CHAPTER 4 NOTES

Nervous tissue: Internal communication Brain Spinal cord Nerves Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement Muscles attached to bones (skeletal) Muscles of heart (cardiac) Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth) stomach Epithelial tissue: Forms boundaries between different environments, protects, secretes, absorbs, filters Lining of digestive tract organs and other hollow organs Skin surface (epidermis) Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues together Bones Tendons Fat and other soft padding tissue.

Epithelial tissue is the covering, lining, and glandular tissue of the body. Its functions include protection, absorption, excretion, filtration, secretion, and sensory reception. Epithelial tissues exhibit specialized contacts, polarity, avascularity ( , high regeneration rate support from connective tissue, and high regenerative capacity. Classification of Epithelia (pp. 119124) In its role as an interface tissue, epithelium accomplishes. Although epithelium is avascular (contains no blood vessels), it is innervated (supplied by nerve fibers). Epithelial cells are nourished by substances diffusing from blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue. Except for glandular epithelia (discussed on pp. 124125), epithelial cells fit closely together to form continuous sheets. Lateral contacts, including tight junctions and desmosomes, bind adjacent cells together at many points (these junctions are described in Chapter 3). The tight junctions help keep proteins in the apical region of the plasma membrane from diffusing into the basal region, and thus help to maintain epithelial polarity. All epithelial sheets rest upon and are supported by connective tissue. Just deep to the basal lamina is the reticular lamina, a layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collagen protein fibers that belongs to the underlying connective tissue. The two laminae form the basement membrane, which reinforces the epithelial sheet, helps it resist stretching and tearing, and defines the epithelial boundary. Epithelium has a high regenerative capacity. Some epithelia are exposed to friction and their surface cells rub off. Others are damaged by hostile substances in the external environment (bacteria, acids, smoke). If and when their apical-basal polarity and lateral contacts are destroyed, epithelial cells begin to reproduce themselves rapidly. As long as epithelial cells receive adequate nutrition, they can replace lost cells by cell division. Each epithelium has two names. The first name indicates the number of cell layers present, and the second describes the shape of its cells. Based on the number of cell layers, there are simple and stratified epithelia

CHAPTER 4 NOTES 3. Epithelium is classified by arrangement as simple (one layer) or( absorption secretion filtration) stratified (more than one layer) and by cell shape as squamous, (protection) cuboidal, or columnar. The terms denoting cell shape and arrangement are combined to describe the epithelium fully. In each case, the shape of the nucleus conforms to that of the cell. The nucleus of a squamous cell is a flattened disc; that of a cuboidal cell is spherical; and a columnar cell nucleus is elongated from top to bottom and usually located closer to the cell base. Keep nuclear shape in mind when you attempt to identify epithelial types. To avoid ambiguity, stratified epithelia are named according to the shape of the cells in the apical layer. Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of squamous cells. Highly adapted for filtration and exchange of substances, it forms walls of air sacs of the lungs and lines blood vessels. It contributes to serosae as mesothelium and lines all hollow circulatory system organs as endothelium. Thin and often permeable, simple squamous epithelium is found where filtration or the exchange of substances by rapid diffusion is a priority. In the kidneys, it forms part of the filtration membrane. In the lungs, it forms the walls of the air sacs across which gas exchange occurs. Two simple squamous epithelia in the body have special names that reflect their location. Endothelium ( inner covering) provides a slick, friction-reducing lining in lymphatic vessels and in all hollow organs of the cardiovascular systemblood vessels and the heart. Capillaries consist exclusively of endothelium, and its exceptional thinness encourages the efficient exchange of nutrients and wastes between the bloodstream and surrounding tissue cells. Mesothelium ( middle covering) is the epithelium found in serous membranes, the membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs.

Simple cuboidal epithelium, commonly active in secretion and absorption, is found in glands and in kidney tubules. The spherical nuclei stain darkly, causing the cell layer to look like a string of beads when viewed microscopically. Important functions of simple cuboidal epithelium are secretion and absorption. This epithelium forms the walls of the smallest ducts of glands and of many kidney tubules.

Simple columnar epithelium, specialized for secretion and absorption, consists of a single layer of tall columnar cells that exhibit microvilli and often mucus-producing cells. It lines most of the digestive tract. Simple columnar epithelium

CHAPTER 4 NOTES is a single layer of tall, closely packed cells, aligned like soldiers in a row (Figure 4.3c). It lines the digestive tract from the stomach through the rectum. Columnar cells are mostly associated with absorption and secretion, and the digestive tract lining has two distinct modifications that make it ideal for that dual function: Dense microvilli on the apical surface of absorptive cells Tubular glands made primarily of cells that secrete mucus containing intestinal juice Additionally, some simple columnar epithelia display cilia on their free surfaces, which help move substances or cells through an internal passageway. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium ( uneven columns) is a simple columnar epithelium that appears stratified. Its ciliated variety, rich in mucus secreting cells, lines most of the upper respiratory passages. protection Stratified squamous epithelium is multilayered; cells at the free surface are squamous. It is adapted to resist abrasion. It lines the esophagus and vagina; its keratinized variety forms the skin epidermis. Stratified cuboidal epithelia are rare in the body, and are found chiefly in ducts of large glands. Stratified columnar epithelium has a very limited distribution, found mainly in the male urethra and at transition areas between other epithelia types. Transitional epithelium is a modified stratified squamous epithelium, adapted for responding to stretch. It lines hollow urinary system organs.( bladder)

To avoid memorizing all its locations, simply remember that this epithelium forms the external part of the skin and extends a short distance into every body opening that is directly continuous with the skin. The outer layer, or epidermis, of the skin is keratinized (ker9ah-tin0zd), meaning its surface cells contain keratin, a tough protective protein. (We discuss the epidermis in Chapter 5.) The other stratified squamous epithelia of the body are nonkeratinized.

Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelia Stratified cuboidal epithelium is quite rare in the body, mostly found in the ducts of some of the larger glands (sweat glands, mammary glands). It typically has two layers of cuboidal cells. Stratified columnar epithelium also has a limited distribution in the body. Small amounts are found in the pharynx, the male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts. This epithelium also occurs at transition areas or junctions between two other types of epithelia. Only its apical layer of cells is columnar. Because of their relative scarcity in the body,
Two simple squamous epithelia in the body have special names that reflect their location. Endothelium (inner covering) provides a slick, friction-reducing lining in lymphatic vessels and in all hollow organs of the cardiovascular systemblood vessels and the heart. Capillaries consist exclusively of endothelium, and its exceptional thinness encourages the efficient exchange of nutrients and wastes between the bloodstream and surrounding tissue cells.

CHAPTER 4 NOTES
Mesothelium (middle covering) is the epithelium found in serous membranes, the membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs.

Glandular EpitheliaA gland consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product. This product, called a secretion, is an aqueous (water-based) fluid that usually contains proteins, but there is variation. For example, some glands release a lipid- or steroid rich secretion. Secretion is an active process. Glandular cells obtain needed substances from the blood and transform them chemically into a product that is then discharged from the cell. Notice that the term secretion can refer to both the glands product and the process of making and releasing that product. Process of making and releasing that product. Glands are classified according to two sets of traits: Where they release their productglands may be endocrine (internally secreting) or exocrine (externally secreting) Relative cell numberglands may be unicellular (one celled) or multicellular (many-celled) Unicellular glands are scattered within epithelial sheets. By contrast, most multicellular epithelial glands form by invagination (inward growth) of an epithelial sheet into the underlying connective tissue. At least initially, most have ducts, tube like connections to the epithelial sheets. Endocrine Glands Because endocrine glands eventually lose their ducts, they are often called ductless glands. They produce hormones, messenger chemicals that they secrete by exocytosis directly into the extracellular space. From there the hormones enter the blood or lymphatic fluid and travel to specific target organs. Each hormone prompts its target organ(s) to respond in some characteristic way. For example, hormones produced by certain intestinal cells cause the pancreas to release enzymes that help digest food in the digestive tract. Endocrine glands are structurally diverse, so one description does not fit all. Most are compact multicellular organs, but some individual hormone-producing cells are scattered in the digestive tract lining (mucosa) and in the brain, giving rise to their collective description as the diffuse endocrine system. Endocrine secretions are also varied, ranging from modified amino acids to peptides, glycoproteins, and steroids. Since not all endocrine glands are epithelial derivatives, we defer consideration of their structure and function to Exocrine Glands All exocrine glands secrete their products onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities. The unicellular glands do so directly (by exocytosis), whereas the multicellular glands do so via an epithelium-walled duct that transports the secretion to the epithelial surface. Exocrine glands are a diverse lot and many of their products are familiar. They include mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands, the liver (which secretes bile), the pancreas (which synthesizes digestive enzymes), and many others. Unicellular Exocrine Glands The only important examples of

CHAPTER 4 NOTES unicellular (or one-celled) glands are mucous cells and goblet cells. Unicellular glands are sprinkled in the epithelial linings of the intestinal and respiratory tracts amid columnar cells with other functions (see Figure 4.3c). In humans, all such glands produce mucin (mu9sin), a complex glycoprotein that dissolves in water when secreted. Once dissolved, mucin forms mucus, a slimy coating that protects and lubricates surfaces. In goblet cells the cuplike accumulation of mucin distends the top of the cell, making the cells look like a glass with a stem (thus goblet cell, Figure 4.4). This distortion does not occur in mucous cells. Multicellular Exocrine Glands Compared to the unicellular glands, multicellular exocrine glands are structurally more complex. They have two basic parts: an epithelium-derived duct and a secretory unit (acinus) consisting of secretory cells. In all but the simplest glands, supportive connective tissue surrounds the secretory unit and supplies it with blood vessels and nerve fibers, and forms a fibrous capsule that extends into the gland and divides it into lobes. Multicellular exocrine glands can be classified by structure and by type of secretion. Structural classification. On the basis of their duct structures, multicellular exocrine glands are either simple or compound (Figure 4.5). Simple glands have an unbranched duct, whereas compound glands have a branched duct. The glands are further categorized by their secretory units as (1) tubular if the secretory cells form tubes; (2) alveolar (alve9o- lar) if the secretory cells form small, flasklike sacs (alveolus 5 small hollow cavity); or (3) tubuloalveolar if they have both types of secretory units. Note that the term acinar (as9-nar; berrylike) is used interchangeably with alveolar. Modes of secretion. Multicellular exocrine glands secrete their products in different ways, so they can also be described functionally as merocrine, holocrine, or apocrine glands. Most are merocrine glands (mer9o-krin), which secrete their products by exocytosis as they are produced. The secretory cells are not altered in any way (so think merely secrete to remember their mode of secretion). The pancreas, most sweat glands, and salivary glands belong to this class (Figure 4.6a). Secretory cells of holocrine glands (hol9o-krin) accumulate their products within them until they rupture. (They are replaced by the division of underlying cells.) Because holocrine gland secretions include the synthesized product plus dead cell fragments (holo 5 whole, all), you could say that their cells die for their cause. Sebaceous (oil) glands of the skin are the only true example of holocrine glands (Figure 4.6b). Although apocrine glands (ap9o-krin) are present in other animals, there is some controversy over whether humans have this third gland type. Like holocrine glands, apocrine glands accumulate their products, but in this case only just beneath the free surface. Eventually, the apex of the cell pinches off (apo 5 from, off), releasing the secretory granules and a small amount of cytoplasm. The cell repairs its damage and the process repeats again and again. The best possibility in humans is the release of lipid droplets by lactating mammary glands, but most histologists classify mammary glands as merocrine glands because this is the means by which milk proteins are secreted

CHAPTER 4 NOTES

Muscle Tissue (pp. 136139)

Muscle tissue consists of elongated cells specialized to contract and cause movement. Based on structure and function, the muscle tissues are Skeletal muscle: attached to and moves the bony skeleton; cells are cylindrical and striated. Cardiac muscle: forms the walls of the heart; pumps blood; cells are branched and striated. Smooth muscle: in the walls of hollow organs; propels substances through the organs; cells are spindle shaped and lack striations. Nervous Tissue (p. 140) Nervous tissue forms organs of the nervous system. It iscomposed of neurons and supporting cells. Neurons are branching cells that receive and transmit electrical impulses. They are involved in body regulation. Supporting cells support and protect neurons Connective Tissue- The main classes are (1) connective tissue proper (which includes fat and the fibrous tissue of ligaments), (2) cartilage, (3) bone, and (4) blood Connective tissue does much more than just connect body parts. Its major functions include (1) binding and supporting, (2) protecting, (3) insulating, (4) storing reserve fuel, and (5) transporting substances within the body. For example, bone and cartilage support and protect body organs by providing the hard Under pinnings of the skeleton. Fat insulates and protects body organs and provides a fuel reserve. Blood transports substances inside the body Types of Connective Tissue (pp. 129136) Embryonic connective tissue is called mesenchyme. Connective tissue proper consists of loose and dense varieties. The loose connective tissues are Areolar: gel-like ground substance; all three fiber types loosely interwoven; a variety of cells; forms the lamina propria and soft packing around body organs; the prototype. Adipose: consists largely of adipocytes; scant matrix; insulates and protects body organs; provides reserve energy fuel. Brown fat is more important for generating body heat. Reticular: finely woven reticular fibers in soft ground substance; the stroma of lymphoid organs and bone marrow. Dense connective tissue proper includes Dense regular: dense parallel bundles of collagen fibers; few cells, little ground substance; high tensile strength; forms tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses; in cases where this tissue also contains numerous elastic fibers it is called elastic connective tissue.

CHAPTER 4 NOTES Dense irregular: like regular variety, but fibers are arranged in different planes; resists tension exerted from many Developmental Aspects of Tissues (pp. 144146) Epithelium arises from all three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm); muscle and connective tissue from mesoderm; nervous tissue from ectoderm. The decrease in mass and viability seen in most tissues during old age often reflects circulatory deficits or poor nutrition.

____ (1) Lines most of the digestive tract ____ (2) Lines the esophagus ____ (3) Lines much of the respiratory tract ____ (4) Forms the walls of the air sacs of the lungs ____ (5) Found in urinary tract organs ____ (6) Endothelium and mesothelium Column B (a) pseudostratified ciliated columnar (b) simple columnar (c) simple cuboidal (d) simple squamous (e) stratified columnar (f) stratified squamous (g) transitional Key: (a) connective tissue (c) muscle (b) epithelium (d) nervous tissue ___a _ (1) Tissue type composed largely of nonliving extracellular matrix; important in protection and Support. ___c _ (2) The tissue immediately responsible for body movement ___d _ (3) The tissue that enables us to be aware of the external environment and to react to it ____b (4) The tissue that lines body cavities and covers surfaces An epithelium that has several layers, with an apical layer of flattened cells, is called (choose all that apply): (a) ciliated, (b) columnar, (c) stratified, (d) simple, (e) squamous The gland type that secretes products such as milk, saliva, bile, or sweat through a duct is (a) an endocrine gland, (b) an exocrine gland. The membrane which lines body cavities that open to the exterior is a(n) (a) endothelium, (b) cutaneous membrane, (c) mucous membrane, (d) serous membrane.

CHAPTER 4 NOTES

Scar tissue is a variety of (a) epithelium, (b) connective tissue, (c) muscle tissue, (d) nervous tissue, (e) all of these.

Review Questions 1. (1)a, (2)c, (3)d, (4)b; 2. c, e; 3. (1)b, (2)f, (3)a, (4)d, (5)g, (6)d; 4. b; 5. c; 6. b

Check Your Understanding 1. Fixing tissue preserves it and prevents it from deteriorating. 2. Heavy metal salts are used to stain tissues viewed by electron microscopes. 3. Epithelial tissue lines body cavities and covers the bodys external surface; thus polarity with one free (apical) surfaceis a requirement. 4. Epithelial tissue can regenerate and its cells are joined by lateral contacts. 5. Simple epithelia are built to provide for efficient absorption and filtration across their thin epithelial barriers. 6. Pseudostratified epithelia appear to be stratified because their cells nuclei lie at different distances from the basement membrane. However, all cells rest on the basement membrane. 7. Transitional epithelium is found in the urinary bladder and other hollow urinary organs. The ability of this epithelium to thin allows the urinary organs to handle (store or transport) a larger urine volume when necessary. 8. All unicellular exocrine glands secrete the protein mucin (which becomes mucus on mixing with water). 9. These exocrine glands are classified by duct structure and secretory mode. 10. Holocrine glands have the highest rate of cell division. The secretory cells fragment and are lost in the secretion; thus the secretory cells must be continuously replaced. 11. Connective tissue functions to bind, support, protect, and insulate body organs. In addition, blood acts to transport substances throughout the body. 12. Reticular, collagen, and elastic fibers are found in the various connective tissues. 13. Areolar connective tissue, because of its loose web like nature, is capable of serving as a fluid reservoir. 14. Dense regular connective tissue is damaged when you lacerate a tendon.

CHAPTER 4 NOTES
15. Hyaline cartilage forms the growth plates. 16. Cardiac muscle cells have striations and are branching cells. 17. Skeletal muscle tissue is voluntary and is the muscle tissue injured when you pull a muscle while exercising. 18. With extended processes, a neuron can conduct electrical signals a great distance within the body. 19. A mucous membrane consists of both connective tissue and epithelium. It lines body cavities open to the exterior. 20. The serous membranes called pleurae line the thorax walls and cover the lungs. 21. The three main steps of tissue repair are inflammation, organization, and regeneration and fibrosis (which is a permanent repair). 22. More severe injuries damage and destroy more tissue, requiring greater replacement with scar tissue. 23. The three embryonic germ layers are the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. 24. Ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system. 25. Epithelium and blood-forming tissue remain highly mitotic all through life. Review Questions 1. (1)a, (2)c, (3)d, (4)b; 2. c, e; 3. (1)b, (2)f, (3)a, (4)d, (5)g, (6)d; 4. b; 5. c; 6. B

Chapter 5 Dermis The dermis has a rich supply of nerve fibers, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels. The major portions of hair follicles, as well as oil and sweat glands, derive from epidermal tissue but reside in the dermis. The dermis has two layers, the papillary and reticular, which abut one another along an indistinct boundary Reticular 80% dense fibrous connective tissue bundles of collagen Cleavage tension lines Neck/trunk circular Head and limbs longitundal Skin color Melatonin produced by cells called melanocytes yellow- to dark brown darker =more melanin produced Carotene- yellow to orange color Hemoglobin-

CHAPTER 4 NOTES
Skin appendages eccrine/merocrine( body temp control)- water salt dermacidin vitamin c urea uric acid ammonia Apocrine- only found in axillary region and genital region.basic components apocrine is odorless the bacteria on body produces the odor regulated by temperature Modified sweat gland Ceruminous gland produced cerumen (ear wax) function traps dirt .Is also a insect repellant Mammary glands- sebaceous glands sebum (mixture of oil and broken cells) most are associated with hair follicles helps prevent water loss and acts a a bactericidal When sebaceous gland is blocked it produces a white head when it is blocked it is black head HolocrineHair( pili)- strand of hair is dead keratinized cells Hair root bulb Arrectorpilli tighten up and give you goose bumps Alopecia baldness Alopecia areata- hair fall off in clumps Nail- karotene help pick things up reinforces and protects Nail matrix nail grows from nail matrix Nail folds Free edge Hyponychium opposite end of nail Yellow nails thyrhoid problem concave iron diffeciencey ,clubbed nails pulmonary problems COPD,pulmonary fibrouis White horizontal line -malnutrition

Papillary ridged friction ridges The thin superficial papillary layer (pap9iler- e) is areolar connective tissue in which fine interlacing collagen and elastic fibers form a loosely woven mat that is heavily invested with small blood vessels. The looseness of this connective tissue allows phagocytes and other defensive cells to wander freely as they patrol the area for bacteria that have breached the skin

CHAPTER 4 NOTES
Overall functions of integumentary protection acid mantle- epidermis tends to be slightly acidic Physical barrier Vitamin ADEK, steroids testorone estrogen Oleoresins-poison ivy Acetone, pain thinner absorb through skin Body temperature regulation-cold constrict decrease blood flow into dermis warm dilate increase blood flow in to dermis At rest you loose .5 l a day (sweat) insensible perspiration Cutaneous sensation nerve endings pick up stimuli Metabolic functions-skin and sunlight vitamin D Skin cancerous Sunlight damages cells of DNA 3 types skin cancers Basal cell carcinoma stratum basal least dangerous least malignant Squamous cell Melanoma- speeds rapidly resistant to chemotherapy ABCDE FOR RECOGNIZEING MELANOMA ASSYMETRY BORDER IRREGULAR COLOR CHANGES DIAMETER ELEVATION BURNS- HEAT CHEMICAL ELECTRICITY RADIATION First priority with severe burns is to deal with water loss. Rules of nines- 11 areas each 9% of body surface 1% genitals 1 degree- only epidermis redness swelling pain heals 2-3 days no scaring 2 degree- epidermis and upper dermis redness swelling pain blisters 1-4 weeks healing (1 2 are considered partial thickness burns)
nd st nd st

CHAPTER 4 NOTES
3 degree burn full thickness burns gray white cherry red black no swelling no pain nerve endings are gone .skin graphs treatment Eschar is removed debridement Autograft same pt skin Critical care
rd

Chapter 6 table 6.1 6.2