Instrumentation for the automation of wastewater treatment plants

Dr. Richard Furness CEng FInstMC ISA Fellow Measurement Consultant JDF + Associates Ltd Gloucester, UK
Introduction
Water Authorities and municipalities are governed by national or local regulations on the quality of water they discharge, so effluent from industrial and domestic use must be cleaned and treated prior to release to the environment. The treatment plant should therefore remove any materials that are likely to be harmful to the environment, ranging from large objects (cans, wood and debris) to suspended solids, floating material such as fat and even dissolved substances. Consequently a range of treatment is required to remove all these contaminants. In order to operate the plant correctly and efficiently, measurements of the main parameters are required. These usually include: * * Flow and level Pressure and temperature * * pH, conductivity and turbidity water analysis parameters (DO, P, NH4, NO3 etc.)

A typical treatment process is shown in figure 1. The dotted lines show discrete parts of the overall process, so that a generic 4-step process can be listed for both the water side and solids handling as: Module A: Module B: Module C Module D: Module E: Module F: Module G; Module H: The influent line and associated processes First stage mechanical separation primary clarification Effluent discharge chemical treatment and disinfection processes Biological degradation nitrification/denitrification breakdown of influent solids Sludge blending and thickening mixing of raw and waste activated solids Digestion processes final breakdown of solids by bacterial means Dewatering process removal of excess fluid and solids optimisation Solids disposal

Figure 1

General arrangement of a wastewater treatment plant

In the upper half of the process diagram (figure 1), the first stage consists of the influent lines, pump station and plant intake (section A), where coarse screens remove large objects. Sometimes smaller screens (1-2cm) are used to remove floating fat, paper and smaller items such as fruit, rind or waste food JDF + Associates Ltd Nov. 2005

lumps. The liquid then passes into the primary clarifiers (Section B) where suspended solids and floating substances are removed. The raw liquid passes to the biological treatment tanks (section D) and the primary sludge goes to the thickener (section E) for blending. In the aeration tanks, bacteria feed on the organic matter and nitrify harmful ammonia. Artificial oxygenation promotes this process so the bacteria multiply and accelerate the water cleaning process. The partly-cleaned liquor is fed to the secondary clarifier where further separation occurs. The activated sludge in the bottom of the secondary tanks is passed to the thickening tank (section E) for blending with the sludge from the primary clarifiers. The relatively clean liquid from the top of the secondary clarifier is then chlorinated and de-chlorinated prior to discharge (section C). In some more advanced plants, a chemical cleaning process is added to the biological process . These may use precipitants such as ferric chloride or aluminum sulphate to remove organic carbon, phosphorus and some of the nitrogen based compounds. This may occur in either the primary or secondary clarifiers or in the aeration tank. The lower half of figure 1 shows solids handling and disposal. Sludge from the primary and secondary clarifiers is mixed. The thickened sludge passes to the digester (section E) where further biological process generates methane gas, which is often used as an energy source. The digested sludge from the base of the digester then passes to the dewatering stage, (section G) where a variety of techniques are used to remove most of the water and produce an energy-rich residue. This residue is pumped to the disposal area (section H) to be used for incineration, for fertilizer production or for landfill, depending on the chemical composition of the treated residue.

Inlet Measurements
Process control maps have been developed for each section and each variant as detailed in figure 1. Section A1 is the channel network prior to the plant inlet. This may contain industrial wastewater which has been pH balanced prior to discharge into the network (section A7). In large plants there may be storm water basin to help reduce the variations in plant inlet load during periods of heavy rain and surface run-off (section A2). Following this is the pump inlet station (section A3) where the influent stream is pumped to the primary clarifier. In some countries a fecal station may be present (section A4), where septic materials can be loaded into the treatment process. After this, the influent passes to the bar screens (section A5) and sometimes to a sand and grit removal tank (section A6). Measurements at the plant inlet are usually mandatory help monitor the incoming pollution load and to satisfy the design parameters of the plant are not exceeded. The most important measurements are flow quantity, pH, temperature, conductivity and the biological oxygen demand (BOD). Measurement of level is used extensively in this part of the plant for optimum control reasons. Because of the nature of the inlet flow, Venturi type flowmeters are more commonly used in the USA than magnetic meters. This is particularly the case when high organic, fat or grease quantities are present. (These are insulating materials and can induce false readings). In the rest of the world magnetic meters are used in preference to Venturi tubes. In large open channels weirs and flumes find extensive use worldwide. One variant, a Khafagi-Venturi is not affected by the presence of large incoming objects or deposits. Accurate level sensors can give flow readings within 2% using this type of primary. A measurement of pH at several points in the inlet area is required to ensure efficient plant operation and to monitor the effect of the influent water on the concrete structures and channels. This measurement is often made alongside a temperature sensor for similar reasons. A low pH value often induces damage in pipes, valves and other metallic components. Conductivity is often not measured at the inlet but is useful to help monitor salt content and other materials that affect pH and temperature measurement. Some chemical addition at inlet may be required to keep the influent within the range pH 6 - 8.5. The BOD figure is used to guage the amount of oxygen required by the microbacteria to break down organics and other waste present. A high BOD means that large amounts of air or oxygen will be needed to affect the solids breakdown. Sometimes sampling systems are also used the help determine the plant loading and report on removal efficiency when compared to effluent samples. Level measurements are common in the pumping station and in the coarse screens to ensure that the plant operates within capacity and that the bar screens do not become clogged or damaged. One of the most important measurements on the entire plant is the accurate measurement of flow at the main pump station inlet. This signal is fed to other parts of the plant as part of the control signal. Errors in metering here may affect the entire efficient operation of the plant. For this reason, a large proportion of the world has gone to the use of magnetic meters wherever possible in closed pipe inlets. In open collection

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channels, fully compensated ultrasonic systems installed with standard flumes are common. Overall uncertainty here would be 3-5% depending on the instrumentation installed.

Primary Clarifier
Heavy sediments or fine grit are encouraged to settle in the primary clarifier. This is usually a large circular vessel or long rectangular structure with a retention time of a few hours. In large plant there may be up to 20 primary clarifiers, each taking a percentage of the inlet load. Two possible process variations are possible, the basic process being just a simple inlet to each clarifier basin and the more enhanced variation of flocculent addition in the clarifier inlet line. Whatever the process variant, the vessel bottom is usually extended to allow sludge to collect for efficient draw-off. It is important that sludge level and quantity of the suspended solids is measured. Both these parameters act as control inputs to the clarifier dump valve that allows the primary sludge to be pumped to the thickener. Turbidity and flow measurement of the outlet liquor to the biological treatment tanks are important and sometimes samplers are additionally used to ensure a rich liquor for treatment. The purpose of flocculent dosing is used at the clarifier inlet to separate light and heavy solids particles. If this is performed, a suspended solids monitor in the outlet pipe can be used to pace and control the flocculent dosing flowmeter as well as efficiently removing sludge from the unit into the blender/thickener. Figure 2 below shows a typical instrumentation arrangement for the clarifier. (The numbers in the diagram refer to E+H models from their extensive range). It is important to control the quality and quantity discharge of the primary sludge for a both technical and financial reasons.

Figure 2

Instrumentation of the primary clarifier

The key to good clarifier control is the simultaneous use of an ultrasonic sludge level sensor (CUS 70) with an optical solids monitor (CUS 41) mounted in a retractable holder (CUA 461) for regular cleaning. The output from the Liquisys S control unit (or the level output reading) can open the discharge valve at the base of the clarifier when required sludge volumes have been reached. The user benefits are: Ensures the correct sludge concentration into the thickening stage, optimising pumping needs Increases the hyrdraulic efficiency and capacity of thickener Will increase gas yeild in the digester further downstream Decreases the energy input required in the digester, thereby lowetring operating costs Reduces the polymer usage in the dewatering process

Biological Treatment Processes

After first stage mechanical cleaning by the screens and the primary clarifier, biological processes are used to purify the wastewater. There are two basic types of bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic, each having advantages and disadvantages. Aerobic bacteria have higher operating costs and require more space, but generate lower sludge loadings and lower by-product volumes. With anaerobic bacteria the sludge loading is high. The aim is to convert the rich waste material into lower energy material with water and carbon dioxide as the by-products. Domestic wastewater is often far cleaner than industrial effluent and aerobic bacteria is more commonly used for such purification. Anaerobic bacteria is JDF + Associates Ltd 3 Nov. 2005

preferred in industrial treatment, where more concentrated effluents with added chemicals are found, examples being paper or sugar production plants. These latter processes are much more sensitive to wastewater quality and therefore require more chemical measurement for control and operating purposes. The growth of bacteria is influenced by several factors that include temperature, nutrient concentration, oxygen supply and pH. BOD measurement is a good indicator of microbacterial activity and is dependent on temperature. The aeration tank is the basis of this process. In this part of the plant, air (or oxygen) is blown into the base of the tank. A secondary clarifier is almost always associated with this part of the process.

Aeration Tank
In normal practice, oxygen is measured and regulated in the aeration tanks, but control of the return sludge or return water flow less common. The essential measurements therefore in the aeration tank are dissolved oxygen content and pH. This part of the process can more effcienttly be control using a combination of an ammonia monitor and a DO sensor. A basic control loop is shown in figure 3. Figure 4 alongside shows the simultaneous control of the suspended solids concentration in the aeration tank.

Figure 3 Biological process aeration control Figure 4 Biological process suspended solids control As the nitrification proceeds, ammonia concentration falls and free oxygen concentration will rise. Thus less aeration is required at later stages of the process. In figure 3, an oxygen sensor (COS 4) and an ion selective ammonia sensor (CA70AM) controls the aeration valve to ensure an efficient process It is also important that the biomass in the system is controlled to ensure the correct solids degradation rate. An optical turbidity probe (CUS 41) is therefore used to control the ratio of the feedback flow to that leaving the aeration tank and passing into the secondary clarifier. The benefits from these two control loops are: Amount and rate of the aeration decreases energy consumption and plant running costs Nutrients avaailable to the bacteria is more tightly controlled Better control of the effect of changing plant loading on the aeration process Correct biomass ensures efficient pollution removal effective bacteria Ensures no floating sludge in the secondary clarifier (an indication of poor process management) Reduces the need for expensive and repetative laboratory testing Provides real time process information for smoother plant control Allows rapid identification of process abnormalities and fault conditions Ensures the secondary clarifier discharge conditions meet the environmental effluent regulations

Secondary Clarifier
Overflow water from the aeration tank goes into the secondary clarifiers. The purpose of this item of plant is to complete the separation of liquid and solid phases before the water passes for final treatment and discharge. It is important to keep a fixed level of sludge in the base of the clarifier to ensure the availability of biomass in the system for recirculation to the aeration tank and maintain its concentration within acceptable limits. Sludge discharge is either continuously or intermittently made from the base of JDF + Associates Ltd 4 Nov. 2005

the clarifier, passing into the pre-thickener and sludge blender. Suspended solids level (and even concentration profile) measurement ensures an effective separation takes place in the clarifier. In order to monitor the quality of water in the overflow channels, turbidity should be monitored. The discharge of the water activated sludge is correctly controlled by the output of the solid level monitor. Figure 5 shows basic control of the return sludge from secondary clarifier. About 20-25% by mass is kept in recirculation, the exact fraction dependant on the inlet plant loading.

Figure 5

Control of the activated sludge

The return activated sludge is discharhe back into the aeration basin, ensuring the bacterial count is maintained. The quality of this return sludge is one input used to control the discharge of activated sludge to the solids handling processes. An optical sludge detector (CUC 101) is used to measure the blanket at the base of the tank. The operator benefits are: Early detection of sludge overflow than with a turbidity sensor in the main effluent discharge Sludge blnaket level optimizes the WAS discharge to the thickener Ensures that low concentration sludge is not pumped into the solids handing stages Ensures bacterial population is always sufficient to meet changing plant conditions

Biology Process variations

To reduce the amount of nutrients fed in the discharge into underground or surface waters, as much nitrogen as possible should be removed from the wastewater during the cleaning process. This process (denitrification) is done biologically with an enzyme that reduces nitrates to simple nitrogen. In this reaction H+ ions are eliminated and raise the pH that fell during the nitrification process. Thus a more efficient biological cleaning includes both nitrification and denitrification. There are many process layout variations with respect to the biological part of the process. The common practice places the dentrification first followed by nitrification, (as in example 3 of the process maps) to insure that there is enough organic matter for the denitrifying bacteria. (In the plant overview diagram nitrification is listed as module D2 and denitrification as module D5). However it is possible to see the following variations in water treatment plants: Nitrification first followed by de-nitrification Simultaneous nitrification/denitrification in the same basin Alternating nitrification/denitrification Intermittant denitrification (in this process oxygen is frequently added) Cascading denitrification (with sludge recycling between the cascades)

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In all these cases a secondary clarifier is usually an important part of the biological cleaning and is the reason why it has been added to each variation in this part of the whole process. In parts of the USA, a trickling filter is located in front of the aeration basin. The purpose here is to inject air from the base which intermingles with primary clarifier overflow liquor to raise oxygen level prior to full aeration. Another enhancement is the use of a precipitant to promote better separation of liquids and solids. In some plants where denitrification follows nitrification, organic carbon may be added to aid the process. Measurement of ammonia in the aeration tank and nitrate in the denitrification tank allows full biological control of the entire process and can reduce operating costs substantially. Enhancement example 2.1 from the complete set of maps (figure 6 below) shows the instrumentation for this configuration. Notice the interconnections between the various instruments in order to automate the control process.

D7

Organic Carbon Dosage

D 5 Denitrification
Basin

D 2 Nitrification Basin
(Aeration)

D6

Simultan. Precipitant Dosage

FI
D6-01 A6-05

D7-01

TI
D2-04

Q PHI
D2-07 D6-02

Q S SIR Q TOCIA
D5-01

Q DOIR
D5-02 D2-05 D2-07 D6-03

from Primary Clarifier

to Secondary Clarifier

Denitrification Basin
D5-04

D2-09 D5-03

D2-09

Nitrification Basin
D2-08

Circulating Sludge FI
D5-05

FIC FI
A6-05 D5-06

Q S SI
D2-10

from Secondary Clarifier

Return Activated Sludge (RAS)

2001 Endress+Hauser, Inc.

Figure 6

PID for complete biological cleaning process in wastewater

This figure is one of 25 detailed maps developed for each stage of the wastewater treatment process.

Effluent lines
Control of the volume and quality of the effluent is more important as that of the influent. Regulations governing the quality of the discharged water are rigidly enforced in many developed countries following some environmental accidents, where river and lake wildlife has been destroyed. Important effluent discharge parameters are the volume discharged (usually a magnetic flowmeter) the pH and liquid temperature, and several liquid analytical measurements. These include the liquid turbidity, dissolved oxygen content, and the phosphate/ammonia concentrations. An additional desirable would include a full liquid sampler and nitrate. In some plants this latter is inferred by using Redox measurements to reveal the nitrite levels. Prior to final discharge the effluent is first chlorinated to kill any bacteria carried over from the aeration tanks and then dechlorinated using sulphur dioxide or simliar chemicals because clhlorine itself is harmful to aquatic life. The process map for final chlorination has also been developed. The key measurement is that of outlet free chlorine, with the output signal of this measurement being used to control the sulfite addition in the dechlorinator. The process maps developed show a basic discharge system. and one where a filter system is used to give a final polish to the discharging liquid. In those plants where filters are used in the outlet stage, a flocculent is often used to dose into the line from the secondary clarifier. The control map for this section JDF + Associates Ltd 6 Nov. 2005

is shown in figure 7, and several instruments form the basis for automatic control for this part of the plant. An additional differential pressure measurement across the filter bed can be used to activate the backwash flows automatically. Turbidity measurements at several points can aid in the production of a clean discharge flow and in the correct dosage of flocculent.

Figure 7 The benefits to be realised are:

Instrumentation for effluent filtration system

Saves energy through control of the backwash flows and air blown into the filters Allow quicker filter cycle time because all the fines are not discharge Flocculant addition will be correct, based in accurate flow measurement Allows far better control of the filtered water

A phosphate sensor in the discharge line can used to pace the precipitant addition prior to the final sedimentation tank. All these maps developed show the importance of analytical measurements at the outlet of the treatment plant. This will help safeguard operators from regulatory infringments.

Sludge Blending
Sludge blending is the beginning of the solids waste treatment process. Measurements in this half of the overall map tend to be more difficult than in the water treatment section. In the sludge blender, primary sludge from the first stage clarifier is mixed with activated sludge from the second stage clarification after biological treatment. This activated sludge still contains bacteria, an essential ingredient for this part of the cleaning process. Three process maps have been developed (listed in appendix). The first shows basic blending and thickening with flocculent dosing to promote separation of the liquid and solids phases in the thickening tanks. Level measurement is an inportant parameter in this process. Ultrasonic instruments are commonly used for liquid level measurement and sludge level is also measured, both usually with associated indication, recording, control and alarm functions. Pumps at the inlet and outlet control the level in the tank and are activated by signals from the level sensors. The properties of the sludge affect the choice of instruments. Sometimes heavy foams may be present on the surface or the associated settling tanks. These can alter the echos from the ultrasonic level devices and also absorb the transmitted sound. It is also important to position the transducers correctly. Usually they are mounted on a robust frame near the centre of the tank so the sludge can be measured at the deepest point. The blocking distance (the minimum distance to the highest surface level) of the liquid level sensor also needs careful consideration. It is also important to guard against sunlight and other external influences or erroneous measurement will result. A thick sludge can also raise the position of a sludge level sensor in the tank. In these cases, a stilling well is sometimes used to insulate the measurement from the influence of rapid level changes and turbulence in the tank when pumps are JDF + Associates Ltd 7 Nov. 2005

activated. In some plants, the sensor floats on top of the sludge. It is important to note that rapid changes in sludge density may also cause bias effects in the measurement. Other measurements include suspended solids concentration when sludge is removed from the base of the tanks and into the digester. Flowrate is also important here. The clearer liquid overspill is frequently recycled back to the inlet for dilution purposes. Other variants in the plant may include a sludge storage vessel to help spread and equalize the load going to the digester. In a large number of plants in the USA, a centrifuge is used in place of static thickeners to speed the thickening process. This produces a liquid centrate, where a turbidity measurement is required. This helps dose the correct amount of flocullent prior to the centrifuge. Other measurements are as descibed above. Finally in some parts of the world a dissolved air flotation method is used to separate liquid and solids. Here air attaches itself to the solid particles and they float on the liquid surface to be skimmed off by boards or rotating brushes. Measurement of turbidity in the water phase again paces the flocculent dosage, and suspended solids level continuously senses the floating layer. This is used to correctly activate the dump valve from water drawoff or the speed of the skimmers for solids drawoff. Again solids storage may be optional. Figure 8 shows the control map for this type of process.

Figure 8

Control and optimization of a flotation plant (DAF)

The incoming waste activated sludge is control via a magnetic meter and a suspended solids probe. An adjustable optical sludge level sensor (CUC 101) measures the sludge interface position and the output is used to control the exit valve position to balance the flotation tank. Chemical and polymer feed rates are controlled using flowmeters, paced from the activated sludge inlet flow. Operator benefits include: Ensures clear water quality does not exceed process or regulatory limits Ensures sludge concentration is not too thin thereby reducing excessive dewatering later Optimizes expensive chemicals addition Allows the plant to be controlled on sludge quality and not just inlet flowrate

Sludge digester
The digester is by far the most complex for measurement and control in the entire process. This is because hazardous area measurements are needed because of the methane gas produced in the process. Both aerobic and anaerobic process are used. Aerobic digestion is well suited to industrial sludge treatment and in small sludge-activated municipal plants. It has lower capital cost and is more simple to control, with a more bilogically more stable final product. Anaerobic processes are more JDF + Associates Ltd 8 Nov. 2005

effective with high organic sludge loading and produce less biomass, but generally the digester runs at higher temperatures to maintain microbial activity rates. Measurements that are common include the following: Inlet flow and suspended solids concentration from the thickener Differential pressure and temperature across the heat exchanger (where used) Temperature variations within the digester (to control bacteria effectiveness) Pressure in the gas discharge tank Waste gas flowrates and pressures prior to usage Discharge flowrate of sludge from the base of the digester into dewatering. Level control within the digester, to control sludge withdrawal to the dewatering stage.

Figure 9 below shows a control map for a typical wastewater digester, using anaerobic bacteria.

F1-08

F1-12

2001 Endress+Hauser, Inc.

Figure 9

Control map for wastewater plant digester

Again the key is control of the quality of the sludge at the inlet and in the sludge thickener, sometimes mounted downstream of the digester itself. Temperature is a very important parameter in this part of the process, as bacterial digestion depends on the maintenance of a nearly constant temperature within the digestion tank. Temperature is measured with Pt-100 probes installed in protective pipes in the tanks walls. In the case of large digesters, several probes may be employed to give a temperature profile to ensure an efficient process. The length of the probe is chosen so the sensitive tip penetrates the sludge by some 50cm. A measurement range up to 50oC is usually sufficient for these units. There is also usually one additional unit installed at the top of the tank to ensure the highest temperatures are recorded. The process maps also give an indication of which measurements are alarmed for automatic control purposes. The aerobic process also usually involves the measurement of pH from the base of the digester to give an indication of the digestion process. Hydrostatic level within the the unit is also usually measured with a pressure guage mounted in the base of the tank. It is normally installed through a pipe in the wall and equipeed with a non-return valve. Sometimes flushing devices are also used. JDF + Associates Ltd 9 Nov. 2005

The gas generated is used to heat the sewage plant or may be used in cogeneration systems that produce heat and electricity. Separate measurements may show the gas balance and if produced gas is supplied to third party users. In additional, gas detectors may be used to check for any leaks or escaping gas. Such instruments must conform to the local regulations for gas production and distribution. For level measurements in the wet gasometer tank, a capacitive probe is often used. The probe is bolted to the tank roof and floats up and down as gas is used. A rope connects sensor ball to the transmitter. The capacitance changes inversely to the proportion of the gas volume. In dry gasometers, ultrasonic methods replace the capacitive ones and sense the positionn of the floating section within the gas tank. Sludge is also recirculated from the digester to be mixed with the incoming thickened sludge. The flow measurement is best performed using magnetic flowmeters, with the output signals used to open and close valves. Meters lined with Teflon are used, but care should be exercized because the sludge may contain air which gases at low flowrates. This frequently induces erroneous signals at the electrodes of the meter. Sticky deposits within the sludge may also coat the electrodes, so one way to overcome this is to periodically wash the pipes through with water.

Sludge Dewatering
Three basic processes are employed to dewater the sludge that is pumped from the base of the digester. Two of these are continuous and one non-continuous. All process sometimes use flocculent dosage to promote separation. When a chamber filter press is used, inlet pressure is often measured and in this non-continuous process acid is dosed into the press to help caking action. The filtrate liquid is returned to the inlet of the entire process. Whichever process is used, the measurements made are virtually indentical. These include: Inlet flowrate, inlet suspended concentration Liquid centrate turbidity Centrate tank level (if such a tank is part of the process) Flocculent dosing rate (if used)

In the continuous centrifuge or belt filter press processes, the only difference is an aearation tank used in the first option to eliminate gas bubles before the meaurement of the concentration of suspended solids in the centrate. Measurements in both process are the same, with figure 10 below showing the automatic control of a de-watering ecntrifuge. A streaming current detector (SCM) can provide additional information for the optimization of the process and control of polymer feed rates.

Figure 10 JDF + Associates Ltd

Automatic sludge de-watering control 10 Nov. 2005

In this control diagram, a magnetic meter and a pair of turbidity sensors (CUS 41) are used to control the speed of the centriguge and the conditioning of the sludge. The liquid removed is usually returned to the plant inlet. A small multi-input control unit can take the place of a more complex control system at a fraction of the cost. The benefits of optimizing the centrifuge are: Optimizes solids output quality to allow a dry mass (flow x suspended solids) control strategy Produces sludge with higher solids content Provides much more efficient polymer usage, thereby reducing costs

Sludge incineration and disposal

The sludge cake produced from the outlet of the dewatering stage can be put to many uses. Frequently it is metered using magmeters prior to burning in the plants own incinerators. Sometimes it is passed to trucks and transported to landfill sites. In those cases where it has a high phosphate content it may be used as a fertilizer in agricultural applications. The solids concentration is frequently between 25 and 30% by weight.

Advanced Measurement and Control

All the process maps that have been developed include the logic signals from the various process measurements which are fed to valves, pumps or the starters of other pieces of equipment when more automated plants are designed and built. The maps also indicate which signals are used for alarm functions to activate safety features and equipment on the plant. Common communications protocol (such as Profibus) ensure capatibility of signals and equipment throughout the plant, and minimize problems from instrument interconnectability.

Closure
In such limited space, the full extent of the control strategies cannot be fully documented or appreciated. Only 10 figures from the 33 developed process diagrams have been included in the paper to give readers a feeling for the benefits that plant automation can bring. The appendix lists all the instruments that can be used each section of the treatment process. The numbers down the left hand side refer to each of the process maps available. Notice the importance of flow and turbidity (suspended solids) measurement throughout the entire process. The ideal plant is one where all pollutants and suspended materials are removed. The major benefits from instrumentation and automation are very clear. The two most important are energy saving and chemicals usage. In a world world where pollution and energy usage are growing, automation can bring environmental and financial rewards on a large scale.

Acknowledgements
The paper is published with permission from Endress + Hauser (Holding) Ltd. It was developed by the SIG Environmental team, of which the Author was a member. The maps are the property and copyright of Endress + Hauser. They are published with the permission of E+H Consult, Reinach Switzerland.

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