occurred four years before the United

Japanese war crimes

States entered the war. At that time, the U.S. government did not have a large military or diplomatic intelligence network in China. A handful of trained military or embassy personnel reported on events, sometimes second-hand; compared with the sensational press coverage, the official U.S. documentation was scant. As a result, with the exception of the records produced during the postwar Class A war crimes trial of the commanding general of Japanese forces deemed responsible for the Rape of Nanking, there are few materials on this subject at the National Archives." See also, Ben-Ami Shillony, "Book Review, Book Title: A History of Japan, 1582-1941 Internal and External Worlds, Author: L. M. Cullen Professor of History, Trinity College, Dublin", (Institute of Historical Research, February 2004) (http:/ / www. history. ac. uk/ reviews/ paper/ shillonyBA. html) (Access date: February 15, 2007); Grant K. Goodman, "Review 'The Kempei Tai in the Philippines: 1941-1945' by Ma. Felisa A. Syjuco" Pacific Affairs, v. 64, no. 2 (Summer, 1991), pp. 282-283 (Access date: February 15, 2007); United Nations Human Rights Committee, "Fifty-Ninth Session, 24 March 11 April 1997, Decisions, Communication No. 601/1994" (April 3, 1997) (http:/ / www1. umn. edu/ humanrts/ undocs/ html/ IDEC601. HTM) (Access date: February 15, 2007); Gary K. Reynolds, 2002, U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II: The Issue of Compensation by Japan(Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, December 17, 2002) (http:/ / www. house. gov/ bordallo/ gwcrc/ RL30606. pdf) Access date: February 15, 2007). [12] de Jong, Louis (2002) [2002]. The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206. translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press (http:/ / www. kitlv. nl). pp.40, 42, 45, 203204, 305307, 311312, 328, 373374, 386, 391, 393, 429, 488. ISBN 90 6718 203 6. [13] Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, Japanese War crimes in WW II, pp 72-3 [14] " German-POW camp reveals little-known history of Japan (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0XPQ/ is_/ ai_59198009)". Kyodo News. January 31, 2000. . Retrieved 2008-10-20. [15] " Japanese POW camp was a little slice of home (http:/ / www. taipeitimes. com/ News/ feat/ archives/ 2004/ 03/ 23/ 2003107480)". Agence France-Presse. March 23, 2004. . Retrieved 2008-10-20. [16] de Jong, Louis (2002) [2002]. The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206. translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press (http:/ / www. kitlv. nl). pp.289 311 417. ISBN 90 6718 203 6. [17] Johnson, Looting of Asia (http:/ / www. lrb. co. uk/ v25/ n22/ john04_. html) [18] Yuki Tanaka, 1996, Hidden Horrors, p.23. [19] Akira Fujiwara, Nitch Sens ni Okeru Horyo Gyakusatsu, Kikan Sens Sekinin Kenky 9, 1995, p.22 [20] Tanaka, ibid., Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p.360 [21] Rummell, Statistics (http:/ / www. hawaii. edu/ powerkills/ SOD. CHAP3. HTM) [22] China's Bloody Century (http:/ / www. hawaii. edu/ powerkills/ NOTE2. HTM) [23] Chang, p. 102 [24] Byrd, Gregory Dean, General Ishii Shiro: His Legacy is that of a Genius and Madman (http:/ / etd-submit. etsu. edu/ etd/ theses/ available/ etd-0403105-134542/ unrestricted/ ByrdG042805f. pdf), p. ? (PDF document) [25] GlobalSecurity.org, 2005 "Biological Weapons Program" (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ world/ japan/ bw. htm). Downloaded November 26, 2006 [26] Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity, 2004, p.xii, 173. [27] Christopher Hudson (2 March 2007). " Doctors of Depravity (http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ pages/ live/ articles/ news/ news. html?in_article_id=439776& in_page_id=1770)". Daily Mail. . [28] (http:/ / www. pacificwrecks. com/ people/ visitors/ moskow/ face. html) [29] The Denver Post, June 1, 1995, cited by Gary K. Reynolds, 2002, "U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II: The Issue of Compensation by Japan" (Library of Congress) (http:/ / www. house. gov/ bordallo/ gwcrc/ RL30606. pdf) [30] BBC "Japanese doctor admits POW abuse" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 6185442. stm) Downloaded November 26, 2006, 12:52 GMT [31] Kyodo News Agency, "Ex-navy officer admits to vivisection of war prisoners in Philippines," reported in Yahoo! Asia News: (http:/ / asia. news. yahoo. com/ 061125/ kyodo/ d8lk5da00. html) [32] [Vivisectionist recalls his day of reckoning". Japan Times. 2007-10-24. p. 3. 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[36] de Jong, Louis (2002) [2002]. "III Starvation in the Indies". The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206. translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press (http:/ / www. kitlv. nl). pp.227281. ISBN 90 6718 203 6. [37] "Vietnam needs to remember famine of 1945" (http:/ / mailman. anu. edu. au/ pipermail/ hepr-vn/ 2008-August/ 000188. html) [38] Dower, John W. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (1986; Pantheon; ISBN 0-394-75172-8) [39] de Jong, Louis (2002) [2002]. The collapse of a colonial society. The Dutch in Indonesia during the Second World War. Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 206. translation J. Kilian, C. Kist and J. Rudge, introduction J. Kemperman. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press (http:/ / www. kitlv. nl). pp.167 170173 181184 196 204225 309314 323325 337338 341 343 345346 380 407. ISBN 90 6718 203 6. [40] Haruko Taya Cook & Theodore F. Cook, Japan at War 1993 ISBN 1-56584-039-9, p. 153 [41] Tanaka, Hidden horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II, Westview press, 1996, p.127. [42] Lord Russell of Liverpool (Edward Russell), The Knights of Bushido, a short history of Japanese War Crimes, Greenhill books, 2002, p.236. [43] Ibid., p.121. [44] ''Case No. 21 Trial Of General Tomoyuki Yamashita[,] United States Military Commission, Manila, (8 October-7 December, 1945), and the Supreme Court Of The United States (Judgments Delivered On 4 February, 1946). Part VI (http:/ / www. ess. uwe. ac. uk/ WCC/ yamashita6. htm) (Retrieved on December 18, 2006); Jeanie M. Welch, "Without a Hangman, Without a Rope: Navy War Crimes Trials After World War II", International Journal of Naval History, v.1, No. 1, April 2002, p.5-6 (http:/ / www. pegc. us/ archive/ Articles/ welch_naval_MCs. pdf) [45] Zhifen Ju, Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the pacific war, 2002 [46] links for research, Allied POWs under the Japanese (http:/ / www. mansell. com/ pow_resources/ links. html) [47] Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942-50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942-45" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/ cstdy:@field(DOCID+ id0029)) Access date: February 9, 2007. [48] Fujiwara, Nitch sens ni okeru horyo gyakusatsu, 1995 [49] CNN.com - Japanese comfort women ruling overturned - March 29, 2001 (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2001/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ east/ 03/ 29/ japan. comfort. women. 02/ ) [50] Yoshiaki Yoshimi, 2001-02, Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II. Columbia University Press [51] Washington Post, "Japan's Abe: no proof of WWII sex slaves" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 03/ 01/ AR2007030100578. html) [52] New York Times, "No comfort", March 6, 2007. http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 03/ 06/ opinion/ 06tues3. html, accessed March 8, 2007 [53] Washington Post, Ibid. [54] Evidence documenting sex-slave coercion revealed (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20070418a5. html) [55] Files: Females forced into sexual servitude in wartime Indonesia http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20070512a6. html [56] East Timor former sex slaves speak out http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20070428f1. html [57] Todd Cardy, 2007, "Japanese PM's denial upsets 'comfort woman'" (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ story/ 0,23599,21327548-2,00. html) (News.com.au; March 5, 2007). Access date: March 7, 2007) [58] China Daily. Memoir of comfort woman tells of 'hell for women' (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ world/ 2007-07/ 06/ content_911759. htm) [59] http:/ / archives. cnn. com/ 2001/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ east/ 03/ 29/ japan. comfort. women/ index. htm & http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ nation/ articles/ 2006/ 10/ 15/ congress_backs_off_of_wartime_japan_rebuke/ [60] Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan (http:/ / english. chosun. com/ w21data/ html/ news/ 200703/ 200703190023. html) [61] Abe ignores evidence, say Australia's 'comfort women' (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ world/ abe-ignores-evidence-say-australias-comfort-women/ 2007/ 03/ 02/ 1172338881441. html) [62] Yoshimi, ibid., http:/ / hnn. us/ articles/ printfriendly/ 9954. html, http:/ / www. jpri. org/ publications/ workingpapers/ wp77. html and http:/ / hnn. us/ articles/ 13533. html] [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=10155 [63] U.S. Panel OKs sex slave resolution, http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20070628a1. html

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[64] U.S. House passes sex slave resolution | The Japan Times Online (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20070801a1. html) [65] Kenneth B. Lee, 1997, Korea and East Asia: The Story of a Phoenix, Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group; Sterling & Peggy Seagrave, 2003, Gold warriors: Americas secret recovery of Yamashitas gold, London: Verso Books (ISBN 1-85984-542-8); Chalmers Johnson "The Looting of Asia" (London Review of Books, v. 25 no. 22, November 20, 2003) (http:/ / www. lrb. co. uk/ v25/ n22/ john04_. html) and; Takashi Yoshida, 2006, The Making of the "Rape of Nanking": History and Memory in Japan, China, and the United States, New York: Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19518-096-8). [66] Dower, John (2000). Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II, p. 447 [67] Kumao Toyoda, Senso saiban yoroku, 1986, p.170172, H. Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2000, p.583, 584 [68] Dower,Embracing defeat, 1999, p.326 [69] Dower, Hirohito, p.562. [70] Bix, Hirohito, p.585, 583 [71] The Korea Times, "Truth Commission Should Be Truthful", Michael Breen, http:/ / times. hankooki. com/ lpage/ opinion/ 200611/ kt2006111619251454330. htm [72] " Harry S. Truman - Executive Order 10393 - Establishment of the Clemency and Parole Board for War Criminals (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=78495)". . Retrieved 2009-04-13. [73] Maguire, Peter H.. Law and War (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=87H1R-OqlZ4C& pg=PA255& lpg=PA255& dq=parole+ war+ criminals& source=bl& ots=0uU61QeZzH& sig=bvilPZ8pipSUI7BRjuLwgsrq9k4& hl=en& ei=BCTkSb2nCY_ItAPCqrSvCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4#PPA255,M1). p.255. . [74] Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (quoted on the Taiwan Documents Project), Joint Communiqu of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China, (http:/ / www. taiwandocuments. org/ japan01. htm) [75] " PBS. Online NewsHour: I'm Sorry - December 1, 1998 (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ newshour/ bb/ asia/ july-dec98/ china_12-1. html)". . [76] " Japan's Abe Denies Proof of World War II Sex Slaves (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ aponline/ world/ AP-Japan-Sex-Slaves. html?ref=world)", New York Times (Associated Press), March 1, 2007., , retrieved March 1, 2007 [77] Tabuchi, Hiroko, " Japan's Abe: No Proof of WWII Sex Slaves (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 03/ 01/ AR2007030100578. html)", Washington Post, , retrieved March 1, 2007 [78] " Tamogami ups Nationalist rhetoric (http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20081112a1. html)". . [79] http:/ / www. apa. co. jp/ book_report/ images/ 2008jyusyou_saiyuusyu_english. pdf Text of original essay [80] Freeman, Laurie A., "Japan's Press Clubs as Information Cartels," Japan Policy Research Institute, (April, 1996), (http:/ / www. jpri. org/ publications/ workingpapers/ wp18. html). Discusses impending visit in 1990 to Japan by Korean president Roh Tae Woo in which Japanese cabinet secretary Ozawa Ichiro reportedly said, "it is because we have reflected on the past that we cooperate with Korea economically. Is it really necessary to grovel on our hands and knees and prostrate ourselves any more than we already have?". This alleged remark is called the dogeza hatsugen (prostration comment). [81] Facing History and Ourselves, Willy Brandt's Silent Apology, (http:/ / www. facinghistory. org/ Campus/ Memorials. nsf/ 0/ DC396F572BD4D99F85256FA80055E9B1). [82] www.cornell.edu (http:/ / cunews. cornell. edu/ Chronicle/ 99/ 4. 22. 99/ death-of-fathers. html) [83] Borneman, Can Public Apologies Contribute to Peace? (http:/ / condor. depaul. edu/ ~rrotenbe/ aeer/ v17n1/ Borneman. pdf) [84] McCormack, Gavan, "Difficult Neighbors: Japan, North Korea and the Quest for a New East Asian Order," Modern Asia Series, Harvard University Asia Center (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070628095340/ http:/ / www. fas. harvard. edu/ ~asiactr/ Archive+ Files/ McCormack+ MAS+ MAY+ 2004. pdf), (May 3, 2004), Access date: December 8, 2007. [85] http:/ / www. findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_qa3680/ is_200307/ ai_n9253436 [86] . Official homepage of US Congressman of 15th district California. http:/ / www. house. gov/ apps/ list/ press/ ca15_honda/ comfortwomentestimony. html, accessed March 8, 2007 [87] [Linda Goetz Holmes, Unjust Enrichment: How Japan's Companies Built Postwar Fortunes Using American POW's, http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ print/ rc20090222a4. html [88] Fujiwara, Shwa tenn no j-go nen sens, Aoki Shoten, 1991, p.122 [89] BBC NEWS | World | Asia-Pacific | Korean WWII sex slaves fight on (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ 4749467. stm) [90] The Seoul Times. Ex-sex slave narrates: "Japan Boiled Comfort Woman to Make Soup". Japanese Army Ran "Comfort Woman System" (http:/ / theseoultimes. com/ ST/ ?url=/ ST/ db/ read. php?idx=1846)

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[91] Digital Chosunilbo (English Edition) : Daily News in English About Korea. Military Record of 'Comfort Woman' Unearthed (http:/ / english. chosun. com/ w21data/ html/ news/ 200501/ 200501110028. html) [92] http:/ / goldsea. com/ Asiagate/ 609/ 17wartime. html [93] http:/ / search. japantimes. co. jp/ cgi-bin/ nn20081017a3. html [94] http:/ / home. pacbell. net/ fbaldie/ Battling_Bastards_of_Bataan. html [95] http:/ / www. sjwar. org [96] http:/ / www. warbirdforum. com/ cannibal. htm [97] http:/ / www. centurychina. com/ wiihist/ confess/ index. html [98] http:/ / www. lrb. co. uk/ v25/ n22/ john04_. html [99] http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ guide/ japan/ bw/ [100] http:/ / www. systemclub. co. kr/ [101] http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ elsewhere/ journalist/ story/ 0,7792,1338296,00. html [102] http:/ / www. princeton. edu/ ~nanking/ html/ nanking_gallery. html [103] http:/ / www. archives. gov/ iwg/ [104] http:/ / www. sky. com/ skynews/ article/ 0,,30200-13331097,00. html [105] http:/ / www. skycitygallery. com/ japan/ japan. html [106] http:/ / www. kimsoft. com/ 2002/ jp-rape. htm [107] http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ articles/ 2002/ 08/ 28/ 1030508070534. html [108] http:/ / www. mofa. go. jp/ announce/ press/ pm/ murayama/ 9508. html [109] http:/ / socrates. berkeley. edu/ ~warcrime/ Japan/ Yokohama/ Reviews/ PT-yokohama-index. htm [110] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061119053825/ http:/ / www. technologyartist. com/ unit_731/ [111] http:/ / condor. depaul. edu/ ~rrotenbe/ aeer/ v17n1/ Borneman. pdf [112] http:/ / hb5. seikyou. ne. jp/ home/ ykkwhr/ yasunani. htm

136

Military production during World War II

Military production during World War II was a critical component to military performance during WWII. Over the course of the war, the Allied countries outproduced the Axis countries in most categories of weapons.

During World War II, women worked in factories throughout much of the Western and Eastern United States.

Military production during World War II

137

Gross domestic product (GDP)

This table shows the relationships in Gross domestic product (GDP), between a selection of Allied and Axis countries, from 1938 to 1945, counted in billion international dollars and 1990 prices.

This chart shows the relationship in GDP between the Allied and the Axis during 1938-1945.

Country Austria France[1] Germany Italy[2] Japan[3] Soviet Union[4] UK USA[5] Allied Total:[6] Axis Total:[7] Allied/Axis GDP:[8]

1938 24 186 351 141 169 359 284 800 1629 685 2.38

1939 27 199 384 151 184 366 287 869 1600 746 2.15

1940 27 164 387 147 192 417 316 943 1331 845 1.58

1941 29 130 412 144 196 359 344 1094 1596 911 1.75

1942 27 116 417 145 197 274 353 1235 1862 902 2.06

1943 28 110 426 137 194 305 361 1399 2065 895 2.31

1944 29 93 437 117 189 362 346 1499 2363 826 2.86

1945 12 101 310 92 144 343 331 1474 2341 466 5.02

Notes on the table (remember that the distribution values are rough estimates): 1. ^ France-Axis distribution: 1940: 56%, 1941-43: 100%, 1944: 58%. 2. ^ Italy distribution: 1938-1943: 100% Axis, 1944-1945: 100% Allies 3. ^ Japanese values are included in Axis totals for all years in order to illustrate potential contribution

Military production during World War II 4. ^ Soviet Union-Allies distribution: 1939: Only 67% due to the pact with Germany, but none to Axis. During 1940 Soviet Union is not counted at all. 1941: 44% is distributed to the Allies (after Operation Barbarossa), 1942-1945: 100%. 5. ^ US values are included in Allied totals for all years in order to illustrate potential contribution & Lend-Lease 6. ^ The Allied total is not the immediate sum of the table values; see the distribution rules used above. 7. ^ The Axis total is not the immediate sum of the table values; see the distribution rules used above. 8. ^ Allied/Axis GDP: This row shows the relation in GDP between the Allies and the Axis; i.e. 2.00 means the Allied production was 2 times larger than the Axis. Please note that only a selection of countries are included in the table. The distribution of values into alliances is described in the previous notes. Table data source: Harrison, Mark, "The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison", Cambridge University Press (1998).

138

Summary of production
System Allies Axis Tanks and SP guns 227,235 52,345 Artillery 914,682 180,141 Mortars 657,318 100,000+ Machineguns 4,744,484 1,058,863 Military trucks 3,060,354 594,859 Military aircraft total 633,072 278,795 Fighter aircraft 212,459 90,684 Attack aircraft 37,549 12,539 Bomber aircraft 153,615 35,415 Reconnaissance aircraft 7,885 13,033 Transport aircraft 43,045 5,657 Training aircraft 93,578 28,516 Aircraft carriers 155 16 Battleships 13 7 Cruisers 82 15 Destroyers 814 86 Convoy escorts 1,102 Submarines 422 1,336 Merchant shipping tonnage 33,993,230 5,000,000+ Pillboxes, bunkers (steel, concrete - uk only - 72,128,141 tonnes Estimate Concrete runways - 10,000,000 tonnes Note that most Battleships and Cruisers were produced before the war and many served through its entirety.

Military production during World War II

139

Production by country
Vehicles and ground weapons

US propaganda during World War II, urging citizens to increase production.

Tanks and self-propelled guns 1. Soviet Union = 105,251 (92,595) 2. United States = 88,410 (71,067) 3. Germany = 67,429 (43,920) 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. United Kingdom = 27,896 Canada = 5,678 Japan = 2,515 Italy = 2,473 Hungary = 500
Soviet T-34

Note: Number in parenthesis equals the number of tanks and self-propelled guns equipped with main weapons of 75mm calibre or larger. Smaller producing countries do not have this differentiation.

Military production during World War II Artillery Artillery includes anti-aircraft and anti-tank weapons with calibres above 37mm. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Soviet Union = 516,648 United States = 257,390 Germany = 159,147 United Kingdom = 124,877 Japan = 13,350 Canada = 10,552 Italy = 7,200 Other Commonwealth = 5,215 Hungary = 447

140

Mortars (over 60 mm) 1. 2. 3. 4. Soviet Union = 200,300 United States = 105,055 United Kingdom = 102,950 Germany = 73,484

5. Commonwealth = 46,014 Machineguns Machineguns do not include sub-machineguns, or machine guns used for arming aircraft. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. United States = 2,679,840 Soviet Union = 1,477,400 Germany = 674,280 Japan = 380,000 United Kingdom = 297,336 Canada = 251,925 Other Commonwealth = 37,983 Hungary = 4,583

Military trucks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. United States = 2,382,311 Canada = 815,729 United Kingdom = 480,943 Germany = 345,914 Soviet Union = 197,100 Japan = 165,945 Italy = 83,000
German Panzer III

Aircraft

Military production during World War II Military aircraft of all types 1. United States = 324,750 2. United Kingdom = 131,549 3. Soviet Union = 157,261 4. Germany = 119,307 5. Japan = 76,320 6. Canada = 16,431 7. Italy = 11,122 8. France (09/39 - 06/40) = 4,016 9. Other Commonwealth = 3,081 10. Hungary = 1,046 11. Romania = 1,000 Fighter aircraft 1. United States = 99,950 2. Soviet Union = 63,087 3. Germany = 55,727 4. 5. 6. 7. United Kingdom = 49,422 Japan = 30,447 Italy = 4,510 France (09/39 - 06/40): 1,597

141

= 542 MS.406 + 437 D.520+ 518 MB.151+ 80 C.714 + 20 VG-33

Attack aircraft 1. Soviet Union = 37,549 2. Germany = 12,539 3. France (09/39 - 06/40) = 280 Bomber aircraft 1. 2. 3. 4. United States = 97,810 United Kingdom = 34,689 Soviet Union = 21,116 Germany: 18,449[9] = 214 Ar 234 + 475 Do 17 + 1,366 Do
217 + 5,656 He 111 + 1,146 He 177 + 9,122 Ju 88 + 466 Ju 188 + 4 Ju 388

5. Japan = 15,117 6. Italy = 2,063 7. France (09/39 - 06/40) = 712

American B-17 Flying Fortress

Transport aircraft 1. United States = 23,929 2. Soviet Union = 17,332 3. Germany = 3,079 4. Japan = 2,110 5. United Kingdom = 1,784[10] 6. Italy = 468

Military production during World War II Training aircraft 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. United States = 57,623 United Kingdom = 31,864 Japan = 15,201 Germany = 11,546 Soviet Union = 4,061 Italy = 1,769

142

Naval ships
Aircraft carriers 1. 2. 3. 4. United States = 22 (141) Japan = 16 United Kingdom = 14 Germany = 0 None completed by the end of the war. Two were in production , Graf Zeppelin and Flugzeugtrger B. 5. Italy = 0 None completed by the end of the war. One was in production , see Aquila . Figure in parentheses indicates merchant vessels converted to Escort carriers. Battleships 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. United States = 8 United Kingdom = 5 Italy = 3 Japan = 2 Germany = 2
American Essex class aircraft carrier.

Cruisers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. United States = 48 United Kingdom = 32 Japan = 9 Italy = 6 Soviet Union = 2

Destroyers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. United States = 349 United Kingdom = 240 Japan = 63 Soviet Union = 25 Germany = 17 Italy = 6

Military production during World War II Convoy escorts 1. 2. 3. 4. United States = 420 United Kingdom = 413 Canada = 191 Germany = 23

143

Submarines 1. Germany = 1,141[11] 2. United States = 203[11] 3. 4. 5. 6. Japan = 167 United Kingdom = 167 Soviet Union = 52 Italy = 28
American Fletcher class destroyer.

Merchant tonnage 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. United States = 33,993,230 United Kingdom = 6,378,899 Japan = 4,152,361 Canada = 3,742,100 Commonwealth = 2,702,943 Italy = 1,469,606

Large Scale Civil Engineering Construction

Concrete bunkers and pillboxes Estimate - uk only - 72,128,141 tonnes of steel and concrete germany-132,685,348 tonnes of steel and concrete Concrete runways 10,000,000 tonnes
[12]

Materials
Coal In millions of metric tons 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Germany = 2,420.3 United States = 2,149.7 United Kingdom = 1,441.2 Soviet Union = 590.8 Japan = 184.5 Canada = 101.9 Italy = 16.9 Hungary = 6.6 Romania = 1.6

Military production during World War II Iron Ore In millions of metric tons 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. United States = 396.9 Germany = 240.7 United Kingdom = 119.2 Soviet Union = 71.3 Japan = 21.0 Hungary = 14.1 Romania = 10.8 Italy = 4.4 Canada = 3.6

144

Crude Oil In millions of metric tonnes 1. United States = 833.2 2. Soviet Union = 110.6 3. United Kingdom = 90.8 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Germany = 33.4 (including 23.4 synthetic) Romania = 25.0 Canada = 8.4 Japan = 5.2 Hungary = 3.1

See also
American armored fighting vehicle production during World War II Army-Navy E Award German armored fighting vehicle production during World War II Italian aircraft production 1935 to 1945 Rosie the Riveter

Soviet armored fighting vehicle production during World War II World War II aircraft production World War II

References
GDP values: Harrison, Mark, "The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison", Cambridge University Press (1998). Milward, Alan S., "War, economy, and society, 1939-1945", University of California Press (1979). Overy, Richard, "Why the Allies Won (Paperback)", W. W. Norton & Company; Reprint edition (1997). Barnett, Correlli, "The audit of war : the illusion & reality of Britain as a great nation", Macmillan, (1986). 'Gross Domestic Product' 1940

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External links
Allies and Lend-Lease Museum, Moscow [13] Canada's WWII Industry & Production [14]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Military_production_during_world_war_ii#endnote_France http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Military_production_during_world_war_ii#endnote_Italy http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Military_production_during_world_war_ii#endnote_Japan http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Military_production_during_world_war_ii#endnote_SovietUnion http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Military_production_during_world_war_ii#endnote_USA http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Military_production_during_world_war_ii#endnote_AlliedGDP http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Military_production_during_world_war_ii#endnote_AxisGDP http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Military_production_during_world_war_ii#endnote_RelGDP NOTE: The number of Nazi Germany bomber aircraft does not include more than 3,172 operational V-2 rockets and approximately 10,000 operational V-1 unmanned aircrafts used by for bombing [10] By agreement, the UK drew most of its transport aircraft, excepting converted bombers, from the US allowing it to concentrate on production of bombers [11] Wagner, Kennedy, Osborne, and Reyburn. The Library of Congress World War II Companion (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0bRaa7UuD6EC& pg=RA1-PA202& dq=submarine+ production+ world+ war+ II#PRA1-PA203,M1). pp 202-203. [12] http:/ / energydiscussiongroup. wikispaces. com/ file/ view/ war+ tonnages. xls An estimate of the rates of production carried out in WW2 as a guide to how quickly a crash programme of renewables could be built by comparison. [13] http:/ / www. lend-lease. ru [14] http:/ / www. wwii. ca/ page17. html

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Home front during World War II

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The home front is the name given to the activities of the civilians when their nation is at war. Since World War II could be described as total war, homeland production became even more invaluable to both the Allied and Axis powers. Life on the home front during World War II was a significant part of the war effort for all participants and had a major impact on the outcome of the war. During the war, Government became involved with their respective home fronts to educate them on how to protect themselves, their country, and aid the war effort. Nations routinely used propaganda to influence the civilian population. Frequently, women were needed to work during this period because the men were at war.

U.S. Government Publicity photo of American machine tool worker in Texas.

Overview
The major powers devoted 5061% of their total GDP to war production at the peak in 1943. The Allies produced about three times as much in munitions as the Axis powers.

Munitions Production in World War II

Country/Alliance 1935-9 ave U.S.A. Britain U.S.S.R 0.3 0.5 1.6 1940 1.5 3.5 5.0 1941 4.5 6.5 8.5 Year 1942 20.0 9.0 11.5 1943 38.0 11.0 14.0 1944 42.0 11.0 16.0 Total 193944 106.3 41.5 56.6

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2.4 2.4 0.4 2.8 10.0 6.0 1.0 7.0 20.0 6.0 2.0 8.0 41.5 8.5 3.0 11.5 64.5 13.5 4.5 18.0 70.5 17.0 6.0 23.0 204.4 53.4 16.9 70.3

Allies Total Germany Japan Axis Total

Source: Goldsmith data in Harrison (1988) p. 172

Real Value Consumer Spending

Country 1937 Japan Germany USA 100 100 100 1939 107 108 96 1940 109 117 103 1941 111 108 108 Year 1942 108 105 116 1943 99 95 115 1944 93 94 118 1945 78 85 122

Source: Jerome B Cohen, Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruction (1949) p 354

Allies
Poland
Jews in Warsaw Ghetto: 1943 On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, conquering it in three weeks, as the Soviets invaded the eastern areas. During the German occupation, there were two distinct civilian uprisings in Warsaw, one in 1943, the other in 1944. The first took place in an entity, less than two square miles in area, which the Germans carved out of the city and called "Ghetto Warschau." Into the thus created Ghetto, around which they built high walls, the Germans crowded 550,000 Polish Jews, many from the Polish provinces. At first, people were able to go in and out of the Ghetto, but soon the Ghetto's border became an "iron curtain." Unless on official business, Jews could not leave it, and non-Jews, including Germans, could not enter. Entry points were guarded by German soldiers. Because of extreme conditions and hunger, mortality in the Ghetto was high. Additionally, in 1942, the Germans moved 400,000 to Treblinka where they were gassed on arrival. When, on April 19, 1943, the Ghetto Uprising commenced, the population of the Ghetto had dwindled to 60,000 individuals. In the following three weeks, virtually all died as the Germans fought to put down the uprising and systematically destroyed the buildings in the Ghetto. [1] Warsaw Uprising of 1944 The uprising by Poles began on August 1, 1944 when the Polish underground, the "Home Army," aware that the Soviet Army had reached the eastern bank of the Vistula, sought to liberate Warsaw much as the French resistance had liberated Paris a few weeks earlier. Stalin had his own group of Communist leaders for the new Poland and did not want the Home Army or its Catholic leaders (based in London) to control Warsaw. So he halted the Soviet offensive and gave the Germans free rein to suppress it. During the ensuing 63 days, 250,000 Poles of the Home Army surrendered to the Germans. After the Germans forced all the surviving population to leave the city, Hitler ordered that any buildings left standing be dynamited and 98% of buildings in Warsaw were destroyed.[2]

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United Kingdom
See Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II. The UK's total mobilization during this period proved to be successful in helping topple the Axis Powers, but carried a steep cost postwar. Public opinion strongly supported the war, and the level of sacrifice was high. The war was a "people's war" that enlarged democratic aspirations and produced promises of a postwar welfare state. Munitions In mid-1940, the R.A.F. was called on to fight the Battle of Britain but it had suffered serious losses. It lost 458 aircraftmore than current productionin France and was hard pressed. The government decided to concentrate on only five types of aircraft in order to optimize output. They were Wellingtons, Whitley V's, Blenheims, Hurricanes, and Spitfires. They received extraordinary priority. Covering the supply of materials and equipment and even made it possible to divert from other types the necessary parts, equipments, materials and manufacturing resources. Labour was moved from other aircraft work to factories engaged on the specified types. Cost was not an object. The delivery of new fighters rose from 256 in April to 467 in Septembermore than enough to cover the lossesand Fighter Command emerged triumphantly from the Battle of Britain in October with more aircraft than it had possessed at the beginning. [3] Rationing Food, clothing, petrol, leather and other such items were rationed. However, items such as sweets and fruits were not rationed, as they would spoil. Access to luxuries was severely restricted, though there was also a significant black market. Families also grew victory gardens, and small home vegetable gardens, to supply themselves with food. Many things were conserved to turn into weapons later, such as fat for nitroglycerin production. People in the countryside was less affected by rationing as they had greater access to locally sourced unrationed products than people in metropolitan areas and were more able to grow their own. Evacuation From very early in the war, it was thought that the major industrial cities of Britain, especially London in the south east, would come under Nazi German Luftwaffe air attack, which did happen with The Blitz. Some children were sent to Canada, the USA and Australia and millions of children and some mothers were evacuated from London and other major cities when the war began under government plans for Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II, but they often filtered back. When the Blitz bombing began in September 1940, they evacuated again. The discovery of the poor health and hygiene of evacuees was a shock to many Britons, and helped prepare the way for the Beveridge Report. [4] Children were evacuated if their parents agreed but in some cases they did not have a choice. The children were only allowed to take a few things with them, including a gas mask, books, money, clothes, ration book and some small toys.

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Soviet Union
During rapid German advances in the early months of the war, nearly reaching the cities of Moscow and Leningrad, the bulk of Soviet industry which could not be evacuated was either destroyed or lost due to German occupation. Agricultural production was interrupted, with grain harvests left standing in the fields that would later cause hunger reminiscent of the early 1930s. In one of the greatest feats of war logistics, industries were evacuated on an enormous scale, with 1523 factories dismantled and shipped eastwards along four principal routes to the Caucasus, Central Asian, Ural and Siberian regions.[5] In general, the tools, dies and production technology were moved, along with the blueprints and their management, engineering staffs and skilled labour. The whole of the Soviet Union become dedicated to the war effort. Conditions were severe. In Leningrad, under German siege, over a million people died of starvation and disease. Many factory workers were teenagers, women and old people. Despite harsh conditions, the war led to a spike in Soviet nationalism and unity. Soviet propaganda toned down socialist rhetoric of the past as the people now rallied by a belief of protecting their motherland against the evils of German invaders. Ethnic minorities thought to be collaborators were forced into exile. Religion, which was previously shunned, became a part of Communist Party propaganda campaign in the Soviet society.

United States
See United States home front during World War II.

China
China suffered the second highest number of casualties of the entire war. Civilians in the occupied territories had to endure many large-scale massacres, including the Nanking Massacre. In a few areas, Japanese forces also unleashed newly developed biological weapons on Chinese civilians leading to an estimated 200,000 dead [6] . Tens of thousands are thought to have died when Nationalist troops broke the levees of the Yangtze to stop the Japanese advance after the loss of the Chinese capital, Nanking. Millions more Chinese died because of famine during the war. Millions of Chinese moved to the Western regions of China to avoid Japanese invasion. Cities like Kunming ballooned with new arrivals. Entire factories and universities were often taken along for the journey. Japan captured major coastal cities like Shanghai early in the war; cutting the rest of China off from its chief source of finance and industry. The city of Chongqing became the most frequently bombed city in history.
[7]

Though China received aid from the United States, China did not have sufficient infrastructure to properly arm or even feed its military forces, let alone civilians. Much of the aid was also funneled away through corruption. Communist forces led by Mao were based mainly in Northern China and employed guerilla tactics against the Japanese. However, it is now felt that they were at most minimally involved in the Japanese resistance.. In occupied territories under Japanese control, civilians were treated harshly.

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India
With the massive demands of manpower for the British Indian Army fighting in European, African and Burmese theaters of war, there was a shortage of able bodied men for agriculture. The British were also afraid the Bengali plains might fall into Japanese hands, so cultivation of border areas was prevented, all rice stocks were moved back towards Kolkata, and there was forced procurement of rice for the war effort in Europe. This led to severe food shortages, made worse by maladministration, culminating in the Bengal famine of 1943 in which 3 million Indian civilians are said to have perished.[8] With the British recruiting Indian soldiers in large numbers as well as the Japanese recruiting Indian expatriates into the Indian National Army (INA), a state of civil war existed on the east Indian border with Indians killing Indians. This, in turn, led to civilians who supported either the British or the INA rioting against each other.

Canada
Canada joined the war efforts on September 10, 1939. This was a week after Britain joined because of the Statute of Westminster, which meant Canada had to vote before entering a war. With the war going on in Europe and Asia, Canada didn't have any major problems in building supplies for the war other than switching factories to make war equipment. Many factories were set up which helped increase the employment rate. More or less out of range of Axis attacks, Canada became one of the largest trainers of pilots for the Allies. Many Canadian men joined the war efforts, so with the men overseas and industries pushing to increase production, women took up positions to aide in the war effort. Women At this time of war many supplies were needed and there was a low supply of goods. Women took the initiative to recycle and salvage in order to come up with needed supplies. They gathered recycled goods, handed out information on the best methods to use that one may get the most out of recycled goods and organized many other events to decrease the amount of waste. Volunteer organizations led by women also, prepared packages for the military overseas or for prisoners of war in Axis countries. With World War II came the dire need for employees in the workplace, without women to step in the economy would have collapsed. By autumn 1944 the number of women working full-time in Canadas paid labour force was twice what it had been in 1939, and that figure of between 1,000,000 and 1,200,000 did not include part-time workers or women working on farms.[9] Women had to take on this intensive labour and while they did this they still had to find time to make jams, clothes and other such acts of volunteering to aid the men overseas.

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Axis
Germany
Germany had not fully mobilized in 1939, nor even in 1941. Not until 1943 under Albert Speer did Germany finally redirect its entire economy and manpower to war production. Economy Although Germany had about double the population of Britain (80 million versus 40 million), it had to use far more labour to provide food and energy. Britain imported food and employed only a million people (5% of labour force) on farms, while Germany used 11 million (27%). For Germany to build its twelve synthetic oil plants with a capacity of 3.3 million tons a year required 2.4 million tons of structural steel and 7.5 million man-days of labour. (Britain imported all its oil from Iraq, Persia and North America). To overcome this problem, Germany employed millions of forced laborers and POWs; by 1944, they had brought in more than five million civilian workers and nearly two million prisoners of wara total of 7.13 million foreign workers. Rationing For the first part of the war, there were surprisingly few restrictions on civilian activities. Most goods were freely available in the early years of the war. Rationing in Germany was introduced in 1939, slightly later than it was in Britain, because Hitler was at first convinced that it would affect public support of the war if a strict rationing program was introduced. The Nazi popularity was in fact partially due to the fact that Germany under the Nazis was relatively prosperous, and Hitler did not want to lose popularity or faith. Hitler felt that food and other shortages had been a major factor in destroying civilian morale during World War I which led to the overthrow of the Kaiser and other German monarchies at the end of the war. However, when the war began to go against the Germans in Russia and the Allied bombing effort began to affect domestic production, this changed and a very severe rationing program had to be introduced. The system gave extra rations for men involved in heavy industry, and lower rations for Jews and Poles in the areas occupied by Germany, but not to the Rhineland Poles. The points system According to a 1997 post by Walter Felscher to the Memories of the 1940's [sic] electronic mailing list: "For every person, there were rationing cards for general foodstuffs, meats, fats (such as butter, margarine and oil) and tobacco products distributed every other month. The cards were printed on strong paper, containing numerous small "Marken" subdivisions printed with their value for example, from "5 g Butter" to "100 g Butter". Every acquisition of rationed goods required an appropriate "Marken", and if a person wished to eat a certain soup at a restaurant, the waiter would take out a pair of scissors and cut off the required items to make the soup and amounts listed on the menu. In the evenings, shop-owners would spend an hour at least gluing the collected "Marken" onto large sheets of paper which they then had to hand in to the appropriate authorities."
[10]

Home front during World War II Rare foods The amounts available under rationing were sufficient to live from, but clearly did not permit luxuries. Whipped cream became unknown from 1939 until 1948, as well as chocolates, cakes with rich crmes etc., and meat, of course, could not be eaten every day. Other items were not rationed, but simply became unavailable as they had to be imported from overseas: coffee in particular which throughout was replaced by substitutes made from roasted grains. Vegetables and local fruit were not rationed; imported citrus fruits and bananas were unavailable. In more rural areas, farmers continued to bring their products to the markets, as large cities depended on long distance delivery. Because coffee was scarce, people created a substitute for it made from roasted ground down barley seeds and acorns. Many people kept rabbits for their meat when meat became scarce in shops, and it was often a childs job to care for them each day. Labour Women were idealized by Nazi ideology and work was not felt to be appropriate for them. Children were expected to go to houses collecting materials for the production of war equipment. The German industry used forced labour, called Arbeitseinsatz from the countries they occupied.

152

Japan Japanese Rice Supply

Year Domestic production Imports All rice 1937 9,928 1938 9,862 1939 10,324 1940 9,107 1941 8,245 1942 9,999 1943 9,422 1944 8,784 1945 6,445

2,173 12,101

2,546 12,408

1,634 11,958

1,860 10,967

2,517 10,762

2,581 12,580

1,183 10,605

874 9,658

268 6,713

See also
Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II Rosie the Riveter Women's Land Army Female roles in the World Wars Utility furniture Lotta Svrd Squander Bug

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References
Sources
Cohen, Jerome (1949). Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruction. University of Minnesota Press. online version [11]. Davies, Norman (2004). Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw. Vikiing. ISBN 0-67003284-0. Gutman, Israel (1994). Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-039560199-0. Hancock, W. K. and Gowing, M.M. (1949). British War Economy: History of the Second World War: United Kingdom Civil Series. London: HMSO and Longmans, Green & Co. Available on-line at: British War Economy [12]. Harrison, Mark (1988). "Resource Mobilization for World War II: The U.S.A., UK, USSR and Germany, 1938-1945". In: Economic History Review, (1988): pp 17192. Postan, Michael (1952). British War Production: History of the Second World War: United Kingdom Civil Series. London: HMSO and Longmans, Green & Co. Available on-line at: British War Production [13]. Titmuss, Richard M. (1950). Problems of Social Policy: 'History of the Second World War: United Kingdom Civil Series. London: HMSO and Longmans, Green & Co. Available on-line at: Problems of Social Policy [14].

Further reading
General WWII Homefront [15] - Collection of color photographs of the homefront during World War II Beck, Earl R. The European Home Fronts, 1939-1945 Harlan Davidson, 1993, brief Costello, John. Love, Sex, and War: Changing Values, 1939-1945 1985. US title: Virtue under Fire: How World War II Changed Our Social and Sexual Attitudes I.C.B. Dear and M.R.D. Foot, eds. The Oxford Companion to World War II (1995), detailed articles on every country Harrison, Mark. "Resource Mobilization for World War II: The U.S.A., UK, USSR and Germany, 1938-1945". Economic History Review (1988): 171-92. Higonnet, Margaret R., et al., eds. Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars Yale UP, 1987. Loyd, E. Lee, ed.; World War II in Europe, Africa, and the Americas, with General Sources: A Handbook of Literature and Research Greenwood Press. 1997. 525pp bibliographic guide Loyd, E. Lee, ed.; World War II in Asia and the Pacific and the War's aftermath, with General Themes: A Handbook of Literature and Research Greenwood Press, 1998 Marwick, Arthur. War and Social Change in the Twentieth Century: A Comparative Study of Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States 1974. Milward, Alan. War, Economy and Society 1977 covers homefront of major participants Noakes, Jeremy ed., The Civilian in War: The Home Front in Europe, Japan and the U.S.A. in World War II Exeter, UK: University of Exeter, 1992. Wright, Gordon. The Ordeal of Total War 1968., covers all of Europe 10 Eventful Years: 1937-1946 4 vol. Encyclopedia Britannica, 1947. Highly detailed encyclopedia of events in every country.

Home front during World War II Nissen, Henrik S. Scandinavia During the Second World War (1983) (ISBN 0-8166-1110-6) Australia and New Zealand S.J. Butlin and C.B. Schedvin, War Economy 19421945, Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1997 Darian-Smith, Kate. On the Home Front: Melbourne in Wartime, 1939-1945. Australia: Oxford UP, 1990. Saunders, Kay. War on the Homefront: State Intervention in Queensland, 1938-1948 (1993) The Home Front Volume I by Nancy M. Taylor [16] NZ official history (1986) The Home Front Volume II by Nancy M. Taylor [17] NZ official history (1986) Political and External Affairs by Frederick Lloyd Whitfeld (1958) [18] NZ official history Britain Brivati, Brian, and Harriet Jones, ed. What Difference Did the War Make? The Impact of the Second World War on British Institutions and Culture. Leicester UP; 1993. Calder, Angus . The People's War: Britain 1939-45 (1969) Corelli, Barnett. The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as a Great Nation. 1986. Hancock, W. K. and Gowing, M.M. (1949) British War Economy (official History of the Second World War). London: HMSO and Longmans, Green & Co. Available on line at: British War Economy [12]. Hancock, W. K. (1951) Statistical Digest of the War (official History of the Second World War). London: HMSO and Longmans, Green & Co. Available on line at: Statistical Digest of the War [19]. Harris, Carol (2000). Women at War 1939-1945: The Home Front. Thrupp: Sutton Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-7509-2536-1. Marwick, Arthur (1976). The Home Front: The British and the Second World War. . Postan, Michael (1952) British War Production (official History of the Second World War). London: HMSO and Longmans, Green & Co. Available on line at: British War Production [13]. Rose, Sonya O. (2003) Which People's War?: National Identity and Citizenship in Wartime Britain 1939-1945 Titmuss, Richard M. (1950) Problems of Social Policy. (official History of the Second World War). London: HMSO and Longmans, Green & Co. Available on line at: Problems of Social Policy [14] official history Canada Buch, Mary and Carolyn Gossage. (1997). Props on Her Sleeve: The Wartime Letters of a Canadian Airwoman. Toronto: Dundurn Press. Cottam, J. Kazimiera. (1988). Women in War and Resistance. Nepean, Ontario: New Military Publishing. Granatstein, J. L. Canada's War: The Politics of the Mackenzie King Government. Oxford UP, 1975. Granatstein, J. L., and Desmond Morton. A Nation Forged in Fire: Canadians and the Second World War, 1939-1945 1989. Keshen, Jeffrey A. Saints, Sinners, and Soldiers: Canada's Second World War (2004)

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Home front during World War II Latta, Ruth. (1992). The Memory of All That: Canadian Women Remember World War II. Burnstown, Ontario: The General Store Publishing House Inc.. Pierson, Ruth Roach. They're Still Women After All: The Second World War and Canadian Womanhood. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1986. China Eastman Lloyd. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 19371945. Stanford University Press, 1984 John Fairbank and Albert Feuerwerker, eds., Republican China 1912-1949 in The Cambridge History of China, vol. 13, part 2. Cambridge University Press, 1986. James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine, eds. China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 19371945 M. E. Sharpe, 1992 Ch'i Hsi-sheng, Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 19371945 University of Michigan Press, 1982 France Gildea, Robert. Marianne in Chains: Daily Life in the Heart of France During the German Occupation (2004) Jackson, Julian. France: The Dark Years, 1940-1944 (2003) Paxton, Robert O. Vichy France 2nd ed. (2001) Germany Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (2000) Hagemann, Karen and Stefanie Schler-Springorum; Home/Front: The Military, War, and Gender in Twentieth-Century Germany Berg, 2002 Kalder N. "The German War Economy". Review of Economic Studies 13 (1946): 33-52. Victor Klemperer. I Will Bear Witness 1942-1945: A Diary of the Nazi Years (2001), memoir by partly-Jewish professor Milward, Alan. The German Economy at War 1965. Overy, Richard. War and Economy in the Third Reich Oxford UP, 1994. Speer, Albert. Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs 1970. Italy Absalom, R, "Italy", in J. Noakes (ed.), The Civilian in War: The Home Front in Europe, Japan and the U.S.A. in World War II. Exeter: Exter University Press. 1992. Tracy Koon, Believe, Obey, Fight: Political Socialization in Fascist Italy 1922-1943 (U North Carolina Press, 1985), Morgan, D. Italian Fascism, 1919-1945 (1995) Wilhelm, Maria de Blasio. The Other Italy: Italian Resistance in World War II. W. W. Norton, 1988. 272 pp. Japan Cohen, Jerome. Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruction. University of Minnesota Press, 1949. online version [11] Cook, Haruko Taya, and Theodore Cook. Japan at War: An Oral History 1992. Dower, John. Japan in War and Peace 1993. Duus Peter, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie. The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931-1945. Princeton UP 1996. 375p. Havens, Thomas R. Valley of Darkness: The Japanese People and World War II. 1978.

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Home front during World War II Havens, Thomas R. "Women and War in Japan, 1937-1945." American Historical Review 80 (1975): 913-934. online in JSTOR Poland Davies, Norman. Rising '44: The Battle for Warsaw (2004) Gross, Jan T. Polish Society under German Occupation: The Generalgouvernement, 1939-1944. Princeton UP, 1979. Gross, Jan T. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (1988). Gutman, Israel. Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (1998) Redlich, Shimon. Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919-1945. Indiana U. Press, 2002. 202 pp. Soviet Union Barber, Bo, and Mark Harrison. The Soviet Home Front: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II, Longman, 1991. Braithwaite, Rodric. Moscow 1941: A City and Its People at War (2006) Thurston, Robert W., and Bernd Bonwetsch (Eds). The People's War: Responses to World War II in the Soviet Union (2000) Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule. Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp. Dallin, Alexander. Odessa, 1941-1944: A Case Study of Soviet Territory under Foreign Rule. Portland: Int. Specialized Book Service, 1998. 296 pp. Vallin, Jacques; Mesl, France; Adamets, Serguei; and Pyrozhkov, Serhii. "A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses During the Crises of the 1930s and 1940s." Population Studies (2002) 56(3): 249-264. Issn: 0032-4728 Fulltext in Jstor. Reports life expectancy at birth fell to a level as low as ten years for females and seven for males in 1933 and plateaued around 25 for females and 15 for males in the period 1941-44. Norway Andenaes, Johs, et al. Norway and the Second World War (ISBN 82-518-1777-3) Oslo: Johan Grundt Tanum Forlag, 1966. Salmon; Patrick (Ed.) Britain and Norway in the Second World War London: HMSO, 1995. United States Bard, Mitchell, Ph.D. (1999). Complete Idiots Guide to World War II. United States of America: Alpha Books. Berkin, Carol R. and Clara M. Lovett. (1980). Women, War, & Revolution. London: Holmes and Meier Publishers. Philippines Agoncillo Teodoro A. The Fateful Years: Japan's Adventure in the Philippines, 1941-1945. Quezon City, PI: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co., 1965. 2 vols Hartendorp A. V.H. The Japanese Occupation of the Philippines. Manila: Bookmark, 1967. 2 vols. Lear, Elmer. The Japanese Occupation of the Philippines: Leyte, 1941-1945. Southeast Asia Program, Department of Far Eastern Studies, Cornell University, 1961. 246p. emphasis on social history

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Home front during World War II Steinberg, David J. Philippine Collaboration in World War II. University of Michigan Press, 1967. 235p.

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External links
Home Front (London) Project - Eastside Community Heritage
[20]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Gutman (1998) Davies (2004) Postan (1952), Chapter 4. Titmuss (1950) p.70, Bishop Staff. Biological Weapons Program (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ wmd/ world/ japan/ bw. htm) website of GlobalSecurity.org (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ org/ overview/ history. htm) cites Peter Williams and David Wallace, Unit 731: Japans Secret Biological Warfare in World War II (New York: Free Press, 1989). and a number of UTLa most of which are no longer active [7] Chngqng (http:/ / www. cs. albany. edu/ ~lance/ china/ chongqing. htm). Blog site. This needs to be clarified in terms of number of air raids this is true (5,000) - but not in terms of tonnage - probably < 10,000 tons. [8] Gordon, Leonard A., Review of Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943-1944 by Greenough, Paul R., The American Historical Review, Vol. 88, No. 4 (Oct., 1983), p. 1051 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1874145) [9] Pierson, Ruth Roach. (1986). Theyre Still Women After All, The Second World War and Canadian Womanhood. Ontario: McClelland & Stewart Inc. 9. [10] Walter Felscher (1997-01-27). " Recycling and rationing in wartime Germany. (http:/ / www. youth. net/ memories/ hypermail/ 0313. html)". Memories of the 1940's mailing list archive (http:/ / www. youth. net/ memories/ welcome. html). . Retrieved 2006-09-28. [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=97828046 http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ hyperwar/ UN/ UK/ UK-Civil-WarEcon/ http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ hyperwar/ UN/ UK/ UK-Civil-WarProduction/ index. html http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ hyperwar/ UN/ UK/ UK-Civil-Social/ index. html http:/ / www. ww2incolor. com/ gallery/ homefront http:/ / www. nzetc. org/ tm/ scholarly/ tei-WH2-1Hom-c1. html http:/ / www. nzetc. org/ tm/ scholarly/ tei-WH2-2Hom. html http:/ / www. nzetc. org/ tm/ scholarly/ tei-WH2Poli. html http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ hyperwar/ UN/ UK/ UK-Civil-Stats/ index. html http:/ / www. hidden-histories. org. uk/ projects/ home-front

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Collaboration during World War II

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During World War II Nazi Germany occupied all or parts of the following countries: Poland, Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Yugoslavia, Greece, the Soviet Union, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Egypt and Italy. The term "Collaboration" was coined by Marshall Philippe Ptain, who proclaimed the Vichy regime in July 1940 and actively supported Collaborationism with Nazi Germany. Nationalism, ethnic hatred, anti-communism, anti-Semitism and opportunism induced some citizens of occupied nations to knowingly help the German Nazis in their tasks of repression and domination. Some of these collaborators committed the worst crimes and atrocities of the Holocaust.[1] Collaboration ranged from urging the civilian population to remain calm and accept foreign occupation without conflict, organizing trade, production, financial and economic support to joining various branches of the armed forces of Axis powers or special "national" military units fighting under their command.

Reasons for collaboration

There were various reasons for collaboration with the Nazi authorities: fear for one's life (many Soviet prisoners of war volunteered to serve under the German command in order to escape Nazi prison camps, notorious for starving the Soviet prisoners to death); believing that Germany would win the war and thus it would be better to be on the winning side; attempting to avoid conflict with the German occupational forces (such as in Denmark); seeking short-term goals, such as a better-paid job with higher privileges; ability to legally take revenge against former personal enemies; and pure Nazism and antisemitism; also, some people hoped for a stronger united Europe. Hatred of Stalinism, and disgust of the Soviet system contributed greatly to the collaboration in the USSR. The Nazis failed to capitalize on this sentiment, and slowly much of this anti-Soviet sentiment reversed itself and cooperation with the Germans in the east began to diminish. The "anti-Bolshevik" forces changed sides again, and thought it would be

Collaboration during World War II better to be on the other winning side, or in short, their earlier "opportunism", reversed itself. In the case of brutally colonised nations, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines, the Axis Powers (notably Japan) served as popularly welcomed fellow Asian liberators from the inhuman Apartheid-like, wholesale theft, violently repressive American, Dutch and British white colonial regimes, who had forcibly dispossessed the natives of their lands, human rights and wealth, most especially for imported willing Colonial collaborators; specifically ethnic Chinese and Indians.

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Requirements for collaboration

The Nazis did not consider everyone equally fit for cooperation. Even people from closely related nations were often valued differently in accordance with Nazi racial theories. The Jews were considered to be worst of all nations and thus unfit for cooperation, although some were used in concentration camps as Kapos to report on other prisoners and enforce order. Others governed ghettos and helped organize deportations to extermination camps (Jewish Ghetto Police).

By country
Albania
In April 1943 Reichsfuhrer-SS Heinrich Himmler created 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian) manned by Albanian volunteers and Kosovar Albanians. From August 1944, the division participated in operations against Yugoslav partisans and local Serbs. The discipline in the division was poor and in the beginning of 1945 it was disbanded. The emblem of the division was a black Albanian eagle. [2] During the Axis occupation, some of the Albanian Chams set up their own administration and militia, part of the fascist Balli Kombetar and XILIA organizations, at Thesprotia and collaborated actively with both the Italians and then the Germans, committing a number of crimes.[3]

Belarus
Belorussian collaborators participated in various massacres of Belarusian villagers. Many of these collaborators retreated with German forces in the wake of the Red Army advance, and in January 1945, formed the 30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Belarussian).

Belgium
373rd infantry battalion of Wehrmacht, manned by Belgians, took part in anti-guerrilla actions in the occupied territory of the USSR from August 1941 to February 1942. In May 1943 the battalion was transformed into the 5th SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade Wallonien and sent to the Eastern Front. In the autumn the brigade has been transformed into 28th SS Volunteer Grenadier Division Wallonien. Its remains surrendered to British troops in the final days of war. Flemish Belgian collaborators were organized first into the 6th SS Volunteer Brigade and later the 27th SS Infantry (Grenadier) Division. Flemish Belgians served in the German forces from July 1941 until the end of the war.

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Bosnia
The 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS (also known as the 1st Croatian or Handschar division), manned by Bosniaks and Croats, but commanded by German officers, was created in February 1943. The division participated in anti-guerrilla operations in Yugoslavia. [2] By 1944, most of the division defected to the Yugoslav partisans.

Central Asia
The Turkestan legion was the general name for the units of Central Asian exiles and POWs who fought on the side of Germany during the war.

Channel Islands
The Channel Islands were the only British territory in Europe occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. The policy of the Island governments, acting under instructions from the British government communicated before the occupation, was one of passive co-operation, although this has been criticised[4] , particularly in the treatment of Jews in the islands. These measures were administered by the Bailiff and the Aliens Office.[5] "In Britain the administrators and the police in the Channel Islands who had helped with the deportation of Jews continued to work in their old positions, and some of them even received the Order of the British Empire for the bravery they had shown in the war years."
[6]

Following the liberation of 1945 allegations against those accused of collaborating with the occupying authorities were investigated. By November 1946, the UK Home Secretary was in a position to inform the UK House of Commons[7] that most of the allegations lacked substance and only 12 cases of collaboration were considered for prosecution, but the Director of Public Prosecutions had ruled out prosecutions on insufficient grounds. In particular, it was decided that there were no legal grounds for proceeding against those alleged to have informed to the occupying authorities against their fellow-citizens.[8] In Jersey and Guernsey, laws[9] [10] were passed to retrospectively confiscate the financial gains made by war profiteers and black marketeers, although these measures also affected those who had made legitimate profits during the years of military occupation. During the occupation, cases of women fraternising with German soldiers had aroused indignation among some citizens. In the hours following the liberation, members of the British liberating forces were obliged to intervene to prevent revenge attacks.[11]

China
The Empire of Japan set up several puppet states in China. The first Japanese puppet in China was Manchukuo led by former Chinese emperor Pu-Yi established after Japanese took over Manchuria in early 1930s. With the Japanese advance in China more puppet regimes were established: Mengjiang in 1936, Provisional Government of the Republic of China in 1937 and Reformed Government of the Republic of China in 1938. The two latter were merged into Nanjing Nationalist government in 1940 and recently defected Chinese politician Wang Jingwei was put as the leader of the puppet regime. The government recruited troops from local population who were supplied by the Japanese. The army had as much as 2 million soldiers at peak, which was greater than the Japanese army in China, unique in WW2. Great number of collaborationist troops were men originally serving in National Revolutionary Army who had defected when facing both Communists and Japanese

Collaboration during World War II as enemies. Although it's manpower was very large, the soldiers were very ineffective compared to NRA soldiers due to low morale for being considered as "Hanjian". The Wang Jingwei government was disbanded after Japanese surrender to Allies in 1945, and Manchukuo and Mengjiang were destroyed by Soviet troops in the invasion of Manchuria.

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Denmark
At 4:15 in the morning of 9 April 1940 (Danish standard time), German forces crossed the border into neutral Denmark, in direct violation of a German-Danish treaty of non-aggression signed the previous year. After two hours the Danish government surrendered, believing that resistance was useless and hoping to work out an advantageous agreement with Germany. As a result of the cooperative attitude of the Danish authorities, German officials claimed that they would "respect Danish sovereignty and territorial integrity, as well as neutrality."[12] The German authorities were inclined towards lenient terms with Denmark for several reasons. These factors allowed Denmark a very favorable relationship with Nazi Germany. The government remained intact and the parliament continued to function more or less as it had before. They were able to maintain much of their former control over domestic policy.[13] Danish public opinion generally backed the new government, particularly after the fall of France in June 1940. [14] There was a general feeling that the unpleasant reality of German occupation must be confronted in the most realistic way possible, given the international situation. Newspaper articles and news reports "which might jeopardize German-Danish relations" were outlawed. [15] After the assault on the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa, Denmark joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, together with the fellow Nordic state of Finland; the Communist Party was banned in Denmark. Industrial production and trade was, partly due to geopolitical reality and economic necessity, redirected toward Germany. Many government officials saw expanded trade with Germany as vital to maintaining social order in Denmark.[16] Increased unemployment and poverty was feared to lead to more of open revolt within the country, since Danes tended to blame all negative developments on the Germans. It was feared that any revolt would result in a crackdown by the German authorities.[17] In return for these concessions, the Danish cabinet rejected German demands for legislation discriminating against Denmark's Jewish minority. Demands to introduce the death penalty were likewise rebuffed and so were German demands to allow German military courts jurisdiction over Danish citizens. Denmark also rejected demands for the transfer of Danish army units to German military use. Throughout the years of its hold on power, the government consistently refused to accept German demands regarding the Jews.[18] The authorities would not enact special laws concerning Jews, and their civil rights remained equal with those of the rest of the population. German authorities became increasingly exasperated with this position but concluded that any attempt to remove or mistreat Jews would be "politically unacceptable."[19] Even the Gestapo officer Dr. Werner Best, plenipotentiary in Denmark from November 1942, believed that any attempt to remove the Jews would be enormously disruptive to the relationship between the two governments and recommended against any action concerning the Jews of Denmark. On the 29th of June, 1941, days after the invasion of the USSR, Frikorps Danmark (Free Corps Denmark) was founded as a corps of Danish volunteers to fight against the Soviet Union. Frikorps Danmark was set up at the initiative of the SS and DNSAP who approached

Collaboration during World War II Lieutenant-Colonel C.P. Kryssing of the Danish army shortly after the invasion of the USSR had begun. The Nazi paper Fdrelandet proclaimed the creation of the corps on 29 June 1941.[20] According to Danish law, it was not illegal to join a foreign army, but active recruiting on Danish soil was illegal. The SS disregarded this law and began recruiting efforts predominantly recruiting Danish Nazis and members of the German-speaking minority.[21]

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Estonia
Estonian branch of Sicherheitspolizei[22] , the 286th, 287th and 288th Estonian Police Battalions, and 2.54 % of Estonian Omakaitse (Home Guard) civilian defence units (approximately between 1000 and 1200 men) were directly involved in criminal acts, taking part in the round-up, guarding or killing of 4001000 Roma people and 6000 Jews in the concentration camps of Pskov region of Russia and Jgala, Vaivara, Klooga, and Lagedi camps in Estonia.[23] Guarded by the above listed formations, 15,000 Soviet POW died in Estonia, part of them because of neglect and mistreatment and part executed.[23]

France
The Vichy government, headed by Marshall Philippe Ptain and Pierre Laval, actively collaborated in the extermination of the European Jews. It also participated in Porrajmos, the extermination of Rom people, and in the extermination of other "undesirables." Vichy opened up a series of concentration camps in France where it interned Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, political opponents, etc. Directed by Ren Bousquet, the French police helped in the deportation of 76,000 Jews to the extermination camps. In 1995 President Jacques Chirac officially recognized the responsibility of the French state for the deportation of Jews during the war, in particular during the July 1942 Vel'd'hiv raid, during which Laval decided, by his own, to deport children along with their parents. Only 2,500 of the deported Jews survived the war. The 1943 Battle of Marseille was another event during which the French police assisted French Waffen SS recruitment poster. the Gestapo in a massive raid, which included an urban reshaping plan involving the destruction of a whole neighborhood in the popular Old Port. Some few collaborators were judged in the 1980s for crimes against humanity (Paul Touvier, etc.), while Maurice Papon, who had become after the war prefect of police of Paris (a function in which he illustrated himself during the 1961 Paris massacre) was convicted in 1998 for crimes against humanity. He had been Budget Minister under President Valry Giscard d'Estaing. Other collaborators, such as Emile Dewoitine, managed to have important functions after the war (Dewoitine was eventually named head of Arospatiale, the firm which created the Concorde plane). Debates concerning state collaboration remain, in 2008, very strong in France. The French volunteers formed the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism and the Legion Imperiale, in 1945 the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st

Collaboration during World War II French), which was among the final defenders of Berlin. Brittany Breton nationists such as Olier Mordrel and Franois Debeauvais had longstanding links with Nazi Germany because of the their fascist and Nordicist ideologies, linked to the belief that the Bretons were a "pure" Celtic branch of the Aryan-Nordic race. At the outbreak of the war they left France and declared support for Germany. After 1940 they returned and their supporters such as Clestin Lain and Yann Goulet organized militias that worked in collaboration with the Germans. Lain and Goulet later took refuge in Ireland.

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Greece
After the German invasion of Greece, a Nazi-held puppet government was established in Athens. The three quisling prime ministers (Georgios Tsolakoglou, Konstantinos Logothetopoulos and Ioannis Rallis) cooperated with the Axis authorities. Besides, Greek National-Socialist parties (such as the Greek National Socialist Party) or anti-semitic organisations (such as the National Union of Greece) helped German authorities fight the Resistance and identify and deport Greek Jews. Moreover, special armed collaborationist forces (such as the Security Battalions) were created to aid the collaborationist regime. About 1,000 Greeks from Greece and thousands of Greeks from the Soviet Union, avenging their prosecution from Soviet authorities, joined the Waffen-SS, especially in Ukrainian divisions. A special case is that of the infamous Sevastianos Foulidis, a Greek who was an official of the Wehrmacht as well as an effective spy at the Abwehr.

Hungary
Hungary was a war ally and then puppet state of Nazi Germany. The Hungarians played an active role in the murder of about 23,600 Jews (14,00018,000 of whom were from Hungary) in Kamenets-Podolsk in the late August 1941.[24] and in 1942 raid in Novi Sad. Radical Hungarian governments mainly the puppet government of Dme Sztjay, appointed after the German occupation actively participated in the Holocaust. The Arrow Cross Party was a Hungarian Nazi party led by Ferenc Szlasi which ruled Hungary from October 15, 1944 to January 1945 following the German SS coup in Budapest. During its short rule, 80,000 Jews were deported from Hungary to their deaths. Out of 825,000 Hungarian Jews before the war, only 260,000 survived.

India
The Legion Freies Indien, or Indische Freiwilligen Infanterie Regiment 950 (also known as the Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS) was created in August 1942, chiefly from disaffected Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army, captured by the Axis in North Africa. Many, if not most, of the Indian volunteers who switched sides to fight with the German Army and against the British were strongly nationalistic supporters of the exiled, anti-British, former president of the Indian National Congress, Netaji (the Leader) Subhash Chandra Bose. (See also the Tiger Legion and Indian National Army)

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Indonesia
Among Indonesians to receive Japanese imperial honours from Hirohito in November 1943 were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta. Sukarno actively recruited and organised Indonesian Romusha forced labour.[25] They succeeded respectively to become the founding President of the Republic of Indonesia and Vice President of the Republic of Indonesia in August 1945.

Italy
The Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) was a client state of Nazi Germany led by the "Leader of the Nation" (Duce) and "Minister of Foreign Affairs" Benito Mussolini. The RSI exercised official sovereignty in northern Italy but was largely dependent on the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) to maintain control. The state was informally known as the "Sal Republic" (Repubblica di Sal) because the RSI's Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Mussolini) was headquartered in Sal, a small town on Lake Garda. The Italian Social Republic was the second and last incarnation of a Fascist Italian state.

Iraq
The short-lived Iraqi government of Rashid Ali was anti-British and was supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

Latvia
Having occupied Latvia in summer 1941, German command, capitalizing on Latvian anti-Soviet sentiments, created the local voluntary troops (Schutzmannschaft or Schuma), to fight the Soviet partisans and serve as guards in concentration camps for Jews and Soviet prisoners of war. The group of the Latvian auxiliary police known as Arjs Commando murdered about 26,000 Jews, mainly in November and December 1941.[26] The Nuremberg Trials, in declaring the Waffen SS a criminal organisation, explicitly excluded conscripts, who had committed no crimes.[27] In 1950, The U.S. High Commission in Germany and the U.S. Displaced Persons Commission clarified the U.S. position on the Baltic Waffen SS Units, considering them distinct from the German SS in purpose, ideology, activities, and qualifications for membership.

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Lithuania
Prior to the German invasion, some leaders in Lithuania and in exile believed Germany would grant the country autonomy along the lines of the status of the Slovakia protectorate. German intelligence Abwehr believed it had control of the Lithuanian Activist Front, a pro-German organization based in the Lithuanian embassy in Berlin. The German Nazis allowed Lithuanians to form the Provisional Government, but did not recognize it diplomatically and did not allow Lithuanian ambassador Kazys kirpa to become the Prime Minister. Once German military rule in Lithuania was replaced by a German civil authority, the Provisional Government was disbanded. Rogue units organised by Algirdas Klimaitis and led by SS Brigadefhrer Walter Stahlecker started pogroms in and around Kaunas on June 25, 1941.[28] [29] Lithuanian collaborators would become involved in the murders of hundreds of thousands of Jews and Poles.[30] [31] In 1941 the Lithuanian Security Police (Lietuvos

1941 Nazi propaganda antisemitic "Jewish Bolshevism" poster in Lithuanian language equating Stalinism and Jews

saugumo policija), subordinate to Nazi Germany's Security Police and Nazi Germany's Criminal Police, was created.[32] Of the 26 local police battalions formed, 10 were involved in systematic extermination of Jews known as the the Holocaust. The Special SD and German Security Police Squad in Vilnius killed tens of thousands of Jews and ethnic Poles in Paneriai (see Ponary massacre) and other places.[32] In Minsk, the 2nd Battalion shot about 9,000 Soviet prisoners of war, in Slutsk it massacred 5,000 Jews. In March 1942 in Poland, the 2nd Lithuanian Battalion carried out guard duty in the Majdanek extermination camp.[33] In July 1942, the 2nd Battalion participated in the deportation of Jews from the Warsaw ghetto to a death camp.[34] In AugustOctober 1942, the police battalions formed from Lithuanians were in Ukraine: the 3rd in Molodechno, the 4th in Donetsk, the 7th- in Vinnitsa, the 11th in Korosten, the 16th in Dnepropetrovsk, the 254th in Poltava and the 255th in Mogilyov (Belarus).[35] One of the battalions was also used to put down the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943.[33] The Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force was formed of volunteers in 1944. Its leadership was Lithuanian, whereas arms were provided by Germans. The purpose of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force was to defend Lithuania against approaching Soviet Army and to defend civilian population in the territory of Lithuania form actions of partisans. In practice, it was primarily engaged in suppressing the Polish population and the anti-Nazi Polish resistance of Armia Krajowa; LTDF has self disbanded after it was ordered to act under Nazi command[36] . Polish authors presume, that it sustained a major defeat from Polish partisans in the battle of Murowana Oszmianka.[33] The participation of the local populace was a key factor in the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Lithuania[37] which resulted in the near total destruction of Lithuanian Jews[a] living in the Nazi-controlled Lithuanian territories that would, from July 17, 1941, become the Generalbezirk Litauen of Reichskommissariat Ostland. Out of approximately 210,000[38]

Collaboration during World War II Jews, (208,000 according to the Lithuanian pre-war statistical data)[39] an estimated 195,000196,000 perished before the end of World War II (wider estimates are sometimes published); most from June to December 1941.[38] [40] The events that took place in the western regions of the USSR occupied by Nazi Germany in the first weeks after the German invasion (including Lithuania - see map) marked the sharp intensification of The Holocaust.[41] [42] [43]

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Netherlands
Thousands of Dutch volunteers joined the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Nordland (created in February 1943). The division participated in fighting against the Soviet army and was crushed in the Battle of Berlin in AprilMay 1945. This was also the case for the 5th SS Panzergrenadier Division Wiking. It was involved in several major battles on the Eastern Front. SS-Freiwilligen Legion Niederlande, manned by Dutch volunteers and German officers, battled the Soviet army from 1941. In December 1943 it gained brigade status after fighting on the front around Leningrad. It was at Leningrad that the first European volunteer, a Dutchman, earned the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross: Gerard Mooyman. In December 1944, it was transformed into the 23rd SS Volunteer SS Recruiting Poster for the Panzergrenadier Division Nederland and fought in [2] Netherlands, urging Dutch people to Courland and Pomerania. It found its end scattered "join the fight against Bolshevism." across Germany. 49. SS-Freiwilligen-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 'de Ruyter' fought at the Oder and surrendered on 3 May 1945 to the Americans. 48. SS-Freiwilligen-Panzergrenadier-Regiment 'General Seyffardt' however was split up into two groups. The first of these fought with Kampfgruppe Vieweger and went under in the fighting near Halbe. The few remaining survivors were captured by the Soviets. The other half of 'General Seyffart' fought with Korpsgruppe Tettau and surrendered to the western Allies.

Norway
In Norway, the Vidkun Quisling government was installed by the Germans as a puppet regime, while the previous Norwegian government was in exile. Quisling encouraged Norwegians to serve as volunteers in the Waffen SS, collaborating in the deportation of Jews, and was responsible for the executions of Norwegian patriots. In spite of this, the vast majority of Norwegians hated the Nazis, and many contributed to the resistance, including the rescue of Jews and others. However, about 45,000 Norwegian collaborators joined the pro-Nazi party Nasjonal Samling (National Union), and some police units helped arrest many of Norway's Jews. After the war, Quisling and other collaborators were executed. Quisling's name has become an international eponym for traitor.

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Palestine
Arabs A Palestinian Arab nationalist and a Muslim religious leader, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Mohammad Amin al-Husayni worked for the Nazi Germany as a propagandist and a recruiter of Muslim volunteers for the Waffen SS and other units. On November 28 1941, Hitler officially received al-Husayni in Berlin. Hitler made a declaration that after "...the last traces of the Jewish-Communist European hegemony had been obliterated... the German army would... gain the southern exit of Caucasus... the Fhrer would offer the Arab world his personal assurance that the hour of liberation had struck. Thereafter, Germany's only remaining objective in the region would be limited to the Vernichtung des... Judentums ['destruction of the Jewish element', sometimes taken to be a euphemism for 'annihilation of the Jews'] living under British protection in Arab lands.."[44] The Mufti spent the remainder of the war assisting with the formation of Muslim Waffen SS units in the Balkans and the formation of schools and training centers for imams and mullahs who would accompany the Muslim SS and Wehrmacht units. Beginning in 1943, al-Husayni was involved in the organization and recruitment of Bosnian Muslims into several divisions. The largest of which was the 13th "Handschar" division of 21,065 men. In 1944, al-Husayni sponsored an unsuccessful chemical warfare assault on the Jewish community in Palestine. Five parachutists were supplied with maps of Tel Aviv, canisters of a Germanmanufactured "fine white powder," and instructions from the Mufti to dump chemicals into the Tel Aviv water system. District police commander Fayiz Bey Idrissi later recalled, "The laboratory report stated that each container held enough poison to kill 25,000 people, and there were at least ten containers."[45] Jews Jewish underground Zionist group Lehi, also known as the "Stern Gang" offered cooperation to the Nazis in sabotage, espionage and intelligence and up to wide military operations in the Middle East and in eastern Europe anywhere where they had Jewish cells in return for full recognition of an independent Jewish state in Palestine, an ability to emigrate to Palestine for all Jews, with no restriction of numbers. [46] [47] This offer of collaboration was sent in 1941 to the German Naval attache in Ankara and forwarded through German embassy to Berlin but found no response from the Nazis. [48]

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Poland
Unlike in most countries occupied by Nazi Germany where the Germans sought and found true collaborators among the locals in occupied Poland there was no official collaboration neither at the political nor at the economic level.[49] [50] As a result, Polish citizens were unlikely to be given positions of any significant authority.[49] [50] The vast majority of the pre-war citizenry German Recruitment Poster: "Let's do agricultural work in collaborating with the Nazis was Germany. Report immediately to your Vogt" the German minority in Poland which was offered one of several possible grades of the German citizenship.[51] In 1939, before the German invasion of Poland, 800,000 people declared themselves as members of the German minority in Poland mostly in Pomerania and Western Silesia. During the war there were about 3 million former Polish citizens of German origin who signed the official list of Volksdeutsche.[50] People who became Volksdeutsche were treated by Poles with special contempt, and the fact of them having signed the Volksliste constituted high treason according to the Polish underground law. There is a general consensus among historians that there was very little collaboration with the Nazis among the Polish nation as a whole, compared to other German-occupied countries.[49] [50] [52] Depending on a definition of collaboration (and of a Polish citizen, based on ethnicity and minority status), scholars estimate number of "Polish collaborators" at around several thousand in a population of about 35 million (that number is supported by the Israeli War Crimes Commission). [53] The estimate is based primarily on the number of death sentences for treason by the Special Courts of the Polish Underground State. Some estimates are higher, counting in all members of the German minority in Poland and any former Polish citizens declaring their German ethnicity (Volksdeutsche), as well as conscripted members of the Blue Police, low-ranking Polish bureaucrats employed in German occupational administration, and even workers in forced labor camps (ex. Zivilarbeiter and Baudienst). Most of the Blue Police were forcibly drafted into service; nevertheless, a significant number acted as spies for Polish resistance movement Armia Krajowa.[52] John Connelly quoted a Polish historian (Leszek Gondek) calling the phenomenon of Polish collaboration "marginal" and wrote that "only relatively small percentage of Polish population engaged in activities that may be described as collaboration when seen against the backdrop of European and world history".[52] In October 1939, the Nazis ordered the mobilization of the pre-war Polish police to the service of the occupational authorities. The policemen were to report for duty or face death penalty.[54] Blue Police was formed. At its peak in 1943, it numbered around 16,000.[55] Its primary task was to act as a regular police force and to deal with criminal activities, but were also used by the Germans in combating smuggling, resistance, and in measures against the Polish (and Polish Jewish) population: for example, it was present in apankas

Collaboration during World War II (rounding up random civilians for labor duties) and patrolling for Jewish escapees from the ghettos. Nonetheless many individuals in the Blue Police followed German orders reluctantly, often disobeyed German orders or even risked death acting against them.[56] [57] [58] Many members of the Blue Police were in fact double agents for the Polish [59] [60] resistance. Some of its officers were ultimately awarded the Righteous among the Nations awards for saving Jews.[61] [62] In 1944 Germans clandestinely armed a few regional Armia Krajowa (AK) units operating in the area of Vilnius in order to encourage them to act against the Soviet partisans in the region; in Nowogrodek district and to a lesser degree in Vilnius district (AK turned these weapons against the Nazis during Operation Ostra Brama).[32] [63] Such arrangements were purely tactical and did not evidence the type of ideological collaboration as shown by Vichy regime in France or Quisling regime in Norway.[56] The Poles main motivation was to gain intelligence on German morale and preparedness and to acquire much needed equipment.[64] There are no known joint Polish-German actions, and the Germans were unsuccessful in their attempt to turn the Poles toward fighting exclusively against Soviet partisans.[56] Further, most of such collaboration of local commanders with the Germans was condemned by AK headquarters.[56] Tadeusz Piotrowski quotes Joseph Rothschild saying "The Polish Home Army was by and large untainted by collaboration" and adds that "the honor of AK as a whole is beyond reproach".[56] One partisan unit of Polish extreme right-wing (anti-Nazi but also anti-communist) National Armed Forces, the Holy Cross Mountains Brigade, decided to tacitly cooperate with the Germans in late 1944. It ceased hostile actions against the Germans for a few months, accepted logistic help and withdrew from Poland into Czechoslovakia with German approval (where they resumed hostilities against the Germans) in late stages of the war in order to avoid capture by the Soviets.[65] .

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Romania
A report released in 2004 by a panel commissioned by the Romanian government assessed that a total of between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews were murdered or perished in Romania as a direct result of the policies or actions of the World War II Romanian regime led by Ion Antonescu. Approximately 200,000 Jews were killed in the Odessa region, often called Transnistria (occupied from the USSR) at the end of 1941 and during 1942 by the Romanian Army and the Einsatzgruppe D. The District Commissioner Col. Modest Isopesco and the German advisor to the Romanian administration Fleisher took decision to murder all the inmates at the Bogdanovka extermination camp after several cases of typhus were discovered in the camp. Romanian soldiers and gendarmes, together with Ukrainian police and civilians, and local ethnic Germans under the commander of the Ukrainian regular police, Kazachievici, participated in the massacres.[66] Additionally, 25,000 Roma were sent to concentration camps, of which an estimated 11,000 died. The Romanian government had a program of deportation of the Romanian Jews to camps in Transnistria, implemented especially in the Moldavia region. However, this was terminated in 1943, 16 months before Romania ended its alliance with Nazi Germany and 340,000 Romanian Jews survived the war.

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Russia and the Soviet Union

Nazi Germany terminated the Non-Aggression Pact signed by Joachim von Ribbentrop and Vyacheslav Molotov with its invasion of the Soviet Union at 3:15 am on June 22, 1941.[67] Large areas of the European part of the Soviet Union would be placed under German occupation between 1941 and 1944. Soviet collaborators included numerous Russians and members of other ethnic groups. In Russia proper, ethnic Russians were allowed to govern the Lokot Republic, an autonomous sector in Nazi-occupied Russia. Military groups under Nazi command were formed, such as the notorious Kaminski Brigade, infamous because of its involvement in atrocities in Belarus and Poland, and the 30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Russian). [68] Ethnic Russians also enlisted in large numbers into the "I live in a German family and feel just many German auxiliary police units. Local civilians and fine": propagandistic recruitment poster for the Eastern worker program Russian POWs, as well as Red Army defectors were encouraged to join the Wehrmacht as "hilfswillige". Some of them also served in so-called Ost battalions which, in particular, defended the French coastline against the expected Allied invasion. Adolf Hitler expected Turkey to enter the war, to advance from the Caucasus to the Middle East, with the formation of Islamic fighting units in the Caucasus, along with Arabian and other Islamic legions, taking part in the task of attracting the Middle East into the Nazi influence zone. Alfred Rosenberg mentioned the Berlin-Tbilisi Axis, and during the German invasion some Georgians, Azeris and others arrived to serve in their own countries. The Kalmykian Voluntary Cavalry Corps was a unit of about 5,000 Kalmyk Mongol volunteers who chose to join the Wehrmacht in 1942 rather than remain in Kalmykia as the German Army retreated before the Red Army. In May 1943 German General Helmuth von Pannwitz was given authorization to create a Cossack Division consisting of two brigades primarily from Don and Kuban Cossacks, including former exiled White Army commanders such as Pyotr Krasnov and Andrei Shkuro. The division however was then not sent to fight the Red Army, but was ordered, in September 1943, to proceed to Yugoslavia and fight Josip Broz Tito's partisans. During the summer of 1944 the two brigades were upgraded to become the 1st Cossack Cavalry Division and 2nd Cossack Cavalry Division. From the beginning of 1945 these divisions were combined to become XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps. Pro-German Russian forces also included the anti-communist Russian Liberation Army (POA, Russian: ), which saw action alongside the Wehrmacht. On May 1, 1945, however, POA turned against the SS and fought on the side of Czech insurgents during the Prague Uprising. See also Cossacks, Crimean and Caucasian volunteer units in German forces

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Serbia
Prior to being invaded by Nazi Germany, Serbian army general Milan Nedi was known to be Hitler advocate and was working on striking a pact with Germany. That pact was rejected by Serbian people who demonstrated on March 26, 1941 and forced the government to withdraw. Angered by what he perceived a treason by Serbian people, Hitler invaded Kingdom of Yugoslavia without warning on April 6, 1941. 11 days later Yugoslavia capitulated and a Nazi supporting government led by Milan Nedi was formed. Many Serbian organizations such as ZBOR, Serbian State Guard, Serbian Volunteer Corps, Serbian Volunteer Command had a few thousands of members and helped guard and run the concentration camps. The Chetnik movement or the Chetniks were a Serbian-nationalist/royalist paramilitary organization operating in the Balkans before and during World War II.

Slovakia
The Slovak Republic (Slovensk republika) was an independent national Slovak state which existed from 14 March 1939 to 8 May 1945 as an ally and client state of Nazi Germany. The Slovak Republic existed on roughly the same territory as present-day Slovakia (with the exception of the southern and eastern parts of present-day Slovakia). The Republic bordered Germany, the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, Poland, and Hungary.

Slovenia
Slovensko domobranstvo (German: Slowenische Landeswehr, English: Slovene Home Guard) or SD for short, was a collaborationist force, formed in September 1943 in the area of present day Slovenia (then a part of Yugoslavia). An individual member was a 'Domobranec', the plural of which was 'Domobranci'. SD functioned like most collaborationist forces in Axis-occupied Europe during World War II, but had limited autonomy, and at first functioned as an auxiliary police force that assisted the Germans in anti-Partisan actions. Later, it gained more autonomy and conducted most of the anti-Partisan operations in the Slovenian area. Much of the SD's equipment was Italian (confiscated when Italy dropped out of the war in 1943), although German weapons and equipment were used as well, especially later in the war.

Ukraine
Ukraine was split during the Second World War between the Ukrainian SSR of the Soviet Union and the Second Polish Republic, in addition to minor regions being in Romania and Czechoslovakia. Although only the former recognised the Ukrainian autonomy, and most of the Ukrainians did fight for the Red Army, the negative impacts of Soviet policies such as the Holodomor of 1933 and the persecution of many intellectuals during the Great Purge of 1937, as well as after the annexation of Western Ukraine from Poland in 1939 and the Collectivisation and repressions in the region in 19391941 meant that many towns, cities and villages, greeted the Germans as liberators with a traditional welcome "bread and salt". Under the German administration ethnic Ukrainians were allowed to work in administrative positions such as in the auxiliary police, post office, government structures; something that was denied to them under the previous Polish regime.

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There is evidence of Ukrainian participation in the Holocaust.[69] The Ukrainian auxiliary police participated in rounding up of Jews who were headed to the Babi Yar massacre near Kiev[70] [71] [72] and in other Ukrainian cities and towns, such as Lviv, [73] [74] Lutsk,[75] and Zhitomir.[76] Soviet POWs of various ethnic origin trained in Trawniki training camp served as guards of the Operation Reinhard killing centers and concentration camps in Poland. The Germans attempted to recruit Soviet citizens (and to a lesser extent other Eastern Europeans) voluntarily for the OST-Arbeiter or Eastern worker program; originally this worked, but the news of the terrible conditions they faced dried up the volunteers and the program became forcible.[77] During the period of occupation, various articles in some Ukrainian language newspapers reflected the German stance regarding the Jewish population, with one commenting, "The element that settled our cities (Jews)... must disappear completely from our cities. The Jewish problem is already in the process of being solved."[78] Ukrainian forces participated in crushing the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943[79] and also later the Warsaw Uprising of 1944 where a mixed force of German SS troops, Russians, Cossacks, Azeris and Ukrainians, backed by German regular army units - committed countless atrocities - killing up to 40,000 civilians in the first two days alone.[80] [81] Other examples are Zhytomyr on September 18, 1941, in the Ukraine where 3,145 Jews were murdered with the assistance of Ukrainian militia (Operational Report 106) and Korosten where Ukrainian militia rounded up 238 Jews for liquidation (Operational Report 80). At times the assistance was more active. Operational Report 88, for example, reports that on September 6, 1941, 1,107 Jewish adults were shot while the Ukrainian militia unit assisting them liquidated 561 Jewish children and youths. [82] By April 28, 1943 German Command created the 14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Galizien (1st Ukrainian) manned by 14,000 volunteers. [83]

United Kingdom
British Free Corps reached its maximum size 27 troops in 1945.

Collaboration of Governments
The most significant support of Germany came from the European Axis powers of the Balkans. Albania, having an Italian puppet state, declared war on the Allies along with the Kingdom of Italy in 1940, although the resistance movements and the peoples were against this. Later that year Slovakia declared war on Great Britain and the United States. Slovakian, Albanian and Hungarian collaborators fought with the German forces against the Soviet Union on the eastern front throughout the war. MolotovRibbentrop Pact and Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939 should also be mentioned. However, significant support was also given by many countries initially at war with Germany but which subsequently elected to adopt a policy of co-operation. The Vichy government in France is one of the best known and most significant examples of collaboration between former enemies of Germany and Germany itself. When the French Vichy government emerged at the same time of the Free French in London there was much confusion regarding the loyalty of French overseas colonies and more importantly their overseas armies and naval fleet. The reluctance of Vichy France to either disarm or

Collaboration during World War II surrender their naval fleet resulted in the British destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir on 3 July 1940. Later in the war French colonies were frequently used as staging areas for invasions or airbases for the Axis powers both in Indo China and Syria. This resulted in the invasion of Syria and Lebanon with the capture of Damascus on June 17 and later the Battle of Madagascar against Vichy French forces which lasted for 7 months until November the same year. Many other countries cooperated to some extent and in different ways. Denmark's government cooperated with the German occupiers until 1943 and actively helped recruit members for the Nordland and Wiking Waffen SS divisions and helped organize trade and sale of industrial and agricultural products to Germany. In Greece, the three quisling prime ministers (Georgios Tsolakoglou, Konstantinos Logothetopoulos and Ioannis Rallis) cooperated with the Axis authorities. Agricultural products (especially tobacco) were sent to Germany, Greek "volunteers" were sent to work to German factories, and special armed forces (such as the Security Battalions were created to fight along German soldiers against the Allies and the Resistance movement. In Norway the government successfully managed to escape to London but Vidkun Quisling established a puppet regime in its absencealbeit with little support from the local population.

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Collaboration with the Empire of Japan

During World War II the Empire of Japan occupied all or parts (often territories) of at least 9 countries: China, Korea, France, United States, Philippines, United Kingdom, Netherlands, (Siam) Thailand (allied with Japan in 1942), Portugal and Australia. The Japanese set up several puppet regimes in occupied Chinese territories. The first of which was Manchukuo in 1932, followed by the East Hebei Autonomous Council in 1935. Similar to Manchukuo in its supposed ethnic identity, Mengjiang (Mengkukuo) was set up in late 1936. Wang Kemin's collaborationist Provisional Government of the Republic of China was set up in 1937 following the start of full-scale military operations between China and Japan, and it became the Reformed Government of the Republic of China in 1938. The Wang Jingwei collaborationist government, established in 1940, "consolidated" these regimes, though in reality neither Wang's government nor the constituent governments had any autonomy, although the military of the Wang Jingwei Government was equipped by the Japanese with planes, canons, tanks, boats, and German-style stahlhelm (already widely used by the National Revolutionary Army, the "official" army of the Republic of China). The military forces of these puppet regimes, known collectively as the Collaborationist Chinese Army, numbered more than a million at their height, with some estimates that the number exceeded 2 million conscripts. Although certain collaborationist forces had limited battlefield presence during the Second Sino-Japanese War, most were relegated to behind-the-line duties.

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Final notes
By the end of the Second World War 60% of the Waffen SS was made up of non-German volunteers from occupied countries.[84] The predominantly Scandinavian Nordland division along with remnants of French, Italian, Spanish and Dutch volunteers were last defenders of the Reichstag in Berlin.

See also
List of alleged collaborators Collaborationism Responsibility for the Holocaust Schutzmannschaft Axis Powers Resistance during World War II Pursuit of Nazi collaborators MolotovRibbentrop Pact

Notes and References

[1] http:/ / www. ushmm. org/ wlc/ article. php?lang=en& ModuleId=10005466 [2] Williamson, G. The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror [3] Russell King, Nicola Mai, and Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers. The New Albanian Migration. Sussex Academic Press, 2005 [4] Bunting, Madelaine (1995) The Model Occupation : the Channel Islands under German rule, 1940-1945, London : Harper Collins, ISBN 0-00-255242-6 [5] Jersey Heritage Trust archive* (http:/ / www. jerseyheritagetrust. org/ collections/ collections. html) [6] Laqueur, Walter: Holocaust Encyclopedia, Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 2001 [7] Hansard (Commons), vol. 430, col. 138 [8] The German Occupation of the Channel Islands, Cruickshank, London 1975 ISBN 0192850873 [9] War Profits Levy (Jersey) Law 1945 [10] War Profits (Guernsey) Law 1945 [11] Occupation Diary, Leslie Sinel, Jersey 1945 [12] Jrgen Hstrup, Secret Alliance: A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement 194045. Odense, 1976. p. 9. [13] Phil Giltner, The Success of Collaboration: Denmarks Self-Assessment of its Economic Position after Five Years of Nazi Occupation, Journal of Contemporary History 36:3 (2001) p. 486. [14] Henning Poulsen, Hvad mente Danskerne? Historie 2 (2000) p. 320. [15] Jerry Voorhis, Germany and Denmark: 194045, Scandinavian Studies 44:2 (1972) p. 174. [16] Voorhis, 175. [17] Poulsen, Historie, 320. [18] Andrew Buckser, Rescue and Cultural Context During the Holocaust: Grundtvigian Nationalism and the Rescue of Danish Jews, Shofar 19:2 (2001) p. 10. [19] Harold Flender, Rescue in Denmark, (New York: 1963) p. 30. [20] Bo Lidegaard (ed.) (2003): Dansk Udenrigspolitiks historie, vol. 4, p. 461 [21] Lidegaard, p. 461. [22] Birn, Ruth Bettina (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ production/ action/ cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=81766) (2001), Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police]. Contemporary European History 10.2, 181-198 [23] Conclusions of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity. Phase II - The German Occupation of Estonia, 1941 - 1944 (http:/ / www. historycommission. ee/ temp/ conclusions. htm#phase2) [24] August 2728: Massacre at Kamenets-Podolsk (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ about_holocaust/ chronology/ 1939-1941/ 1941/ chronology_1941_24. html) [25] Indonesia :: Japanese occupation (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-22819/ Indonesia), Encyclopdia Britannica

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[26] Arad, Yitzhak. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka The Operation Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987 [27] Nuremberg Trial Proceedings, Volume 22, September 1946 (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ imt/ proc/ 09-30-46. htm) [28] (Lithuanian) Arnas Bubnys. Lithuanian Security Police and the Holocaust (19411944) (http:/ / www. genocid. lt/ Leidyba/ 13/ bubnys. htm) [29] Oshry, Ephraim, Annihilation of Lithuanian Jewry, Judaica Press, Inc., New York, 1995 [30] (Polish) ledztwo w sprawie masowych zabjstw Polakw w latach 19411944 w Ponarach koo Wilna dokonanych przez funkcjonariuszy policji niemieckiej i kolaboracyjnej policji litewskiej (http:/ / www. ipn. gov. pl/ portal. php?serwis=pl& dzial=194& id=3327) (Investigation of mass murders of Poles in the years 19411944 in Ponary near Wilno by functionaries of German police and Lithuanian collaborating police). Institute of National Remembrance documents from 2003 on the ongoing investigation]. Last accessed on 10 February 2007. [31] (Polish) Czesaw Michalski, Ponary Golgota Wileszczyzny (http:/ / www. wsp. krakow. pl/ konspekt/ konspekt5/ ponary. html) (Ponary the Golgoth of Wilno Region). Konspekt n 5, Winter 20002001, a publication of the Academy of Pedagogy in Krakw. Last accessed on 10 February 2007. [32] (Lithuanian) Arnas Bubnys (2004). Vokiei ir lietuvi saugumo policija (19411944) (German and Lithuanian security police: 19411944) (http:/ / www. genocid. lt/ Leidyba/ 1/ arunas1. htm). Vilnius: Lietuvos gyventoj genocido ir rezistencijos tyrimo centras. . Retrieved 2006-06-09. [33] (English) Tadeusz Piotrowski (1997). Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying

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Forces and Genocide... (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A4FlatJCro4C& pg=PA166& vq=Murowana& dq=1939+ Soviet+ citizenship+ Poland& source=gbs_search_s& sig=EJD5X62pH3DXOMvJrfvqj7lIeys). McFarland & Company. pp.165166. ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. . Retrieved 2008-03-15. [34] (http:/ / info-poland. buffalo. edu/ exhib/ ghetto2/ exit. html) [35] (http:/ / www. holocaust. kiev. ua/ bulletin/ vip7/ vip7_3. htm) [36] Bubnys, Arnas (1998). Vokiei okupuota Lietuva (1941-1944). Vilnius: Lietuvos gyventoj genocido ir rezistencijos tyrimo centras. ISBN 9986-757-12-6. [37] Dov Levin. Lithuania. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=U6KVOsjpP0MC& pg=PA325& dq=Lithuania,+ levin+ The+ World+ Reacts+ to+ the+ Holocaust& ei=z-ehSJqJEJycjgHQ3oX7BA& sig=ACfU3U1aPcNzGcAek5M93T4XXDEWHLn-nw) In: David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig. The World Reacts to the Holocaust. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. [38] Michael MacQueen, The Context of Mass Destruction: Agents and Prerequisites of the Holocaust in Lithuania, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 27-48, 1998, (http:/ / hgs. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 12/ 1/ 27) [39] Arnas Bubnys, Holocaust in Lithuania: An Outline of the Major Stages and Their Results in Alvydas Nikentaitis, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Stalinas, The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews, Rodopi, 2004, ISBN 9042008504, Google Print, p.219 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mdXRKbcyi5oC& pg=PA219& vq=is+ the+ worst+ tragedy+ of+ Lithuania's& dq=Holocaust+ 1941+ Lithuania& as_brr=3& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ZtduokysVV6MqLWS7I9uw7tMUFE) [40] Dina Porat, The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects, in David Cesarani, The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415152321, "The+Holocaust+in+Lithuania:+Some+Unique+Aspects"&source=gbs_search_s&sig=Q51GxOA40aEQ_rhazg2g7VJpPWE Google Print, p. 161 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3N9Xxc8wdu0C& pg=PA161& vq=most+ of+ the+ lithuanian+ jews& dq=) [41] Christopher R. Browning, with contributions by Jrgen Matthus, "The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942", University of Nebraska Press, 2007, ISBN 0803259794, section 7 by Jrgen Matthus, "Operation Barbarossa and the onset of the Holocaust", pp. 244-294 [42] Dina Porat, The Holocaust in Lithuania: Some Unique Aspects, in David Cesarani, The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415152321, "The+Holocaust+in+Lithuania:+Some+Unique+Aspects"&ei=GV_ZR7zhEba4igGM06zRAQ&sig=BC8nnQzADrvUtKwXXJ53qM Google Print, p. 159 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3N9Xxc8wdu0C& pg=PA159& dq=) [43] Konrad Kwiet, Rehearsing for Murder: The Beginning of the Final Solution in Lithuania in June 1941, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 1, pp. 3-26, 1998, (http:/ / hgs. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 12/ 1/ 3) [44] official transcript, trans. Fleming [45] Arab Chemical Warfare Against Jews - in 1944 (http:/ / www. wymaninstitute. org/ articles/ 2003-03-chemical. php) by Benyamin Korn. (The David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies) [46] Heller, J. (1995). p. 86 The Stern Gang. Frank Cass. ISBN 0-7146-4558-3

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[47] David Yisraeli, The Palestine Problem in German Politics, 18891945, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel, 1974. Also see Otto von Hentig, Mein Leiben (Goettingen, 1962) pp 338339 [48] A Meeting in Beirut, Habib Canaan, Haaretz (musaf), 27 March 1970 [49] Carla Tonini, The Polish underground press and the issue of collaboration with the Nazi occupiers, 1939-1944, European Review of History: Revue Europeenne d'Histoire, Volume 15, Issue 2 April 2008 , pages 193 - 205 [50] Klaus-Peter Friedrich. Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II. Slavic Review, Vol. 64, No. 4, (Winter, 2005), pp. 711-746. JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3649910) [51] http:/ / 74. 125. 95. 132/ search?q=cache:0IQ986AcKo4J:www. polishresistance-ak. org/ PR_WWII_texts_En/ 26_Article_En. rtf [52] John Connelly, Why the Poles Collaborated so Little: And Why That Is No Reason for Nationalist Hubris, Slavic Review, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 771-781, JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3649912) [53] Richard C. Lukas, Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=lz9obsxmuW4C& pg=PA13& dq="& sig=ACfU3U0SGgyvqSbL4bypepYoO_CbYc_N_w) University Press of Kentucky 1989 - 201 pages. Page 13; also in Richard C. Lukas, The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939-1944, University Press of Kentucky 1986 - 300 pages [54] (Polish) Hempel, Adam (1987). Policja granatowa w okupacyjnym systemie administracyjnym Generalnego Gubernatorstwa: 19391945. Warsaw: Instytut Wydawniczy Zwizkw Zawodowych. p.83. [55] Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (http:/ / motlc. learningcenter. wiesenthal. org/ text/ x25/ xr2513. html) entry on the Blue Police, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York NY, 1990. ISBN 0028645278. [56] Tadeusz Piotrowski, Poland's Holocaust, McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3. Google Print, p.88 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ie=UTF-8& vid=ISBN0786403713& id=A4FlatJCro4C& pg=PA88& lpg=PA88& dq=holocaust+ in+ Poland& vq=wilno& sig=8H45HLJILfGXRoOg3WdVDDjJ9Q4), p.89 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ie=UTF-8& vid=ISBN0786403713& id=A4FlatJCro4C& vq=wilno& dq=holocaust+ in+ Poland& lpg=PA88& pg=PA89& sig=LHllmtARMayj58PX49-zSFPXcXI), p.90 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ie=UTF-8& vid=ISBN0786403713& id=A4FlatJCro4C& pg=PA90& lpg=PA90& dq=holocaust+ in+ Poland& vq="only+ a+ third+ of+ the+ available+ AK+ forces"& sig=6wXjIU3xa5VvtLvquNZcIXLi2VA) [57] Gunnar S. Paulsson (2004). " The Demography of Jews in Hiding in Warsaw (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7xC5wNo0edoC& pg=PA118& lpg=PA118& sig=BcLlPy6seaz_N6t708FM_4bOStg#PPA118,M1)". The Holocaust: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies. London: Routledge. p.118. ISBN 0415275091. . [58] (Polish) Hempel, Adam (1990). Pogrobowcy klski: rzecz o policji "granatowej" w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939-1945 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sy0iAAAAMAAJ& q=& pgis=1#search). Warsaw: Pastwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. p.435. ISBN 8301092912. . [59] Paczkowski (op.cit., p.60 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C& pg=PA54& lpg=PA54& sig=vajOBIBsbx6RYJ24eRN86w_21CY#PPA60,M1)) cites 10% of policemen and 20% of officers [60] (Polish) " Policja Polska Generalnego Gubernatorstwa (http:/ / encyklopedia. pwn. pl/ haslo. php?id=3959423)". Encyklopedia Internetowa PWN. Warsaw: Pastwowe Wydawnictwa Naukowe. 2005. . [61] (Polish) IAR (corporate author) (2005-07-24). " Sprawiedliwy Wrd Narodw wiata 2005 (http:/ / www. forum-znak. org. pl/ index. php?t=wydarzenia& id=3139)" (in Polish). Forum ydzi - Chrzecijanie Muzumanie (Fundacja Kultury Chrzecijaskiej Znak). . Retrieved 2007-02-20. [62] Righteous Among The Nations - Polish rescuer Waclaw Nowinski (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ odot_pdf/ Microsoft Word - 6755. pdf|The) [63] (Lithuanian) Rimantas Zizas. Armijos Krajovos veikla Lietuvoje 19421944 metais (Acitivies of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania in 19421944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 1439. A. Bubnys, K. Garva, E. Geiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargien, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius Kaunas, 1995. [64] Review by John Radzilowski of Yaffa Eliach's There Once Was a World: A 900-Year Chronicle of the Shtetl of Eishyshok, Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 1, no. 2 (June 1999), City University of New York. [65] Stefan Korbonski, "The Polish Underground State", pg. 7 [66] December 21: More than 40,000 Jews shot at Bogdanovka (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ about_holocaust/ chronology/ 1939-1941/ 1941/ chronology_1941_54. html) [67] Roberts 2006, p.82 [68] 30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Russian) (http:/ / www. panzer-reich. co. uk/ 30th-waffen-grenadier-division-of-the-ss-2nd-russian. htm) [69] Bauer, Yehuda: The Holocaust in its European Context (http:/ / www. holocausttaskforce. org/ speeches/ details/ 2006-07-04/ document. pdf) p.14. Accessed January 14, 2006."

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"The implementation to kill Kievan Jews was entrusted to Sonderkommando 4a. This unit consisted of SD (Sicherheitsdienst; Security Service) and Sicherheitspolizei (Security

Collaboration during World War II Police; Sipo) men; the third company of the Special Duties Waffen-SS battalion; and a platoon of the No. 9 police battalion. The unit was reinforced by police battalions Nos. 45 and 305 and aided by units of the Ukrainian auxiliary police." ( Extracts from the Article by Shmuel Spector (http:/ / www. zchor. org/ BABIYAR. HTM), Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Israel Gutman, editor in Chief, Yad Vashem, Sifriat Hapoalim, MacMillan Publishing Company,1990)
[71] "The Ukrainians led them past a number of different places where one after the other they had to remove their luggage, then their coats, shoes and overgarments and also underwear. They also had to leave their valuables in a designated place. There was a special pile for each article of clothing. It all happened very quickly and anyone who hesitated was kicked or pushed by the Ukrainians to keep them moving." ( Statement of Truck-Driver Hofer describing the murder of Jews at Babi Yar (http:/ / www. einsatzgruppenarchives. com/ hofer. html)) [72] Holocaust Victims Honored in Babi Yar (http:/ / www. invictory. org. ua/ article2. html) (Ukraine Christian News, May 3, 2006) Accessed January 14, 2006 [73] July 25: Pogrom in Lvov (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ about_holocaust/ chronology/ 1939-1941/ 1941/ chronology_1941_18. html) [74] June 30: Germany occupies Lviv; 4,000 Jews killed by July 3 (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ about_holocaust/ chronology/ 1939-1941/ 1941/ chronology_1941_13. html) [75] June 30: Einsatzkommando 4a and local Ukrainians kill 300 Jews in Lutsk (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ about_holocaust/ chronology/ 1939-1941/ 1941/ chronology_1941_11. html) [76] September 19: Zhitomir Ghetto liquidated; 10,000 killed (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ about_holocaust/ chronology/ 1939-1941/ 1941/ chronology_1941_32. html) [77] Andrew Gregorovich - World War II in Ukraine (http:/ / www. infoukes. com/ history/ ww2/ page-12. html) [78] Volhyn on September 1, 1941 NAAF Holocaust Timeline Project 1941 (http:/ / www. neveragain. org/ 1941. htm) [79] Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ holocaust/ article-9076148) (Encyclopdia Britannica) [80] Central Commission for Investigation of German Crimes in Poland. (http:/ / www. warsawuprising. com/ witness/ atrocities10. htm) Excerpts from: German Crimes in Poland. Howard Fertig, New York, 1982. [81] Warsaw's failed uprising still divides (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 3527848. stm) (BBC) 2 August 2004 [82] An Introduction to the Einatzgruppen (http:/ / www. holocaust-history. org/ intro-einsatz)Accessed January 14, 2006 / [83] Williamson, G: The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror [84] Dachau Scrapbook: "Col. Howard A. Buechner's account of execution of Waffen-SS soldiers during the liberation of Dachau" (http:/ / www. scrapbookpages. com/ DachauScrapbook/ DachauLiberation/ BuechnerAccount. html). By the end of the war, 60% of the Waffen-SS consisted of volunteers from other countries; some of the soldiers at Dachau that day were Hungarian. Accessed July 2 2007.

177

Feldgrau (http:/ / www. feldgrau. com) Arad, Yitzhak. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka The Operation Reinhard Death Camps, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1987 Peter Suppli Benson, Bjrn Lamnek and Stig rskov: Mrsk manden og magten, Politiken Bger, 2004 ("Maersk The Man and Power", in Danish) Christian Jensen, Tomas Kristiansen and Karl Erik Nielsen: Krigens kbmnd, Gyldendal, 2000 ("The Merchants of War", in Danish)

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178

Further reading
Chuev, Sergei Gennadevic: Prokliatye soldaty, [Damned soldiers], KSMO, 2004, ISBN 5699059709 Williamson, Gordon: The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror, Brown Packaging Limited, 1994 Gerlach, Christian: Kalkulierte Morde, Hamburger Edition, Hamburg, 1999 Klaus-Peter Friedrich Collaboration in a "Land without a Quisling": Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II Slavic Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 711746 Jeffrey W. Jones "Every Family Has Its Freak": Perceptions of Collaboration in Occupied Soviet Russia, 19431948 Slavic Review Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 747770 Birn, Ruth Bettina, Collaboration with Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe: the Case of the Estonian Security Police. Contemporary European History 2001, 10.2, 181198. Simon Kitson, The Hunt for Nazi Spies, Fighting Espionage in Vichy France, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2008.

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Resistance during World War II

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Resistance during World War II occurred in every occupied country by a variety of means, ranging from non-cooperation, disinformation and propaganda to hiding crashed pilots and even to outright warfare and the recapturing of towns. Resistance movements are sometimes also referred to as "the underground". Among the most notable resistance movements were the
Soviet partisan fighters behind German front lines in Belarus, 1943.

Yugoslav Partisans (the largest resistance movement in WWII),[1] [2] the Polish Home Army, the Soviet partisans, the French Forces of the Interior, the Italian CLN, the Norwegian Resistance, the Greek Resistance and the Dutch Resistance

Many countries had resistance movements dedicated to fighting the Axis invaders, and Germany itself also had an anti-Nazi movement. Although mainland Britain did not suffer the Nazi occupation in World War II, the British made preparations for a British resistance movement, called the Auxiliary Units, in the event of a German invasion. Various organisations were also formed to establish foreign resistance cells or support existing resistance movements, like the British SOE and the American OSS (the forerunner of the CIA). There were also resistance movements fighting against the Allied invaders. In Italian East Africa, after the Italian forces were defeated during the East African Campaign, some Italians participated in a guerrilla war against the British (1941 to 1943). The German Nazi resistance movement ("Werwolf") never amounted to much. On the other hand, the "Forest Brothers" of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania included many fighters who fought for the Nazis and operated against the Soviet occupation of the Baltic States into the 1960s. The Forest Brothers were primarily nationalists and, while they were clearly "anti-Soviet," there is little to indicate that they were pro-Nazi. During or after the war, similar "anti-Soviet"

Resistance during World War II resistance rose up in places like Romania, Poland, and western Ukraine. While the Japanese were famous for "fighting to the last man," Japanese holdouts tended to be individually motivated and there is little indication that there was any organized Japanese resistance after the war.

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Organization
After the first shock following the Blitzkrieg, people slowly started to get organized, both locally and on a larger scale, especially when Jews and other groups were starting to be deported and used for the Arbeitseinsatz (working for the Germans). Organisation was dangerous, so much resistance was done by individuals. The possibilities depended much on the terrain; where there were large tracts of uninhabited land, especially hills and forests, resistance could more Members of the Dutch easily get organised undetected. This favoured in particular Eindhoven Resistance with troops of the US 101st Airborne the partisans in Eastern Europe. But also in the much more Division in front of Eindhoven densely populated Netherlands, the Biesbosch wilderness cathedral during Operation could be used to go into hiding. In Northern Italy, both the Market Garden in September Alps and the Appennines offered shelter to partisan brigades, 1944. though many groups operated directly inside the major cities. There were many different types of groups, ranging in activity from humanitarian aid to armed resistance, and sometimes cooperating to a varying degree. Resistance usually arose spontaneously, but was encouraged and helped mainly from London, the "capital of the European resistance" and Moscow (helping the communist partisans) .

Forms of resistance
Various forms of resistance were: Sabotage the Arbeitseinsatz ("Work Contribution") forced locals to work for the Germans, but work was often done slowly or intentionally badly Strikes and demonstrations Based on existing organizations, such as the churches, students, communists and doctors (professional resistance) Armed raids on distribution offices to get food coupons or various documents such as Ausweise or on birth registry offices to get rid of information about Jews temporary liberation of areas, such as in Yugoslavia, Paris, and Northern Italy, occasionally in cooperation with the Allied forces Polish insurgent at a Warsaw uprisings such as in Warsaw in 1943 and 1944 Uprising barricade, 1944. continuing battle and guerrilla warfare, such as the partisans in the USSR and Yugoslavia and the Maquis in France Espionage, including sending reports of military importance (e.g. troop movements, weather reports etc.)

Resistance during World War II Illegal press to counter the Nazi propaganda Political resistance to prepare for the reorganization after the war. For instance, the Dutch resistance took part in forming the new government in the Netherlands after the war. Helping people to go into hiding (e.g. to escape the Arbeitseinsatz or deportation) this was one of the main activities in the Netherlands, due to the large number of Jews and the high level of administration, which made it easy for the Germans to identify Jews.

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Helping military people caught behind lines get back Helping POW with illegal supplies, breakouts, communication,... Forgery of documents

Members of the French resistance group Maquis in La Tresorerie, 14 September 1944, Boulogne, France.

Famous resistance operations

1941
In February 1941, the Dutch Communist Party organized a general strike in Amsterdam and surrounding cities, known as the February strike, in protest against anti-Jewish measures by the Nazi occupying force and violence by fascist street fighters against Jews. Several hundreds of thousands of people participated in the strike. The strike was put down by the Nazis and some participants were executed. The first World War Two armed resistance unit in occupied Europe was formed on June 22 1941 (the start-date of Operation Barbarossa) in the Brezovica forest near Sisak, Croatia by the Yugoslav partisans. This launched the largest, and arguably the most successful resistance movement in Europe, as well as marking the beginning of the Yugoslav People's Liberation War. On 13 July 1941 in Italian-occupied Montenegro Montenegrin separatist Sekula Drljevi proclaimed an Independent State of Montenegro under Italian protectorate, upon which a nation-wide rebellion escalated raised by Partisans, Yugoslav Royal officers and various other armed personnel. In quick time most of Montenegro was liberated, but on 12 August 1941 after a major Italian offensive the uprising collapsed as units were disintegrating, poor leadership occurred as well as collaboration. Operation Anthropoid was a resistance move during the WWII to assassinate Reinhard Heydrich, the Nazi Protector of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the chief of Nazi's final solution, by the Czech resistance in Prague. Over fifteen thousand Czechs were killed in reprisals, with the most infamous incidents being the complete destruction of the towns of Lidice and Leky.

1942
On 25 November 1942, Greek guerrillas with the help of twelve British saboteurs carried out a successful operation which disrupted the German ammunition transportation to the German Africa Corps under Rommel the destruction of Gorgopotamos bridge (Operation Harling). The Zamosc Uprising was an armed conflict between Home Army or Armia Krajowa and Farmers' Batallions or Bataliony Chlopskie (aided because of the nature of the situation by

Resistance during World War II the Soviet Partisans as well as their Polish proxies Gwardia Ludowa, who otherwise were hostile toward the Home Army, and even a small independent Jewish unit) and the Nazi Germans attempting to remove the local Poles from the Greater Zamosc area (through forced removal, transfer to forced labor camps, or, in rare cases, mass murder) to get it ready for German colonization. It lasted from 1942 until 1944 and despite heavy casualties suffered by the Underground, the Germans failed.

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1943
In early January 1943, the 20,000 strong main operational group of the Yugoslav Partisans, stationed in western Bosnia, came under ferocious attack by over 150,000 German and Axis troops, supported by about 200 Luftwaffe aircraft in what became known as the Battle of the Neretva (the German codename was "Fall Weiss" or "Case White").[3] The Axis rallied eleven divisions, six German, three Italian, and two divisions of the puppet Independent State of Croatia (supported by Ustae formations) as well as a number of Belorussia, 1943. A Jewish [4] partisan group of the Chkalov Chetnik brigades. The goal was to destroy the Partisan HQ Brigade. and main field hospital (all Partisan wounded and prisoners faced certain execution), but this was thwarted by the diversion and retreat across the Neretva river, planned by the Partisan supreme command led by Marshal Josip Broz Tito. The main Partisan force escaped into Serbia where it immediately took the offensive and succeeded in eliminating the Chetnik movement as a fighting force. On April 19 1943 three members of the Belgian resistance movement were able to stop the Twentieth convoy, which was the 20th prisoner transport in Belgium organised by the Germans during World War II. The exceptional action by members of the Belgian resistance occurred to free Jewish and gypsy civilians who were being transported by train from the Dossin army base located in Mechelen, Belgium to the concentration camp Auschwitz. The XXth train convoy transported 1,631 Jews (men, women and children). Some of the prisoners were able to escape and marked this kind of liberation action from the Belgian resistance movement unique in the European history of the Holocaust. In October the rescue of the Danish Jews meant that nearly all of the Danish Jews were saved from KZ camps by the Danish resistance. This action is considered one of the bravest and most significant displays of public defiance against the Nazis. The Battle of Sutjeska from 15 May to 16 June 1943 was a joint attack of the Axis forces that once again attempted to destroy the main Yugoslav Partisan force, near the Sutjeska river in southeastern Bosnia. The Axis rallied 127,000 troops for the offensive, including German, Italian, NDH, Bulgarian and Cossack units, as well as over 300 airplanes (under German operational command), against 18,000 soldiers of the primary Yugoslav Partisans operational group organised in 16 brigades. Facing almost exclusively German troops in the final encirclement, the Yugoslav Partisans finally succeeded in breaking out across the Sutjeska river through the lines of the German 118th Jger Division, 104th Jger Division and 369th (Croatian) Infantry Division in the northwestern direction, towards eastern Bosnia. Three brigades and the central hospital with over 2,000 wounded remained surrounded and, following Hitler's instructions, German

Resistance during World War II commander-in-chief General Alexander Lhr ordered and carried out their annihilation, including the wounded and unarmed medical personnel. In addition, Partisan troops suffered from severe lack of food and medical supplies, and many were struck down by typhoid. However, the failure of the offensive marked a turning point for Yugoslavia during World War II. Home Army kills Franz Brkl during Operation Brkl in 1943, and Franz Kutschera during Operation Kutschera in 1944. Both men are high ranking nazi German SS and secret police officers responsible for murder and brutal interrogation of thousands of the Polish Jews and the Polish resistance fighters and supporters. Warsaw Ghetto Uprising lasted from April 19 to May 16, and did cost the Nazi forces 17 dead and 93 wounded.

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1944
In the spring of 1944, a plan was laid out by the Allies to kidnap General Mller, whose harsh repressive measures had earned him the nickname "the Butcher of Crete". The operation was led by Major Patrick Leigh Fermor, together with Captain W. Stanley Moss, Greek SOE agents and Cretan resistance fighters. However, Mller left the island before the plan could be carried out. Undeterred, Fermor decided to abduct General Heinrich Kreipe instead. On the night of April 26, General Kreipe left his

Macedonian Partisans liberating the city of Bitola in 1944.

headquarters in Archanes and headed without escort to his well-guarded residence, "Villa Ariadni", approximately 25km outside Heraklion. Major Fermor and Captain Moss, dressed as German military policemen, waited for him 1km before his residence. They asked the driver to stop and asked for their papers. As soon as the car stopped, Fermor quickly opened Kreipe's door, rushed in and threatened him with his gun while Moss took the driver's seat. After driving some The Vemork hydroelectric plant distance the British left the car, with suitable decoy material in Norway, site of the heavy being planted that suggesting an escape off the island had water production, and a part of been made by submarine, and with the General began a the German nuclear program, sabotaged by Norwegians cross-country march. Hunted by German patrols, the group between 1942 and 1944 moved across the mountains to reach the southern side of the island, where a British Motor Launch (ML 842 commanded by Brian Coleman) was to pick them up. Eventually, on 14 May 1944 they were picked up (from Peristeres beach near Rhodakino) and transferred to Egypt. During April and May 1944, the SS launched the daring airborne Raid on Drvar aimed at capturing Marshal Josip Broz Tito, the commander-in-chief of the Yugoslav Partisans, as well as disrupting their leadership and command structure. The Partisan headquarters were in the hills near Drvar, Bosnia at the time. The representatives of the Allies, Britain's Randolph Churchill and Evelyn Waugh, were also present. Elite German SS parachute commando units fought their way to Tito's cave headquarters and exchanged heavy gunfire resulting in numerous casualties on both sides.[5]

Resistance during World War II Interestingly, Chetniks under Draa Mihailovi also flocked to the firefight in their own attempt to capture Tito. By the time German forces had penetrated to the cave, however, Tito had already fled the scene. He had a train waiting for him that took him to the town of Jajce. It would appear that Tito and his staff were well prepared for emergencies. The commandos were only able to retrieve Titos marshal's uniform, which was later displayed in Vienna. After fierce fighting in and around the village cemetery, the Germans were able to link up with mountain troops. By that time, Tito, his British guests and Partisan survivors were fted aboard the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Blackmore and her captain Lt. Carson, RN. An intricate series of resistance operations were launched in France prior to, and during, Operation Overlord. On June 5 1944, the BBC broadcasted a group of unusual sentences, which the Germans knew were code words possibly for the invasion of Normandy. The BBC would regularly transmit hundreds of personal messages, of which only a few were really significant. A few days before D-Day, the commanding officers of the Resistance heard the first line of Verlaine's poem , "Chanson d'automne", "Les sanglots longs des violons de l'automne" (Long sobs of autumn violins) which meant that the "day" was imminent. When the second line "Blessent mon cur d'une langueur monotone" (wound my heart with a monotonous langour) was heard, the Resistance knew that the invasion would take place within the next 48 hours. They then knew it was time to go about their respective pre-assigned missions. All over France resistance groups had been coordinated, and various groups throughout the country increased their sabotage. Communications were cut, trains derailed, roads, water towers and ammunition depots destroyed and German garrisons were attacked. Some relayed info about German defensive positions on the beaches of Normandy to American and British commanders by radio, just prior to 6 June. Victory did not come easily; in June and July, in the Vercors plateau a newly reinforced maquis group fought more than 10,000 German soldiers (no Waffen-SS) under General Karl Pflaum and was defeated, with 840 casualties (639 fighters and 201 civilians). Following Tulle Murders, Major Otto Diekmann's Waffen-SS company wiped out the village of Oradour-sur-Glane on June 10. The resistance also assisted the later Allied invasion in the south of France (Operation Dragoon). They started insurrections in cities as Paris when allied forces came close. Operation Tempest launched in Poland in 1944 would lead to several major actions by Armia Krajowa, most notable of them being the Warsaw Uprising that took place in between August 1 and October 2, and failed due to the Soviet refusal, due to differences in ideology, to help; another one was Operation Ostra Brama: the Armia Krajowa or Home Army turned the weapons given to them by the nazi Germans (in hope that they would fight the incoming Soviets) against the nazi Germansin the end the Home Army together with the Soviet troops liberated the Greater Vilnius area to the dismay of the Lithuanians. During Operation Most III, in 1944, the Polish Home Army or Armia Krajowa provided the British with the parts of the V-2 rocket.

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Polish resistance soldiers during 1944 Warsaw Uprising.

Resistance during World War II Norwegian sabotages of the German nuclear program drew to a close after three years on February 20 1944, with the saboteur bombing of the ferry SF Hydro. The ferry was to carry railway cars with heavy water drums from the Vemork hydroelectric plant, where they were produced, across Lake Tinnsj so they could be shipped to Germany. Its sinking effectively ended Nazi nuclear ambitions. The series of raids on the plant was later dubbed by the British SOE as the most successful act of sabotage in all of World War II, and was used as a basis for the US war movie The Heroes of Telemark. As an initiation of their uprising, Slovakian rebels entered Bansk Bystrica on the morning of August 30 1944, the second day of the rebellion, and made it their headquarters. By September 10 the insurgents gained control of large areas of central and eastern Slovakia. That included two captured airfields, and as a result of the two-week-old insurgency, the Soviet Air Force were able to begin flying in equipment to Slovakian and Soviet partisans. There where also many brave men and women who resisted the Japanese occupation of their Homeland and Western colonies during World war two. You can look them up in the list of names of organization below.

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Resistance movements during World War II

British resistance movement Auxiliary Units (planned British resistance movement against German invaders) Albanian resistance movement Austrian resistance movement, e.g. O5 Belarusian resistance movement Belgian Resistance Bulgarian resistance movement Burmese resistance movement (AFPFL Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League) Czech resistance movement Danish resistance movement Dutch resistance movement Valkenburg resistance Estonian resistance movement French resistance movement Maquis Francs-tireurs et Partisans (FTP) French Forces of the Interior (FFI) Conseil National de la Rsistance (CNR) Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action (BCRA) Free French Forces (FFL) German anti-Nazi resistance movement The White Rose The Red Orchestra The Edelweiss Pirates The Stijkel Group, a Dutch resistance movement, which mainly operated around the S-Gravenhage area.
Yugoslav Partisan fighter Stjepan "Stevo" Filipovi shouting "Smrt faizmu sloboda narodu!" ("Death to fascism, freedom to the people!") (the Partisan slogan) seconds before plunging to his death.

Resistance during World War II Werwolf, the Nazi resistance against the Allied occupation Greek Resistance List of Greek Resistance organizations Cretan resistance National Liberation Front (EAM) and the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), EAM's guerrilla forces National Republican Greek League (EDES) National and Social Liberation (EKKA) Chinese resistance movements Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army Anti-Japanese Army For The Salvation Of The Country Chinese People's National Salvation Army Heilungkiang National Salvation Army Jilin Self-Defence Army Northeast Anti-Japanese National Salvation Army Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army Northeast People's Anti-Japanese Volunteer Army

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Northeastern Loyal and Brave Army Northeastern People's Revolutionary Army Northeastern Volunteer Righteous & Brave Fighters Hong Kong resistance movements Gangjiu dadui (Hong Kong-Kowloon big army) Dongjiang Guerrillas (East River Guerrillas, Southern China and Hong Kong organisation) Italian resistance movement Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale Italian resistance against Allies in East-Africa Jewish resistance movement ydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ZOB, the Jewish Fighting Organisation) Zydowski Zwiazek Walki (ZZW, the Jewish Fighting Union) Korea resistance movement Latvian resistance movement Lithuanian resistance during World War II Luxembourgs resistance during World War II Malayan resistance movemment Norwegian resistance movement

Milorg XU Norwegian Independent Company 1 (Kompani Linge) Nortraship Osvald Group Philippine resistance movement Hukbalahap Polish resistance movement Armia Krajowa (the Home Armymain stream: Authoritarian/Western Democracy) Narodowe Siy Zbrojne (National Armed ForcesFascists)

Resistance during World War II Bataliony Chopskie (Farmers' Battalionsmain stream, apolitical, stress on private property) Armia Ludowa (the Peoples' ArmySoviet Proxies) Gwardia Ludowa (the Peoples' GuardSoviet Proxies) Gwardia Ludowa WRN (The Peoples' Guard Freedom Euqailty Independencemain stream; Polish Socialist Party's underground; progressive, antinazi and antiSoviet; believed firmly in private property; believed in Marx's critique of the Capitalist system, but rejected his solution) Leni (Forest Peoplevarious) Polish Secret State Romanian resistance movement Singaporean resistance movement Dalforce Force 136 Slovak resistance movement Soviet resistance movement Thai resistance movement Ukrainian Insurgent Army (anti-German, anti-Soviet and anti-Polish resistance movement) Viet Minh (Vietnamese resistance organization that had fought Vichy France and the Japanese) Yugoslavia Yugoslav Partisans ("Partisans", pro-communist resistance)

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Notable individuals
Mordechaj Anielewicz Dawid Apfelbaum Yitzhak Arad Dietrich Bonhoeffer Tadeusz Bor-Komorowski Petr Braiko Pierre Brossolette Masha Bruskina Alexander Chekalin Marek Edelman Aleksey Fyodorov Manolis Glezos Stefan Grot-Rowecki Jens Christian Hauge Enver Hoxha Vassili Kononov Oleg Koshevoy Otomars Okalns Alexander Pechersky Witold Pilecki Christian Pineau Panteleimon Ponomarenko Zinaida Portnova Semyon Rudniev Alexander Saburov Hannie Schaft Sophie Scholl Roman Shukhevych Henk Sneevliet Arturs Sprois Ilya Starinov Claus von Stauffenberg Imants Sudmalis Gunnar Snsteby

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Luis Taruc Josip Broz "Tito" Gaston Vandermeersche Aris Velouchiotis Pyotr Vershigora Nancy Wake Napoleon Zervas Simcha Zorin

Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya Sydir Kovpak Nikolai Kuznetsov Martin Linge Luigi Longo Walter Audisio Pavel Luspekayev Max Manus Pyotr Masherov Ho Chi Minh Jean Moulin

Documentaries
Confusion was their business (from the BBC series Secrets of World War II is a documentary about the SOE (Special Operations Executive) and its operations The Real Heroes of the Telemark is a book and documentary by survival expert Ray Mears about the Norwegian sabotage of the German nuclear program (Norwegian heavy water sabotage) Making Choices: The Dutch Resistance during World War II (2005) This award-winning, hour-long documentary tells the stories of four participants in the Dutch Resistance and the miracles that saved them from certain death at the hands of the Nazis.

Dramatisations
'Allo 'Allo! (1982-1992) a situation comedy about the French resistance movement (a parody of Secret Army) LArme des ombres (1969) internal and external battles of the French resistance. Directed by Jean-Pierre Melville Battle of Neretva (film) (1969) is a movie depicting events that took place during the Fourth anti-Partisan Offensive (Fall Weiss), also known as The Battle for the Wounded Boko Buha (1978) tells the tale of a boy who conned his way into partisan ranks at age of 15 and became legendary for his talent of destroying enemy bunkers Charlotte Gray (2001) thought to be based on Nancy Wake Come and See (1985) is a Soviet made film about partisans in Belarus, as well as war crimes committed by the war's various factions. Defiance (2008) tells the story of the Bielski partisans, a group of Jewish resistance fighters operating in Belorussia. Flame & Citron (2008) is a movie based on two Danish resistance fighters who were in the Holger Danske (resistance group). A Generation (1955) (Polish) two young men involved in resistance by GL The Heroes of Telemark (1965) is very loosely based on the Norwegian sabotage of the German nuclear program (the later Real Heroes of Telemark is more accurate) Het Meisje met het Rode Haar (1982) (Dutch) is about Dutch resistance fighter Hannie Schaft Kana (1956) (Polish) first film ever to depict Warsaw Uprising

Resistance during World War II The Longest Day (1962) features scenes of the resistance operations during Operation Overlord Massacre in Rome (1973) is based on a true story about Nazi retaliation after a resistance attack in Rome My Opposition: the Diaries of Friedrich Kellner (2007) is a Canadian film about Justice Inspector Friedrich Kellner of Laubach who challenged the Nazis before and during the war Secret Army (1977) a television series about the Belgian resistance movement, based on real events Soldaat van Oranje (1977) (Dutch) is about some Dutch students who enter the resistance in cooperation with England Sophie Scholl Die letzten Tage (2005) is about the last days in the life of Sophie Scholl Strker als die Nacht (1954) (East German) follows the story of a group of German Communist resistance fighters Sutjeska (1973) is a movie based on the events that took place during the Fifth anti-Partisan Offensive (Fall Schwartz)

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See also
Anti-partisan operations in World War II Collaborationism (the opposite of resistance) Collaboration during World War II American O.S.S. Office of Strategic Services British S.O.E. The Special Operations Executive British S.I.S. The Secret Intelligence Service British S.A.S. The Special Air Service Anti-fascism Covert cell Ghetto uprising Quotations about resistance List of revolutions and rebellions Resistance movement

External links
European Resistance Archive
[6]

Interviews from the Underground [7] Eyewitness accounts of Russia's Jewish resistance during World War II; website & documentary film.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Anna M (http:/ / web. ku. edu/ ~eceurope/ hist557/ lect16. htm) http:/ / www. vojska. net/ eng/ world-war-2/ yugoslavia/ Operation WEISS - The Battle of Neretva (http:/ / www. vojska. net/ eng/ world-war-2/ operation/ weiss-1943/ ) Battles & Campaigns during World War 2 in Yugoslavia (http:/ / www. vojska. net/ eng/ world-war-2/ battles-and-operations/ )

[5] pp. 343-376, Eyre [6] http:/ / www. resistance-archive. org/ [7] http:/ / www. jewishpartisans. net/

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Germanoccupied Europe
Germanoccupied Europe refers to the countries of Europe which were occupied by the military forces of Nazi Germany at various times during World War II between 1939 and 1945. Some countries started the war as Allies of the United Kingdom or the Soviet Union, and were forced to surrender, or were subdued and then occupied. In some cases, the governments went into exile, or governments-in-exile were formed by some of their citizens, in other Allied countries. Other countries occupied by the Nazis were officially neutral. Some occupied countries were former members of the Axis powers, and were occupied by German forces at a later stage of the war.

German and other Axis conquests (in blue) in Europe, during World War II.

Occupied countries
The countries occupied included all or most of:
Country of occupation Albania Austria Belgium Belorussian SSR Czechoslovakia Denmark Estonia France Greece Guernsey Italy Jersey Latvia Lithuania See for further details

German occupation of Albania Anschluss Belgium during World War II Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany Occupation of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany Occupation of Denmark Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany Occupation of France by Nazi Germany Axis occupation of Greece during World War II Occupation of the Channel Islands Italian Social Republic Occupation of the Channel Islands by Nazi Germany Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany Occupation of Lithuania by Nazi Germany

Germanoccupied Europe

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Occupation of Luxembourg by Nazi Germany History of Monaco German occupation of the Netherlands Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany Occupation of Poland (19391945) San Marino in World War II Reichskommissariat Ukraine Invasion of Yugoslavia

Luxembourg Monaco The Netherlands Norway Poland San Marino Ukrainian SSR Yugoslavia

See also
Drang nach Osten ("The Drive Eastward") Lebensraum ("Room to Live") European theatre of World War II Atlantic Wall New Order (political system) List of Nazi-German concentration camps Reorganization of occupied dioceses during World War II

Technology during World War II

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Technology during World War II

World War II series Precursors

Asian events European events Timeline 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Eastern front Pacific War Battles Military operations Commanders Technology Atlas of the World Battle Fronts Manhattan project Aerial warfare Home front Collaboration Resistance
Aftermath Casualties Further effects War crimes Japanese War Crimes Consequences of Nazism Soviet

occupation Depictions World War II articles Alphabetical index: 0-9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Campaigns | Countries | Equipment Lists | Outline | Timeline | Portal | Category

Technology during World War II played a crucial role in determining the outcome of the war. Much of it had begun development during the interwar years of the 1920s and 1930s, some was developed in response to lessons learned during the war, and yet more was only beginning to be developed as the war ended. The massive research and development demands of the war had a great impact on the scientific community. Given the scope of the war and the rapid technological escalation which happened during the war, a vast array of technology was employed, as different nations and different units found themselves equipped with different levels of technology. Military technology developments spanned across all areas of industry. After the war ended, these developments led to new sciences like cybernetics.

Areas of technology
Almost all types of technology were utilized in the heavan efforts of the participants of participating nations. The main areas of technology which saw major developments were: Weaponry; including ships, vehicles, aircraft, artillery, rocketry, small arms, and biological,chemical and atomic weapons. Logistical support; including vehicles necessary for transporting soldiers and supplies, such as trains, trucks, and aircraft. Communications and intelligence; including devices used for navigation, communication, and espionage. Medicine; including surgical innovations, chemical medicines, and techniques Industry; including the technologies employed at factories and production/distribution centers.

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Weaponry
Military weapons technology experienced rapid advances during World War II, and over six years there was a disorientating rate of change in combat in everything from aircraft to small arms. The war began with most armies utilizing technology that had changed little from World War I, and in some cases, had remained unchanged since the 19th century. The war began with cavalry, trenches, and World War I-era battleships, but within only six years, armies around the world had developed jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, and even atomic weapons in the case of the United States. The best jet fighters at the end of the war easily outflew any of the leading aircraft of 1939, such as the Spitfire Mark I. The early war bombers that caused such carnage would almost all have been shot down in 1945, many with two shots, by radar-aimed, proximity fuse-detonated anti-aircraft fire, just as the 1941 "invincible fighter", the Zero, had by 1944 become the "turkey" of the "Marianas Turkey Shoot". The best late-war tanks, such as the Soviet JS-3 heavy tank or the German Panther medium tank, handily outclassed the best tanks of 1939 such as Panzer IIIs. In the navy the battleship, long seen as the dominant element of sea power, was displaced by the greater range and striking power of the aircraft carrier. The chaotic importance of amphibious landings stimulated the Western Allies to develop the Higgins boat, a primary troop landing craft; the DUKW, a six-wheel-drive amphibious truck, amphibious tanks to enable beach landing attacks and Landing Ship, Tanks to land tanks on beaches. Increased organization and coordination of amphibious assaults coupled with the resources necessary to sustain them caused the complexity of planning to increase by orders of magnitude, thus requiring formal systematization giving rise to what has become the modern management methodology of project management by which almost all modern engineering, construction and software developments are organized.

Aircraft
In the Western European Theatre of World War II, air power became crucial throughout the war, both in tactical and strategic operations (respectively, battlefield and long-range). Superior German aircraft, aided by ongoing introduction of design and technology innovations, allowed the German armies to overrun Western Europe with great speed in 1940, largely assisted by lack of Allied aircraft, which in any case lagged in design and technical development during the slump in research investment after the Great Depression. Since the end of World War I, the French Air Force had been badly neglected, as military leaders preferred to spend money on ground armies and static fortifications to fight another World War I-style war. As a result, by 1940, the French Air Force had only 1562 planes and was together with 1070 RAF planes facing 5,638 Luftwaffe fighters and fighter-bombers. Most French airfields were located in north-east France, and were quickly overrun in the early stages of the campaign. The Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom possessed some very advanced fighter planes, such as Spitfires and Hurricanes, but these were not useful for attacking ground troops on a battlefield, and the small number of planes dispatched to France with the British Expeditionary Force were destroyed fairly quickly. Subsequently, the Luftwaffe was able to achieve air superiority over France in 1940, giving the German military an immense advantage in terms of reconnaissance and intelligence.

Technology during World War II German aircraft rapidly achieved air superiority over France in early 1940, allowing the Luftwaffe to begin a campaign of strategic bombing against British cities. With France out of the war, German bomber planes based near the English Channel were able to launch raids on London and other cities during the Blitz, with varying degrees of success. After World War I, the concept of massed aerial bombingthe "The bomber will always get through"had become very popular with politicians and military leaders seeking an alternative to the carnage of trench warfare, and as a result, the air forces of Britain, France, and Germany had developed fleets of bomber planes to enable this (France's bomber wing was severely neglected, whilst Germany's bombers were developed in secret as they were explicitly forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles). The bombing of Shanghai by the Imperial Japanese Navy on January 28, 1932 and August 1937 and the bombings during the Spanish Civil War (1936 - 1939), had demonstrated the power of strategic bombing, and so air forces in Europe and the United States came to view bomber aircraft as extremely powerful weapons which, in theory, could bomb an enemy nation into submission on their own. As a result, the fear of bombers triggered major developments in aircraft technology. Nazi Germany had put only one large, long-range strategic bomber (the Heinkel He 177 Greif, with many delays and problems) into production, while the America Bomber concept resulted only in prototypes. The Spanish Civil War had proved that tactical dive-bombing using Stukas was a very efficient way of destroying enemy troops concentrations, and so resources and money had been devoted to the development of smaller bomber craft. As a result, the Luftwaffe was forced to attack London in 1940 with heavily overloaded Heinkel and Dornier medium bombers, and even with the unsuitable Junkers Ju 87. These bombers were painfully slowGerman engineers had been unable to develop sufficiently large piston aircraft engines (those that were produced tended to explode through extreme overheating), and so the bombers used for the Battle of Britain were woefully undersized. As German bombers had not been designed for long-range strategic missions, they lacked sufficient defenses. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter escorts had not been equipped to carry enough fuel to guard the bombers on both the outbound and return journeys, and the longer range Bf 110s could be out-manoeuvred by the short range British fighters. (A bizarre feature of the war was how long it took to conceive of the Drop tank.) The air defense was well organized and equipped with effective radar that survived the bombing. As a result, German bombers were shot down in large numbers, and were unable to inflict enough damage on cities and military-industrial targets to force Britain out of the war in 1940 or to prepare for the planned invasion. British long-range bomber planes such as the Short Stirling had been designed before 1939 for strategic flights and given a large armament, but their technology still suffered from numerous flaws. The smaller and shorter ranged Bristol Blenheim, the RAF's most-used bomber, was defended by only one hydraulically operated machine-gun turret, and whilst this appeared sufficient, it was soon revealed that the turret was a pathetic defence against squadrons of German fighter planes. American bomber planes such as the B-17 Flying Fortress had been built before the war as the only adequate long-range bombers in the world, designed to patrol the long American coastlines. Defended by as many as six machine-gun turrets providing 360 cover, the B-17s were still vulnerable without fighter protection even when used in large formations.

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Technology during World War II Despite the abilities of Allied bombers, though, Germany was not quickly crippled by Allied air raids. At the start of the war the vast majority of bombs fell miles from their targets, as poor navigation technology ensured that Allied airmen frequently could not find their targets at night. The bombs used by the Allies were very high-tech devices, and mass production meant that the precision bombs were often made sloppily and so failed to explode. German industrial production actually rose continuously from 1940 to 1945, despite the best efforts of the Allied air forces to cripple industry. Significantly, the Bomber Offensive kept the revolutionary Type XXI U-Boat from entering service during the war. Moreover, Allied air raids had a serious propaganda impact on the German government, all prompting Germany to begin serious development on air defence technologyin the form of fighter planes. The Jet aircraft age began during the war with the development of the Heinkel He 178, the first true turbojet. Late in the war the Germans brought in the first operational Jet fighter, the Messerschmitt Me 262. However, despite their technological edge, German jets were overwhelmed by Allied air superiority, frequently being destroyed on or near the airstrip. Other jet aircraft, such as the British Gloster Meteor, which flew missions but never saw combat, did not significantly distinguish themselves from top-line piston-driven aircraft. Aircraft saw rapid and broad development during the war to meet the demands of aerial combat and address lessons learned from combat experience. From the open cockpit airplane to the sleek jet fighter, many different types were employed, often designed for very specific missions. During the war the Germans produced various Glide bomb weapons, which were the first smart bombs; the V-1 flying bomb, which was the first cruise missile weapon; and the V-2 rocket, the first ballistic missile weapon. The last of these was the first step into the space age as its trajectory took it through the stratosphere, higher and faster than any aircraft. This later led to the development of the Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). Wernher Von Braun led the V-2 development team and later emigrated to the United States where he contributed to the development of the Saturn V rocket, which took men to the moon in 1969. Theoretical foundation The laboratory of Ludwig Prandtl at Gttingen was the main center of theoretical and mathematical aerodynamics and fluid dynamics research from soon after 1904 to the end of World War II. Prandtl coined the term boundary layer and founded modern (mathematical) aerodynamics. The laboratory lost its dominance when the researchers were dispersed, after the war. This helps to understand why the Messerschmitt Me 262 had swept wings but the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star didn't.

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Vehicles
The Treaty of Versailles had imposed severe restrictions upon Germany constructing vehicles for military purposes, and so throughout the 1920s and 1930s, German arms manufacturers and the Wehrmacht had begun secretly developing tanks. As these vehicles were produced in secret, their technical specifications and battlefield potentials were largely unknown to the European Allies until the war actually began. When German troops invaded the Benelux nations and France in May 1940, German weapons technology proved

Technology during World War II to be immeasurably superior to that of the Allies. The French Army suffered from serious technical deficiencies with its tanks. In 1918, the Renault FT-17 tanks of France had been the most advanced in the world, although small, capable of far outperforming their slow and clumsy British, German, or American counterparts. However, this superiority resulted in tank development stagnating after World War I. By 1939, French tanks were virtually unchanged from 1918. French and British Generals believed that a future war with Germany would be fought under very similar conditions as those of 19141918. Both invested in thickly-armoured, heavily-armed vehicles designed to cross shell damaged ground and trenches under fire. At the same time the British also developed faster but lightly armoured Cruiser tanks to range behind the enemy lines. In contrast, the Wehrmacht invested in fast, light tanks designed to overtake infantry. These vehicles would be useless in trench warfare, but would vastly outperform British and French tanks in mechanized battles. German tanks followed the design of France's 1918 Renault versionsa moderately-armoured hull with a rotating turret on top mounting a cannon. This gave every German tank the potential to engage other armoured vehicles, but in contrast, around 35% of French tanks were only equipped with machine guns (again designed for trench warfare), ensuring that when French and German tanks met in battle, a third of the French vehicles could only fire machine-gun bullets, which simply bounced harmlessly off German armour. Only a handful of French tanks had radio sets, and these often broke as the tank lurched over uneven ground. German tanks were all equipped with radios, allowing them to communicate with one another throughout battles, whilst French tank commanders could rarely contact other vehicles. The Matilda Mk I tanks of the British Army were also designed for infantry support and were protected by thick armour. This was ideal for trench warfare, but made the tanks painfully slow in open battles. Their light cannons and machine-guns were usually unable to inflict serious damage on German vehicles. The exposed caterpillar tracks were easily broken by gunfire, and the Matilda tanks had a tendency to incinerate their crews if hit, as the petrol tanks were located on the top of the hull. By contrast the Infantry tank Matilda II fielded in lesser numbers was largely invulnerable to German gunfire and its gun was able to punch through the German tanks. However French and British tanks were at a disadvantage compared to the air supported German armoured assaults, and a lack of armoured support contributed significantly to the rapid Allied collapse in 1940. World War II marked the first full-scale war where mechanization played a significant role. Most nations did not begin the war equipped for this. Even the vaunted German Panzer forces relied heavily on non-motorised support and flank units in large operations. While Germany recognized and demonstrated the value of concentrated use of mechanized forces, they never had these units in enough quantity to supplant traditional units. However, the British also saw the value in mechanization. For them it was a way to enhance an otherwise limited manpower reserve. America as well sought to create a mechanized army. For the United States, it was not so much a matter of limited troops, but instead a strong industrial base that could afford such equipment on a great scale. The most visible vehicles of the war were the tanks, forming the armored spearhead of mechanized warfare. Their impressive firepower and armor made them the premier fighting machine of ground warfare. However, even more important to a fighting mechanized army were the large number of trucks and lighter vehicles that kept the army moving.

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Ships
Naval warfare changed dramatically during World War II, with the ascent of the aircraft carrier to the premier vessel of the fleet, and the impact of increasingly capable submarines on the course of the war. The development of new ships during the war was somewhat limited due to the protracted time period needed for production, but important developments were often retrofitted to older vessels. Advanced German submarine types came into service too late and after nearly all the experienced crews had been lost. The German U-boats were used primarily for stopping/destroying the resources from the United States and Canada coming across the Atlantic. Submarines were critical in the Pacific Ocean as well as in the Atlantic Ocean. Japanese defenses against Allied submarines were ineffective. Much of the merchant fleet of the Empire of Japan, needed to supply its scattered forces and bring supplies such as petroleum and food back to the Japanese Archipelago, was sunk. This kept them from training adequate replacements for their lost aircrews and even forced the navy to be based near its oil supply. Among the warships sunk by submarines was the war's largest aircraft carrier, the Shinano. The most important shipboard advances were in the field of anti-submarine warfare. Driven by the desperate necessity of keeping Britain supplied, technologies for the detection and destruction of submarines was advanced at high priority. The use of ASDIC (SONAR) became widespread and so did the installation of shipboard and airborne radar.

Weapons
The actual weapons; the guns, mortars, artillery, bombs, and other devices, were as diverse as the participants and objectives. A bewildering array were developed during the war to meet specific needs that arose, but many traced their development to prior to World War II. and were aimed with the aid of radar and airplanes. Torpedoes began to use magnetic detonators; compass directed, programmed and even acoustic guidance systems; and improved propulsion. Fire-control systems continued to develop for ships' guns and came into use for torpedoes and anti-aircraft fire. Human torpedoes and the Hedgehog (weapon) were also developed. Armour weapons: The Tank destroyer, Specialist Tanks for Combat engineering including mine clearing Flail tanks, Flame tank, and amphibious designs Aircraft: Glide bombs - the first "smart bombs", such as the Fritz X anti-shipping missile, had wire or radio remote control; the world's first jet fighter (Messerschmitt 262) and jet bomber (Arado 234), the world's first operational military helicopters (Flettner Fl 282), the world's first rocket-powered fighter (Messerschmitt 163) Missiles: The Pulse jet powered V-1 flying bomb was the world's first cruise missile, Rockets progressed enormously: V-2 rocket, Katyusha rocket artillery and air launched rockets. HEAT, and HESH anti-armour warheads. Proximity fuze for shells, bombs and rockets. This fuze is designed to detonate an explosive automatically when close enough to the target to destroy it, so a direct hit is not required and time/place of closest approach does not need to be estimated. Magnetic torpedoes and mines also had a sort of proximity fuse. Guided weapons (by radio or trailing wires): glide bombs, crawling bombs, rockets.

Technology during World War II Self-guiding weapons: torpedoes (sound seeking, compass guided and looping), V1 missile (compass and timer guided) Aiming devices for bombs, torpedoes, artillery and machine guns, using special purpose mechanical and electronic analog and (perhaps) digital "computers". The mechanical analog Norden bomb sight is a well known example. Napalm was developed, but did not see wide use until the Korean War Plastic explosives like Nobel 808, Hexoplast 75, Compositions C and C2

198

Small arms development

New production methods for weapons such as stamping, riveting, and welding came into being to produce the number of arms needed. While this had been tried before, during World War I, it had resulted in quite possibly the worst firearm ever adopted by any military for use: the French Chauchat light machine gun. Design and production methods had advanced enough to manufacture weapons of reasonable reliability such as the PPSh-41, PPS-42, Sten, MP 40, M3 Grease Gun, Gewehr 43, Thompson submachine gun and the M1 Garand rifle. Other Weapons commonly found During World War II include the American, Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), M1 Carbine Rifle, as well as the Colt M1911; The Japanese Type 100 submachine gun, the Type 99 machine gun, and the Arisaka bolt action rifle all were significant weapons used during the war. World War II saw the birth of the reliable semi-automatic rifle, such as the American M1 Garand and, more importantly, that of the first real assault rifles. The Germans essentially created and pioneered the idea of an "assault rifle" or sturmgewehr, coining the name for the species in the process. Earlier renditions that hinted at this idea were that of the employment of the Browning Automatic Rifle and 1916 Fedorov Avtomat in a walking fire tactic in which men would advance on the enemy position showering it with a hail of lead. The Germans first developed the FG 42 for its paratroopers in the assault and later the Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44), the world's first true assault rifle. The FG 42 would probably hold this place but for its use of a full powered rifle cartridge making it hard to control by an unskilled operator. Developments in machine gun technology culminated in the Maschinengewehr 42 (MG42) which was of an advanced design unmatched at the time. It spurred post-war development on both sides of the upcoming Cold War and is still used by some armies to this day including the German Bundeswehr's MG 3. The Heckler & Koch G3, and many other Heckler & Koch designs, came from its system of operation. The United States military meshed the operating system of the FG 42 with the belt feed system of the MG42 to create the M60 machine gun used in the Vietnam War. Despite being overshadowed by self-loading/automatic rifles and sub-machine guns, bolt-action rifles remained the mainstay infantry weapon of many nations during World War II. When the United States entered World War II, there were not enough M1 Garand rifles available to American forces which forced the US to start producing more M1903 rifles in order to act as a "stop gap" measure until sufficient quantities of M1 Garands were produced. During the conflict, many new models of bolt-action rifles were produced as a result of lessons learned from the First World War with the designs of a number of bolt-action infantry rifles being modified in order to speed up production as well as to make the rifles more compact and easier to handle. Examples of bolt-action rifles that were used during

Technology during World War II World War II include the German Mauser Kar98k, the British Lee-Enfield No.4, and the Springfield M1903A3. During the course of World War II, bolt-action rifles and carbines were modified even further to meet new forms of warfare the armies of certain nations faced e.g. urban warfare and jungle warfare. Examples include the Soviet Mosin-Nagant M1944 carbine, which were developed by the Soviets as a result of the Red Army's experiences with urban warfare e.g. the Battle of Stalingrad, and the British Lee-Enfield No.5 carbine, that were developed for British and Commonwealth forces fighting the Japanese in South-East Asia and the Pacific. When World War II ended in 1945, the small arms that were used in the conflict still saw action in the hands of the armed forces of various nations and guerrilla movements during and after the Cold War era. Nations like the Soviet Union and the United States provided many surplus, World War II-era small arms to a number of nations and political movements during the Cold War era as a pretext to providing more modern infantry weapons. Besides seeing conflict long after World War II ended, the small arms of World War II are now considered collector's items with many civilian firearm owners and collectors around the world due to their historical nature, low cost (due to many of these firearms now appearing on the firearms market in large numbers over the past decade), and their durability.

199

The atomic bomb

The massive research and development demands of the war included the Manhattan Project, the effort to quickly develop an atomic bomb, or nuclear fission warhead. It was perhaps the most profound military development of the war, and had a great impact on the scientific community, among other things creating a network of national laboratories in the United States. Development was completed too late for use in the European Theater of World War II. Its invention meant that a single bomber aircraft could carry a weapon sufficiently powerful to devastate entire cities, making conventional warfare against a nation with an arsenal of them suicidal. The strategic importance of the bomb, and its even more powerful fusion-based successors, did not become fully apparent until the United States lost its monopoly on the weapon in the post-war era. The Soviet Union developed and tested their first nuclear weapon in 1949, based partially on information obtained from Soviet espionage in the United States. The competition between the two superpowers would lead to the Cold War. The strategic implications of such a massively destructive weapon still reverberate in the 21st century. There was also a German project to develop an atomic weapon. This failed for a variety of reasons, most notably German Antisemitism. The first tier of continental high energy physicists (Einstein, Bohr, Fermi, and Oppenheimer) who did much of his early study and research in Germany, were either Jewish or, in the case of Enrico Fermi, married to a Jew. Oppenheimer, who was an American Jew, was also a Socialist by conviction, and associated with the Communist Party. When they left Germany, the only significant atomic physicist left in Germany was Heisenberg, who dragged his feet on the project. He made some faulty calculations suggesting that the Germans would need significantly more heavy water than was necessary. The project was then doomed due to insufficient resources.

Technology during World War II

200

Electronics, communications and intelligence

Electronics rose to prominence quickly in World War II. While prior to the war few electronic devices were seen as important pieces of equipment, by the middle of the war such instruments as radar and ASDIC (sonar) had proven their value. Additionally, equipment designed for communications and the interception of those communications was becoming critical. Digital electronics, particularly, were also given a massive boost by war-related research. The pressing need for numerous time-critical calculations for various projects like code-breaking and ballistics tables accentuated the need for the development of electronic computer technology. The semi-secret ENIAC and the super-secret Colossus demonstrated using thousands of valves (vacuum tubes) could be reliable enough to be useful, paving the way for the post-war development of stored program computers.

German Enigma encryption machine.

The United Kingdom and the United States were the leaders in electronics. The US center for basic radar development was the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Radiation Laboratory. The British developed the magnetron which is now used in microwave ovens. Electronic and optical countermeasures such as jamming and radar absorbing material were developed. While the war stimulated many technologies, such as radio and radar development, it slowed down related yet non-critical fields such as television and radio.

Industrial technology
While the development of new equipment was rapid, it was also important to be able to produce these tools and get them to the troops in appropriate quantity. Those nations that were able to maximize their industrial capacity and mobilize it for the war effort were most successful at equipping their troops in a timely way with adequate material. An outstanding German innovation was the Jerrycan which carries by its name a tribute to its success. One of the biggest developments was the ability to produce synthetic rubber. Natural rubber was mainly harvested in the South Pacific, and the Allies were cut off from a large quantity of it due to Japanese expansion. Thus the development of synthetic rubber allowed for the Allied war machine to continue growing, giving the US a significant technical edge as World War II continued. For the Germans it was the development of alternative fuels as in hydrogen peroxide which would be a forerunner to the development of fuel-cell technology and synthetic fuel technology.

Technology during World War II

201

New medicines
One of the most dramatic single medical advances was probably the wide spread use of penicillin to treat wounds and bacterial diseases. Pepto Bismol, which is still used widely today, was developed during the war as well.

See also
Military funding of science Military production during World War II Technology during World War I Technological escalation during World War II List of equipment used in World War II Secret and special weapons in Showa Japan Operation Paperclip Signal Corps Radio List of U.S. Signal Corps Vehicles SCR-268 radar

SCR-270 Radar

References
Anderson, J. (2005). Ludwig Prandtl's boundary layer. Physics Today.

Article Sources and Contributors

202

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Table of contents Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=283983299 Contributors: RichardF Introduction Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=283983374 Contributors: RichardF World War II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309917992 Contributors: *TPC* Clan, -Ilhador-, -Majestic-, -Marcus-, -OOPSIE-, 07ed01, 100110100, 119, 123456abcd, 12mollydog, 172, 18Fox, 23prootie, 23skidoo, 2k6168, 3D Design, 578, 5p33dy, 64.12.106.xxx, 68Kustom, 96T, 9tdr, A Nobody, A Softer Answer, A Sunshade Lust, A mundinger, A.K.A.47, A0928527112, A23259789, ABCD, AHM, AI, ALE!, ALX TATER, ALargeElk, AP1787, ASDFGYUIOP, AThing, Aakashraj1990kash, Aar, Aaron Bowen, Aaron Brenneman, Aaronp808, Abcdefghayden, Abednigo, Abune, Ace ETP, AceMagic5, Acetic Acid, Adam Carr, Adam sk, AdamRaizen, Adamc007, Adamrush, Adashiel, Addshore, Adityakistampally, AdmiralKolchak, Admrboltz, Ados, Adrian M. 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MK, MK2, MPerel, MWAK, Macy, Magysty, Mangostar, Maralia, Markussep, Mathew5000, Matty-chan, Melanochromis, Mentality, Mercedestdw, Merlin G., Michael Johnson, Mike Young, Mikhailov Kusserow, Mintguy, Miranche, Mixcoatl, Mkpumphrey, Mmoneypenny, Morwen, Mrg3105, Mugs2109, Mukkakukaku, My Cat inn, Myanw, Naddy, NawlinWiki, Neelix, Niayre, Nick-D, Nicolae Coman, Nikai, NinjaLore, Nobs, Nomadtales, Nutiketaiel, Nv8200p, Oberkommando, Octane, Olivier, Onetwo1, Opelio, Orphic, Owen, OwenX, Oxymoron83, PFHLai, PMG, Patstuart, Paul A, Perconte, Petercorless, Petrescu3, Phil Boswell, Philip Baird Shearer, Piotrus, Pudeo, Qertis, Qxz, Radagast83, Raul654, Rdsmith4, RedWolf, Renata3, Resigua, Rex Germanus, Rich Farmbrough, Richard cocks, Rickjames69er, Ricky81682, Rmhermen, RobNeal1, Roke, Romanm, Rotationx, Rumping, Samuel Blanning, Santa riskis, Santa-Art, Sarahtoga, Sean D Martin, Seanzala, Seav, Seth ze, Sgfoote, Shady Tree Man, Shanes, SilverbackRon, SineWave, Sionus, Skinnyweed, SkyWalker, 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Anderson, Stevertigo, Stewartadcock, Super cyclist, Svart, Tabletop, Taraborn, Teeg82, The Rambling Man, The Transhumanist, TheDJ, TheGrappler, Theevilempire666, Thejason, Thepizzaking, Thingg, Thuresson, Tiptoety, Tweisbach, Tycho, Uncompetence, User86654, Valip, Versus22, Vsmith, WO2, Wafulz, Waggers, Wallie, Wally, Wayward, Wbfergus, WhisperToMe, Whitetigah, Wikibofh, Wikidudeman, Willhsmit, Wimt, Winston2, Wknight94, Wolfcub, Woozle, Xaxafrad, Xezbeth, Xompanthy, Yaluen, Yintan, Youngla0450, Zaui, Zeroreaper5, Zigger, Zntrip, 995 anonymous edits Aftermath of World War II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=301660850 Contributors: Aarktica, Afluent Rider, Ahuskay, Akihabara, Alexf, Alphablast, Arakunem, Bigglesjames, Blueshirts, Bronks, Bsadowski1, Bubblegumbobby, Caknuck, Capricorn42, Carlaude, Civil Engineer III, Classical geographer, Cloud20390, DrFrench, E0steven, Equata32, Ghepeu, Gilliam, Haber, Hmains, Iosef, It Is Me Here, J.delanoy, JC Laser, Jacurek, Jj137, Johan Elisson, Justmeherenow, Katalaveno, Kevin j, Kirill Lokshin, Lawrieeilola, Listowy, Lordtopcat, MER-C, MaGioZal, Mrcuddlesworth, Neutrality, NoSeptember, Nufy8, Nutiketaiel, Oberiko, Pandasandpenguins, Reptillo, Rjwilmsi, Roastytoast, Sabresfan303, Someguy1221, StaticGull, Stor stark7, Tabisu, Thiseye, WRK, Wtmitchell, Xcentaur, 91 anonymous edits World War II casualties Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309952914 Contributors: -js-, 00666, 119, 123dan123dan123, 123ilikecheese, 23prootie, 2D, 96T, AMK8789, Addshore, Ahoerstemeier, Alain2, Ale jrb, Aleenf1, Alex122188, Alex43223, Ali, Allen1221, Altar of Kez, Amcaja, AmiDaniel, Amire80, Anas Salloum, Andrwsc, Ann O'nyme, Ann Stouter, Anna Frodesiak, Anomaly2002, Ant6720, Antandrus, Arakunem, Archanamiya, Aris Katsaris, Aristotle1990, Ashdog137, Av0id3r, Avono, AxelBoldt, Ayyou, BANANA39, BTLizard, Bant diet, Barneca, Bart133, Bdr177, Berndd11222, Blaine.varner, Bmgoau, Bmpower, Bobo192, Boby231, Bomanboi, Bookgrrl, Borgx, Brendenhull, Brian Huffman, Brianski, Bryan Derksen, Bumhoolery, Burningview, Calvin 1998, CapitalR, Capricorn42, Caranorn, Catgut, Cautious, Century0, Chairboy, Chingerson, Chorny, Chris the speller, Chrislk02, Christopher Parham, Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Colchicum, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Cosac16, Cpcheung, Crazycomputers, Crimson Observer, DH85868993, DIREKTOR, Dallas Alice, Danimoth, Danzyl, Darcrist, Dark123, Darkone, Dauodwa, Davemonk1984, Daveydweeb, David Underdown, DeadEyeArrow, Deadtrees, Delldot, Delta G, Dibcrew, DionysiusThrax, DirkvdM, Discospinster, Dna-webmaster, DocEss, DocWatson42, Dp462090, Dpol, Drogo Underburrow, Duncharris, Durova, Dvavasour, Dysepsion, Easternknight, Edison, Edivorce, Edward, Eenu, Eevo, Ejrh, Elfalem, Enceladus, Endersdouble, Enigmaman, Epbr123, Eric Shalov, Eric-Wester, Erikupoeg, Erockrph, Esprit15d, Evil Monkey, Exeunt, Faradayplank, Fiddlehead, Flewis, Flowerpotman, Fredrik, Frisco415own, Fundamental metric tensor, Fvw, GabrielF, Gaius Cornelius, Gcdonaldson, Gidonb, Gilliam, Goethean, Golbez, Gomm, Gon4z, Gothica36, Gr8opinionater, Grant65, Grey Fox-9589, Grue, Gtg204y, Guns n roses the best, H2ppyme, Hadal, Halibutt, Hamster X, Harryboyles, Hbk135, Headbomb, Helldjinn, Herstas, HexaChord, Hibernian, Hidaweed, Hippiemancam, Hmains, Hu, Hut 8.5, Ian Pitchford, Ian13, Ilya1166, Impetus, IndieJones, Ioeth, Iwantitalllll, Izehar, J.delanoy, J04n, JAHL14, JForget, Jac16888, Jackyd101, Jacurek, Jazzdude00021, Jeff G., Jeltz, Jgrozev, Jj137, Jnc, Joe.krisch, John Kenney, Johnleemk, Jojhutton, Joshbaumgartner, Jtborth, Julesd, Justmeherenow, Kafuffle, Karabinier, KaragouniS, Kariteh, Karl Rohm, Katalaveno, KathrynLybarger, Katieh5584, Kazak, Kechvsf, Kieraf, King of Hearts, Kingturtle, Kirill Lokshin, KnowledgeIsPower, Kostja, Kpstewart, Kransky, Krellis, Kross, Ksenon, Ksyrie, Kurt Leyman, Kylu, Lampajoo, LeaveSleaves, Lectonar, Leoni2, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Ligulem, Lkkity, Llort, Lotu, Lowellian, LtWinters, Lucasbfr, Luis Dantas, Lulu321, M. 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Consequences of German Nazism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309549629 Contributors: ABF, Ahuskay, Aieff, Altenmann, AmandaHansen, Amire80, Aramgutang, Aratuk, Atoric, Audin, BL, Balcer, Barticus88, Belligero, Berek, Bhadani, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Boccobrock, Bow-cnot, Brancron, Burstbreak, Catdude, Cautious, Che829, Colonel Mustard, CommonsDelinker, Cplakidas, Crystallina, CyrilleDunant, DGJM, Darklilac, Doubtused, Ebyabe, Edward, Ejrcito Rojo 1950, Elvey, Emax, Enceladus, Fabiform, Fifelfoo, Freako, Fuzheado, G-Man, GCarty, Gareth E Kegg, Geeman, Gianfranco2, Graham87, Granet, Hauser, Hippo43, Hmains, ITOD, IZAK, Ian Pitchford, Isomorphic, Itai, J04n, JIM19999, Jacurek, Jason M, Jeff3000, Jeffq, John Kenney, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josio00, Justmeherenow, KF, KapilTagore, Kchishol1970, Kelisi, Kilter, Kluwer, Lectonar, Lindut, Lysy, Mailerdaemon, Majorly, Mangoe, Martg76, Martin451, Martpol, Matthead, Merritcat, Mervyn, Miyokan, Molobo, Move, Msoos, Nehrams2020, Neilc, Onlyemarie, Optim, PabsP, Parhamr, Paul Siebert, PeterC, Philip Baird Shearer, Pika ten10, Plantchair55, Poetaris, Puddhe, Resolute, Revizionist, Rjwilmsi, Rockfang, Russavia, Ryulong, Sam Hocevar, Sam Spade, Samuel J. Howard, Sango123, Savidan, Sciurin, Sedan, Senzangakhona, Sgeo, SpaceMonkey, StillWalking, Stor stark7, SuperDeng, Susan Grace Bellerby, TEAKAY-C II R, TPK, The Anome, The wub, TheIncredibleEdibleOompaLoompa, Tony1, Troll Silent, Troll Deep, Verdadero, Wafulz, WereSpielChequers, WhisperToMe, Wikimol, Woogie10w, Woohookitty, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yodacows, Zara1709, 129 anonymous edits Japanese war crimes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309786708 Contributors: 14thArmored, 4kinnel, AED, Aartie, Adambiswanger1, Ahudson, Akamad, Akg1212, Akhil Bakshi, Amble, Andreasmperu, AnnaFrance, Antandrus, Apocalyptic Destroyer, Appleby, Art8641, Ashmoo, Aude, Audriusa, Ayecee, Azukimonaka, BD2412, BLJOU, Balladeer222, Baristarim, Belligero, Bendono, Bentecbye, Bigdan201, Binksternet, Bison augustus, Bloodshedder, Blueshirts, Bobblewik, Bossyboots221, Bowlhover, Branddobbe, Bridies, Btphelps, Bueller 007, CactusWriter, CaliforniaAliBaba, Caligvla, Callaghan772, CambridgeBayWeather, 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Physicist), Pinko1977, Piotrus, Pip2andahalf, Planetary, Plasticup, Poetaris, Pojanji, Poo-T, Qrfqr, Quadell, RB972, Ran, Ratwod, Remort, RevolverOcelotX, RexNL, Rholton, Rhysn, Rianne, Rich Farmbrough, Richardshusr, Risk one, Rjwilmsi, Rklawton, Rlevse, Robthebob, Roger.lee, RomaC, Rourin bushi, Ruffyuppie, RyanGerbil10, SPD, Sam Hocevar, Sandahl, Sasquatch, Savant13, Scott Paeth, SecretAgentMan00, SelfQ, Sennen goroshi, Sikandarji, Silvonen, Sir Joestar, Skilled sniper, Skinfan13, Sligocki, Spartian, Spot87, Srajan01, Stereotek, Stor stark7, StuartLaJoie, Surge79uwf, Svetovid, Sweeper tamonten, Sydneyphoenix, Syntax Max, T-1000, TAIWAN, TBE1965, Tachitsuteto, TakuyaMurata, Tassedethe, Texture, Thomas Paine1776, Tjmayerinsf, Tkh, Tobby72, TokyoJapan, TomStar81, TomorrowTime, Tony Sidaway, Trilobite, Tropicaljet, Tyler111, Urahypo, User27091, Vess, Violetriga, Viriditas, Wahtsay, Warrenpe, Watermint, Welsh, WelshMatt, White Cat, Wolcott, Xiahou, Xoxxon, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yangiskan, Yoji Hajime, Yotcmdr, Ypacara, Yuckhil, Yuje, Zakisan5, Zappa711, ZayZayEM, Zealander, Zedla, Zelikazi, 593 anonymous edits Military production during World War II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=298774345 Contributors: Abu badali, Alex earlier account, Alex1709, Ashtheman, Bobblewik, Bogdangiusca, Buckboard, Darrel UofA, Davidsteinberg, Dna-webmaster, Engineman, Factuarius, Funandtrvl, Geeman, Gentgeen, Ggbroad, GraemeLeggett, HawkShark, Hierakares, Ixfd64, Jeepday, Jj137, Joshbaumgartner, Laddiebuck, Ligulem, LtNOWIS, Marksspite2, Mfields1, Mugs2109, Mzajac, Nick-D, Oberiko, Oblivious, Parsecboy, Pavel Vozenilek, Petri Krohn, Rich Farmbrough, Rjensen, Simmyymmis, SuperDeng, TenOfAllTrades, TravisTX, Trekphiler, UnneededAplomb, WinterSpw, 106 anonymous edits Home front during World War II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309822354 Contributors: A bit iffy, ABF, Abu badali, Addshore, Ahoerstemeier, Akradecki, Alansohn, American2, Analogue Kid, Andrew0921, Andries, Antandrus, Anthonysenn, Anthonyycheung, Antsun85, Argcar5199, Argentium, Ashwinr, BHC, Bastin, Bevo74, Biruitorul, BlastOButter42, Bmatthewshea, Bobo192, Bronzey214, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carnildo, Chris Mason, Christian Historybuff, Christopher Parham, Christopherjfoster, Chwyatt, Ctbolt, DJ Clayworth, Dale Arnett, Dan O'Keefe, Dcandeto, De bezige bij, Destin, Dialh, Discospinster, Divisive Cottonwood, Dna-webmaster, Download, Dustimagic, Dwarf Kirlston, Dycedarg, EamonnPKeane, EdgeHM, Fanx, Faradayplank, Fuzziqersoftware, Garfield226, Ggbroad, Gilliam, Halo2, HexaChord, Hmains, Hobartimus, Hugo999, J.delanoy, Jay Litman, Jclemens, Jeremy Bolwell, Jhuuskon, John254, Joowwww, JustPhil, Justmeherenow, Kelran24, Lairor, Lielais Rolands, Lights, Mac Davis, Malinaccier, McSly, Megapixie, Meiner, Mervill wikipidea, Mervyn, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mjb, Mmyers1976, Mr Stephen, Mrg3105, Mxn, Mygerardromance, Nick Cooper, Nick-D, Nydas, Oblivious, Omicronpersei8, Oracle7168, Pbrook, Pearle, Philip Baird Shearer, Philip Cross, Piotrus, Pollinator, Pyrotec, RHB, Radiant chains, RaseaC, Reiem, Rich257, Rjensen, SJP, Sam Korn, Sceptre, SchuminWeb, Shawnino, Skeezix1000, Slo-mo, Smalljim, SomeUsr, Squirepants101, SuperDeng, Synthmesc, Tellyaddict, Teryx, The undertow, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tomwalden, Versus22, WODUP, Werdan7, William Avery, Woohookitty, Xp54321, Yachtsman1, Zerath13, ZimZalaBim, Zserdxcft, 365 anonymous edits Collaboration during World War II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=264937974 Contributors: 5TheChildren, AlasdairGreen27, Alcatel, Alexikoua, AlwaysForward, Amalas, Amire80, AnkaraCity, AnnaFrance, Anonimu, Apoivre, Arthur Rubin, Asidemes, Auntof6, Avrem, Axeman89, Balkanian`s word, Bandurist, Beatle Fab Four, Behaviourmodel, Ben-Velvel, Biruitorul, Blathnaid, Boodlesthecat, Bosharivale, Buckshot06, Chaosdruid, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chlorinated, Chris the speller, Christofor, Clarityfiend, Coffee, Colchicum, Colonies Chris, Comatose51, Conchuir, Corporal Punishment, David Kernow, Digwuren, Dijxtra, Dmitri Lytov, Dr. Dan, Dr.Gonzo, Dramaturge, Drbreznjev, Editor2020, Egsal, Erikupoeg, Espmod, FactsAssertingThemselves, Facty, Freshacconci, Gardar Rurak, Giraffedata, Goldfritha, Grey Fox-9589, Gryphon044, Hillock65, Hmains, Humus sapiens, Husond, Iamunknown, InsiderAversion, IrishPete, Ivario, J Milburn, J04n, Jacurek, Jayjg, Jean-Jacques Georges, Jj137, John.n-irl, Joseph N'Boko, Juliancolton, Justmeherenow, KathrynLybarger, Keep it Fake, Kevin07Corey08, Klamber, KomBrig, Kuban kazak, Kuhlfrst, Laffatthahaterz, LaughingSoLoud, LaughsAndLaughsAt, Lightmouse, Lokyz, Lvivske, Lysy, Maijinsan, Malik Shabazz, Man vyi, Manxruler, Mariah-Yulia, MartinDK, Martintg, Mayalld, Merbabu, Miborovsky, Michel Tavir, Mifter, Milhis, MisfitToys, Miyokan, Mkpumphrey, Mkruijff, MoveonNgiveitup, Mrg3105, Nahallac Silverwinds, Neutrality, Neverneutral, Nexm0d, Nixer, Nonnegotiable, Novalis, NuclearWarfare, Obamastopper, Olegwiki, Olgerd, OsamaBinScared, Ostap R, Parsecboy, Partisan1, PartyLiason, PasswordUsername, Patiwat, Paul Barlow, Paul kuiper NL, Peltimikko, Petri Krohn, Piotrus, Plasin, Poeticbent, Polly, Poppy, Poshgingersporty, Radeksz, Renata3, Rjecina, Rjwilmsi, RobNS, Robin Hood 1212, RockyMM, Ruslik0, Samogitia, Sander Sde, Sarah, Saybow, Semper-Fi 2006, Sergey Romanov, Signalhead, SiskelWithoutEbert, Sizeless, Skinny87, Smith2006, Staberinde, Starstylers, Stephan Leeds, SummerPhD, Tazmaniacs, Termer, Thaurisil, Theresa knott, Tiger Khan, Travelbird, Tymek, Valentinejoesmith, Valentinian, Vanjagenije, Vecrumba, W. B. Wilson, WRK, Wolfshade, Woohookitty, Wwoods, Xx236, YUL89YYZ, Zoltarpanaflex, 138 anonymous edits Resistance during World War II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309571852 Contributors: 3 Lwi, 96T, A Duck, AGK, Acbertrand, Acebulf, Alansohn, Albert Krantz, Andreasmperu, Arch dude, Atlantima, Ayla, Bayerischermann, Billinghurst, Biruitorul, Black Cat, Bobfrombrockley, Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, Bourquie, CDN99, Callidior, Cgingold, Ched Davis, Chowells, Chwyatt, CiTrusD, Ckelling08, Comte de Chagny, Cplakidas, DIREKTOR, Davewild, Deb, Deepred6502, Deipnosophista, Delius1967, DirkvdM, Dmitry Malayev, Dna-webmaster, Dougofborg, Dravecky, Ed Fitzgerald, EthicsFarAboveYou, Everyking, Fee Fi Foe Fum, Finlay McWalter, Fredgoat, Gaius Cornelius, Gardar Rurak, Gatoclass, GeorgHH, Gimmetrow, Gnangarra, GorillazFanAdam, GregorB, H2ppyme, Haggawaga - Oegawagga, HanzoHattori, Heqs, Hervegirod, J04n, Jacurek, Jamoche, Jed, Jim Sweeney, Joan Gos, John, John Lunney, Justmeherenow, Kbdank71, Kelisi, Kingston1949, Kolakowski, Kross, LeaveSleaves, Legionas, Lendorien, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Livanziska1, Lord Eru, Lquilter, Mark83, MartinDK, Mattbr, Matthead, Mattisse, Max rspct, Menthaxpiperita, Mereda, Mikeblew, Milen, Mister X, Mlouns, Monkeybob123, MrOllie, Msikma, Neverquick, Nickybutt, Oberiko, Oblivious, Paris By Night, Pat Godfrey, Patrick, Paul A, PaxEquilibrium, Pennywisepeter, Pernambuko, Piotrus, Plasin, Poetaris, Puchiko, Puma1989, RKernan, Raguleader, Res2216firestar, Revotfel, Rex Germanus, Rhythm, Rjwilmsi, RobertLunaIII, Robvhoorn, Rskellner, Senzangakhona, Sherzo, SiobhanHansa, Smyden01, SoLando, Staberinde, Stor stark7, Szopen, Tankred, Tavrian, The Wrong Man, Theoldanarchist, Toghrul Talibzadeh, USHMMwestheim, Valip, Versus22, Victoriagirl, WO2, WereSpielChequers, WolfgangFaber, Wustefuchs, Wwoods, Yamamoto Ichiro, , 241 anonymous edits

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Germanoccupied Europe Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=275785321 Contributors: Angusmclellan, Dahn, Dhaluza, Donarreiskoffer, Grant65, Grutness, Gunman47, Hmains, Keraunos, Kurt Leyman, MNHM, Martintg, Mkpumphrey, Neutrality, Petri Krohn, Piotrus, Renata3, Savidan, SeNeKa, Silverhorse, Superbeecat, Teutonic Tamer, The Evil Spartan, Tim!, 9 anonymous edits Technology during World War II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309832296 Contributors: 119, Ahm2307, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Canon, Alansohn, Alexius08, AmiDaniel, AnotherLoophole, Antandrus, Antonio Lopez, Aranherunar, Aremith, ArielGold, Asams10, Barneca, Bhadani, BlueLint, Bobo192, Bogsat, Bpeps, CMD Beaker, CSWarren, CWY2190, CWii, CanadianLinuxUser, Carlb, Chicknatr, Chris 73, Closedmouth, CommonsDelinker, Condem, Crzrussian, CuteHappyBrute, DJ Clayworth, DMacks, DaGizza, Damicatz, Dandin1, Dastal, Dave6, David R. Ingham, Deathbunny, Delldot, DerHexer, Dermo, Dimadick, Discospinster, Dna-webmaster, Dreadstar, Drini, Drogo Underburrow, ElectricEye, EliasAlucard, Emperorbma, Epbr123, Euicho, Fastfission, Fl, Fnfd, Gail, Gary King, Gawaxay, Geoff Plourde, Gilliam, GraemeLeggett, Hadal, Haoie, Hmains, Indochinetn, J. Spencer, J.delanoy, JForget, JK1791, JLaTondre, Javert, Jclemens, Jj137, JodyB, Jons63, Jordanhurley, Jorvik, Joshbaumgartner, Justinmo, Justmeherenow, Jwdietrich2, Jyotirmoyb, KevM, Kghose, KnowledgeIsPower, Krellis, Kross, Lacrimosus, Lan Di, Ld100, Ligulem, Listowy, Lkeune, Lradrama, Luna Santin, Mac Davis, MacMania, Maralia, Matt Crypto, Matthuxtable, Mbc362, Mentifisto, Midnightcomm, Mike6271, Monkey Bounce, MrFish, Mrg3105, Napalm Llama, Noah Salzman, Nonagonal Spider, Nousernamesleft, Oberiko, Oblivious, Ossmann, PGWG, Pacodataco8, Parsecboy, PhilKnight, Piano non troppo, Polluxian, Prmacn, ProhibitOnions, Pseudomonas, Pudeo, Purplesox, Pyrrhus16, QuinceTupper, Ragesoss, Rcbutcher, Recury, Rentaferret, Robert Merkel, Robofish, Rtyq2, Ruff HoodRat, Russeasby, Russell E, Rusty2005, Sam Blacketer, Sam Van Kooten, Sarranduin, Sciurin, Seddon, Shanes, Siebrand, Sietse Snel, Sim man, Snapper2, Snapperman2, Soarhead77, Someguy1221, SpuriousQ, SrAtoz, Stephenb, StoneProphet, Stor stark7, Sum-dude, Surgo, Sus scrofa, Synchronism, TJDay, Terra Xin, Tersevs, The Hybrid, TheGreekMinstrel, TheRanger, TheTrojanHought, Thedjatclubrock, Thingg, Tom Barnwell 0, Tronno, Trusilver, Versus22, Viridian, VonBlade, Wayward, Welsh, Werdan7, Wiki alf, WillMak050389, William Avery, Wwoods, Xagent86, Yamam, YourEyesOnly, 560 anonymous edits

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file:WW2Montage.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WW2Montage.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Oberiko at en.wikipedia (Original text : Oberiko (talk)) Image:Reichsparteitag 1935 mod.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reichsparteitag_1935_mod.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Charles Russell Image:Wuhan 1938 IJA.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wuhan_1938_IJA.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: KTo288, Kaba, Miborovsky, Sushiya, Sweeper tamonten, 1 anonymous edits Image:German plane bombing Warsaw 1939.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_plane_bombing_Warsaw_1939.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: "Centralna Agencja Fotograficzna" Image:Armia Czerwona,Wehrmacht 23.09.1939 wsplna parada.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Armia_Czerwona,Wehrmacht_23.09.1939_wsplna_parada.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: Unknown Image:Nazi-parading-in-elysian-fields-paris-desert-1940.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nazi-parading-in-elysian-fields-paris-desert-1940.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Frank Capra (director), U.S. War Department Image:Supermarinespitfire.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supermarinespitfire.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Boivie, Conscious, Palnatoke, Smat Image:German paratroopers jumping From Ju 52s over Crete.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_paratroopers_jumping_From_Ju_52s_over_Crete.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:W.wolny Image:Ger Inf Russia 1941 HDSN9902655.JPEG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ger_Inf_Russia_1941_HDSN9902655.JPEG License: Public Domain Contributors: Deutsche Wehrmacht (German Army) Image:Kyiv-Prorizna 1941.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kyiv-Prorizna_1941.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown Image:Japanese troops mopping up in Kuala Lumpur.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Japanese_troops_mopping_up_in_Kuala_Lumpur.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Cave cattum, Millevache, Nikola Smolenski, Two hundred percent Image:SBDs and Mikuma.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SBDs_and_Mikuma.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Palm dogg at en.wikipedia Image:Soviet soldiers moving at Stalingrad2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soviet_soldiers_moving_at_Stalingrad2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Georgii Zelma Image:IWM-E-6724-Crusader-19411126.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IWM-E-6724-Crusader-19411126.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Bukvoed, PMG Image:Prokhorovka.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prokhorovka.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Tavrian Image:IND 004723.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IND_004723.jpg License: unknown Contributors: No 9 Army Film & Photographic Unit Image:Approaching Omaha.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Approaching_Omaha.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Taak at en.wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Raul654, Nauticashades at en.wikipedia. Image:Soviet T34 Belgrade.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soviet_T34_Belgrade.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader and author was Gorran at sr.wikipedia Image:AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown Image:Soviet flag on the Reichstag roof Khaldei.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soviet_flag_on_the_Reichstag_roof_Khaldei.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Esemono, Guanxi, Paul Siebert Image:Atomic cloud over Hiroshima.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atomic_cloud_over_Hiroshima.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Personel aboard Necessary Evil Image:Churchill waves to crowds.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Churchill_waves_to_crowds.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:W.wolny Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14059-0018, Berlin, Oberbefehlshaber der vier Verbndeten.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-14059-0018,_Berlin,_Oberbefehlshaber_der_vier_Verbndeten.jpg License: unknown Contributors: PDD, Srittau, 2 anonymous edits Image:VE-day-parade-moscow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VE-day-parade-moscow.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Bukvoed, Emijrp, Lupo, Man vyi, PMG, The Deceiver, 1 anonymous edits Image:World War II Casualties2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_War_II_Casualties2.svg License: unknown Contributors: ABF, Basilicofresco, BrianKnez, Gorilarms, J.delanoy, Jennavecia, Jordanthedud, Mccujo, Mentifisto, Oberiko, Paxse, Pb30, Viriditas, Woody, 30 anonymous edits Image:Holocaust123.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Holocaust123.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Anetode, Avraham, BazookaJoe, CambridgeBayWeather, Cenarium, Chavila, Froth, FrummerThanThou, MosheA, Ryan Postlethwaite, Saintrotter, Shoeofdeath, Spacepotato, Superm401, 18 anonymous edits Image:Unit 731.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Unit_731.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: A.I., BrokenSphere, Hohum, Red devil 666, Rocket000, 1 anonymous edits Image:Ebensee concentration camp prisoners 1945.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebensee_concentration_camp_prisoners_1945.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Samuelson, Lt. A. E., Image:WorldWarII-GDP-Relations-Allies-Axis-simple.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WorldWarII-GDP-Relations-Allies-Axis-simple.svg License: unknown Contributors: User:Hohum Image:Schleswig Holstein firing Gdynia 13.09.1939.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Schleswig_Holstein_firing_Gdynia_13.09.1939.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown Image:USS SHAW exploding Pearl Harbor Nara 80-G-16871 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USS_SHAW_exploding_Pearl_Harbor_Nara_80-G-16871_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown navy photographer Image:Der Aufbau der Republik Deutschsterreich.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Der_Aufbau_der_Republik_Deutschsterreich.png License: Public Domain Contributors: AnonMoos,

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Johannes Rohr, Postmann Michael, Shizhao, 3 anonymous edits Image:Colonization 1945.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonization_1945.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Albam, AnonMoos, David Kernow, Deltabeignet, Lalupa, Nuno Tavares, Pruxo, Roke, Rottweiler, Samulili, 5 anonymous edits Image:Second World War europe.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Second_World_War_europe.PNG License: unknown Contributors: Daniil naumoff, Liftarn, Listowy, Lysy, Maxim, Qp10qp, RottweilerCS, Scoutersig, 1 anonymous edits Image:Warsaw siege3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Warsaw_siege3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anrie, Bleh999, Halibutt Image:Chiang Kai-shek.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chiang_Kai-shek.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: David.Monniaux, Gelo71, MarkSweep, Martin H., Militaryace, Opponent, R-41, Shizhao, W.wolny, 1 anonymous edits Image:Deutschland Besatzungszonen - 1945 1946.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_-_1945_1946.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:52 Pickup Image:Korean war 1950-1953.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Korean_war_1950-1953.gif License: unknown Contributors: FieldMarine, Roke, 5 anonymous edits File:EasternBloc_BorderChange38-48.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EasternBloc_BorderChange38-48.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Mosedschurte Image:germanborders.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Germanborders.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Renata3 Image:Map of Poland (1945).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_Poland_(1945).png License: Public Domain Contributors: It Is Me Here, Piotrus, Thuresson Image:Vertreibung 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vertreibung_1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Lysy, Sardanaphalus, Stor stark7 Image:Buna.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Buna.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bogdangiusca, Btphelps, Ellmist, Grant65, Hesperian, Nick-D, SCEhardt Image:Katy, ekshumacja ofiar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Katy,_ekshumacja_ofiar.jpg License: unknown Contributors: unknown , Photo of Polish Red Cross delegation Image:Einsatzgruppen Killing.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einsatzgruppen_Killing.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Altenmann, Avraham, Boivie, Brent Ward, Cantankrus, Iamunknown, Kane5187, Kevin Breitenstein, Lupo, Mangostar, Melesse, Modemac, Obradovic Goran, Pvasiliadis, Raven4x4x, Rrburke, Thisglad, Timeshifter, Wknight94, 11 anonymous edits Image:Flag of Albania (1939).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Albania_(1939).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: user:F l a n k e r Image:Flag of Australia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ian Fieggen Image:Flag of Austria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp Image:Flag of Belgium (civil).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: David Descamps, Dbenbenn, Denelson83, Howcome, Ms2ger, Nightstallion, Rocket000, Sir Iain, ThomasPusch, Warddr, 3 anonymous edits Image:Flag of Brazil (1889-1960).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Brazil_(1889-1960).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Guilherme Paula, Homo lupus, Pixeltoo, TigerTjder, Xufanc Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Avala, Denelson83, Homo lupus, Ikonact, Kallerna, Klemen Kocjancic, Martyr, Mattes, Neq00, Pumbaa80, SKopp, Spacebirdy, Srtxg, Ultratomio, Vonvon, Zscout370, 8 anonymous edits Image:British Burma 1937 flag.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Burma_1937_flag.png License: unknown Contributors: User:Piotr Mikoajski Image:Flag of Canada 1921.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada_1921.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Denelson83 Image:Flag of the Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: 555, Bestalex, Bigmorr, Denelson83, Ed veg, Gzdavidwong, Herbythyme, Isletakee, Kakoui, Kallerna, Kibinsky, Mattes, Mizunoryu, Neq00, Nickpo, Nightstallion, Odder, Pymouss, R.O.C, Reisio, Reuvenk, Rkt2312, Rocket000, Runningfridgesrule, Samwingkit, Shizhao, Sk, Tabasco, Vzb83, Wrightbus, Zscout370, 72 anonymous edits Image:Flag of Cuba.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: see below Image:Flag of Czechoslovakia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: (of code) Image:Flag of Denmark.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Madden Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anarkangel, Bawolff, Dbenbenn, Fibonacci, Klemen Kocjancic, Madden, Ms2ger, Odder, Pumbaa80, RaakaArska87, Reisio, Rfc1394, SB Johnny, Upquark, Urhixidur, Wisg, Zscout370, 21 anonymous edits Image:Flag of Estonia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:PeepP, User:SKopp Image:Flag of Ethiopia (1897).svg 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Image:Flag of Hungary 1940.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Hungary_1940.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: w:User:Zscout370User:Zscout370, colour correction: w:User:R-41User:R-41 Image:Flag of Iceland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:var Arnfjr Bjarmason Image:British Raj Red Ensign.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Barryob

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Image:State Flag of Iran (1925).svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:State_Flag_of_Iran_(1925).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Orange Tuesday Image:Flag of Iraq 1924.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iraq_1924.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Burts, J. 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File:Nanjing1937 self-organized burial team.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nanjing1937_self-organized_burial_team.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Davenbelle Image:BuriedAlive.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BuriedAlive.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: First published in A Faithful Record of Atrocity of Japanese Troops, pre-1949 Chinese publication Image:Lots of heads.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lots_of_heads.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Cecil, Kingruedi, Kintetsubuffalo, Legionarius, Miborovsky, MichaelMaggs, Paul Barlow, Shizhao, Splette, Tom, 2 anonymous edits Image:Nankin enfants.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nankin_enfants.jpg License: unknown Contributors: HongQiGong, Paul Barlow, Spinningspark, Svencb, Tigre volant, White Cat, 7 anonymous edits Image:Japanese General Tomoyuki Yamashita 02.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Japanese_General_Tomoyuki_Yamashita_02.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:W.wolny Image:AWM 121782 sandakan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AWM_121782_sandakan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Burke, Frank Albert Charles Image:WomanFactory1940s.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WomanFactory1940s.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Hollem, Howard R Image:WorldWarII-GDP-Relations-Allies-Axis.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WorldWarII-GDP-Relations-Allies-Axis.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Dna-webmaster Image:PropagandaNaziJapaneseMonster.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PropagandaNaziJapaneseMonster.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Fastfission, Goldfritha, Infrogmation, Liftarn, Mattes, Matthead, Panchurret, Themightyquill, Tony Wills, Wolfmann, 3 anonymous edits Image:T34 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:T34_1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Bilou, PMG, Tavrian, Vmenkov Image:PanzerIII.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PanzerIII.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Oberiko at en.wikipedia Image:BoeingB17BigYank.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BoeingB17BigYank.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: User Brian0918 on en.wikipedia Image:USS Intrepid 1944;021125.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USS_Intrepid_1944;021125.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Denniss, Editor at Large, Makthorpe, PMG, Wwoods Image:USSCallaghanDD792.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USSCallaghanDD792.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was ScottyBoy900Q at en.wikipedia Image:French SS recruitment poster.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_SS_recruitment_poster.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Cazemier Image:Nazi Lithuanian poster.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nazi_Lithuanian_poster.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Piotrus, Vidor, 2 anonymous edits Image:Ssnederland.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ssnederland.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: SS Image:German Poster - Chodzmy na roboty rolne do Niemiec.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_Poster_-_Chodzmy_na_roboty_rolne_do_Niemiec.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ? 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